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Exercises Explanation Downloads

Unless, even if, provided, as long as, etc. - other expressions in conditionals

Exercise 1

Choose unless, even if, provided, as long as, etc. to complete these sentences.

Other expressions in conditionals - Grammar chart

Unless (= if not)

We can use unless in conditional sentences to mean 'if ... (not)'.

I won't go on holiday unless I save some money.

= I won't go on holiday if I don't save some money.

In case

We use in case to talk about things that we do to be prepared for something that might happen or might be needed in the future.

I'll take my umbrella in case it rains. (=because it might rain)

As long as / provided (that) / providing (that) / on condition (that) / only if

We can use the expressions as long as, provided/providing (that), on condition (that), or only if instead of if when we want to emphasise the condition that needs to be present so that something can happen or be done.

Whether or not

We use whether or not when there are two alternatives and we want to say that something will happen or will be true in any of those two alternatives. Compare:

Even if

We also use even if with a similar meaning to 'whether or not'. It is used to emphasize that something will still be true or will happen if another thing happens.

Suppose/supposing

We normally use suppose or supposing at the beginning of a sentence to make someone imagine a situation. It means 'what would happen if', or simply 'if' (imagining a situation).

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Unless, even if, provided, as long as, etc. - other expressions in conditionals - Test-English

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Unless, even if, provided, as long as, only if, on condition, whether or not, etc. In this page you will learn how to use these alternatives to 'if' in conditional sentences. Check our complete grammar explanation and do our three online exercises. B1-B2 English grammar online.

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Wordwall - Create better lessons quicker

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first conditional,second Conditional and third conditional

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1) If I _______ a scooter, I wouldn't have to walk to work every day. 2) If I won the lottery, I __________ a big house on the ocean.

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https://open.spotify.com/episode/3KpvUzWS5JS0zRRMlVvFOz?si=Q13-IJ3ZSOaZeggwsEqTbQ

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Listen to this episode from English Learning for Curious Minds on Spotify. The UK is home to some of the best universities in the world, but there is a growing crisis happening at British universities In this episode, we'll explain what this crisis is, why British universities are in this unusual position, and learn about the key challenges facing the British university sector.

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Conditional sentences - type I and II, statements - Exercise

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Conditional sentences - type I and II, if clauses, statements

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IF, Rudyard Kipling's poem, recited by Sir Michael Caine

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Warning of strong language!

https://youtu.be/x0eq7VNCcYY?si=SoTUQ7YaQJ7uahk-

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Task No. 4443

Use the verbs in brackets in the correct future tenses - will-future, going to-future, Simple Present or Present Progressive.

Show example

Example:

The weather nice on Sunday. (to be)

Answer:

The weather will be nice on Sunday.

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Future tenses in English, Grammar Exercises Online for free

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JamboardJamboard is a Google Workspace digital whiteboard that lets people collaborate using a Jamboard device or their personal devices. The Jamboard service will stop working October 1. Make sure to save your work in another format before then. Permissions Notice Camera: Take photos to insert into jams.
Photos: This is used to let users pick images to insert into Jams and to save Jams as PNGs.

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Tense and Aspect @ The Internet Grammar of English

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Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Transcript

In 2020 American Victor Vescovo set a world record for the deepest dive. His solo submersible trip nearly 7 miles below the sea led to the discovery of at least three new species-and plastic trash, even in the Mariana Trench, the deepest point on Earth. The seafloor is now estimated to contain up to 11 million metric tons of plastic. That could be more than 100 times the amount of plastic trash that's visible on the water's surface. Some of this plastic trash is large: fishing nets, garbage bags, shoes, grocery bags, food wrappers. But much of it is much smaller. Microplastics are tiny pieces of plastic polluting the environment. They are defined as less than 5mm (0.2 inch) in size, the equivalent of a pencil eraser, a stud earring, or a ladybug. There are two types of microplastics: primary and secondary. Primary microplastics consist of commercially produced tiny plastic bits: microbeads from cosmetics, microfibers from synthetic clothing, and nurdles, tiny plastic pellets created to make larger plastic items. Plastic isn't biodegradable, so once it's in the environment, it's there until someone cleans it up. It just gets smaller and smaller as it disintegrates-broken down by sunshine, wind, and waves. That's when primary microplastics turn into secondary, or nanoplastic, microplastics, even smaller particles. Nanoplastics are less than 1 micrometer in size. Microplastics in the environment are being ingested by animals at alarming rates. These tiny, colorful bits look like tasty food. When eaten, they can cause digestive issues and internal injuries and introduce toxic chemicals into the food chain. The first recorded animal death from ingesting plastic was in 1966, when dead albatross chicks were found with plastic toys in their stomachs. In addition to seafood, microplastics are now found in drinking water and many food products. They're commonly found in human stool samples and our bloodstreams. More research is needed to determine what kind of effects ingesting microplastics will have on human health, but so far it's obvious we need to turn the tide on plastic pollution.

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What Are Microplastics? And How Small Are They? | Britannica

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Interesting report about the man, who saved the World! He was one of the three officers in charge on the Russian submarine! 

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Interesting report about the man, who saved the World! He was one of the three officers in charge on the Russian submarine! 

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Vasily Aleksandrovich Arkhipov (Russian: Василий Александрович Архипов , IPA: [vɐˈsʲilʲɪj ɐlʲɪkˈsandrəvʲɪtɕ arˈxʲipəf], 30 January 1926 - 19 August 1998) was a Soviet Naval officer credited with preventing a Soviet nuclear launch (and, potentially, all-out nuclear war) during the Cuban Missile Crisis. Such an attack likely would have caused a major global thermonuclear response.

As flotilla chief of staff and second-in-command of the diesel powered submarine B-59, Arkhipov refused to authorize the captain's use of nuclear torpedoes against the United States Navy, a decision requiring the agreement of all three senior officers aboard. After his death, Arkhipov has been widely recognized as someone who had 'saved the world' with his actions on the B-59.

Arkhipov was born into a peasant family in the town of Staraya Kupavna, near Moscow. He was educated in the Pacific Higher Naval School and participated in the Soviet-Japanese War in August 1945, serving aboard a minesweeper. He transferred to the Caspian Higher Naval School and graduated in 1947.

After graduating in 1947, Arkhipov served in the submarine service aboard boats in the Black Sea, Northern and Baltic Fleets.

In July 1961, Arkhipov was appointed deputy commander and therefore executive officer of the new Hotel-class ballistic missile submarine K-19. After a few days of conducting exercises off the south-east coast of Greenland, the submarine developed an extreme leak in its reactor coolant system. This leak led to failure of the cooling system. Radio communications were also affected, and the crew was unable to make contact with Moscow. With no backup systems, Captain Nikolai Zateyev ordered the seven members of the engineer crew to come up with a solution to avoid nuclear meltdown. This required the men to work in high radiation levels for extended periods. They eventually came up with a secondary coolant system and were able to prevent a reactor meltdown. Although they were able to save themselves from a nuclear meltdown, the entire crew, including Arkhipov, were irradiated. All members of the engineer crew and their divisional officer died within a month due to the high levels of radiation they were exposed to. Over the course of two years, 15 more sailors died from the after-effects.[dubious ]

Involvement in Cuban Missile Crisis

On 27 October 1962, during the Cuban Missile Crisis, a group of 11 United States Navy destroyers and the aircraft carrier USS Randolph located the diesel-powered, nuclear-armed Foxtrot-class submarine B-59 near Cuba. (The B-59 was one of four Foxtrot submarines sent by the USSR to the area around Cuba.) Despite being in international waters, the United States Navy started dropping signaling depth charges, explosives intended to force the submarine to come to the surface for identification. There had been no contact from Moscow for a number of days and, although the submarine's crew had earlier been picking up U.S. civilian radio broadcasts, once B-59 began attempting to hide from its U.S. Navy pursuers, it was too deep to monitor any radio traffic. Those on board did not know whether war had broken out or not. The captain of the submarine, Valentin Grigorievitch Savitsky, decided that a war might already have started and wanted to launch a nuclear torpedo.

Unlike with the other submarines in the flotilla, three officers on board B-59 had to agree unanimously to authorize a nuclear launch: Captain Savitsky, the political officer Ivan Semonovich Maslennikov, and the chief of staff of the flotilla (and executive officer of B-59) Arkhipov. Typically, Soviet submarines armed with the " Special Weapon" only required the captain to get authorization from the political officer to launch a nuclear torpedo, but due to Arkhipov's position as chief of staff, B-59's captain was also required to gain Arkhipov's approval. An argument broke out, with only Arkhipov against the launch.

Even though Arkhipov was second-in-command of the submarine B-59, he was in fact chief of staff of the submarine flotilla, including B-4, B-36 and B-130. According to author Edward Wilson, the reputation Arkhipov had gained from his courageous conduct in the previous year's K-19 incident also helped him prevail. Arkhipov eventually persuaded Savitsky to surface and await orders from Moscow. This may have effectively averted a nuclear war which probably would have ensued if the nuclear weapon had been fired. The submarine's batteries had run very low and the air conditioning had failed, causing extreme heat and high levels of carbon dioxide inside the submarine. They were forced to surface amid the American pursuers and to return to the Soviet Union as a result.

Immediately upon return to Russia, many crew members were faced with disgrace from their superiors. One admiral told them "It would have been better if you'd gone down with your ship." Olga, Arkhipov's wife, even said "he didn't like talking about it, he felt they hadn't appreciated what they had gone through." Each captain was required to present a report of events during the mission to Marshal Andrei Grechko, who substituted for the ill Soviet defense minister. Grechko was infuriated with the crew's failure to follow the strict orders of secrecy after finding out they had been discovered by the Americans. One officer even noted Grechko's reaction, stating that he "upon learning that it was the diesel submarines that went to Cuba, removed his glasses and hit them against the table in fury, breaking them into small pieces and abruptly leaving the room after that."

In 2002, retired Commander Vadim Pavlovich Orlov, a participant in the events, held a press conference revealing the submarines were armed with nuclear torpedoes and that Arkhipov was the reason those devices had not been fired. Orlov presented the events less dramatically, saying that Captain Savitsky lost his temper, but eventually calmed down.

Robert McNamara, U.S. Secretary of Defense at the time of the Cuban Missile Crisis, stated in 2002 that "We came very close" to nuclear war, "closer than we knew at the time." Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., an advisor for the John F. Kennedy administration and a historian, continued this thought by stating "This was not only the most dangerous moment of the Cold War. It was the most dangerous moment in human history."

Arkhipov continued in Soviet Navy service, commanding submarines and later submarine squadrons. He was promoted to rear admiral in 1975, and became head of the Kirov Naval Academy. Arkhipov was promoted to vice admiral in 1981 and retired in the mid-1980s.

He subsequently settled in Kupavna (which was incorporated into Zheleznodorozhny, Moscow Oblast, in 2004), where he died on 19 August 1998. The radiation to which Arkhipov had been exposed in 1961 may have contributed to his kidney cancer, like many others who served with him in the K-19 accident.

Nikolai Vladimirovich Zateyev, the commander of the submarine K-19 at the time of its onboard nuclear accident, died on 28 August 1998. Both Arkhipov and Zateyev were 72 at the time of their deaths.

Arkhipov was married to Olga Arkhipova until his death in 1998. They had a daughter named Yelena.

Arkhipov was known to be a shy and humble man. In a 2012 PBS documentary titled The Man Who Saved the World, his wife described him as intelligent, polite and very calm. Much of what is known about his personality comes from her. According to her, he enjoyed searching for newspapers during their vacations and tried to stay up-to-date with the modern world as much as possible. In this same interview, Olga alludes to her husband's possible superstitious beliefs as well. She recalls walking in on Vasily burning a bundle of their love letters inside their house, claiming that keeping the letters would mean "bad luck".

The character of Captain Mikhail Polenin, portrayed by Liam Neeson, in the 2002 film K-19: The Widowmaker was closely based on Arkhipov's tenure on Soviet submarine K-19. In a fictional but similar plot, Denzel Washington's character in Crimson Tide (1995) was an officer who refused to affirm the launch orders of a submarine captain. Leon Ockenden portrayed his character in Secrets of the Dead Season 12 Episode 1 The Man Who Saved the World aired 23 October 2012 on the 50th anniversary of the Cuban Missile Crisis. The 2021 novel Red Traitor by Owen Matthews includes Arkhipov as a major viewpoint character, and is dedicated to him.

In recognition of his actions onboard B-59, Arkhipov received the first "Future of Life Award," which was presented posthumously to his family in 2017. Offered by the Future of Life Institute, this award recognizes exceptional measures, often performed despite personal risk and without obvious reward, to safeguard the collective future of humanity.

In 2002, Thomas S. Blanton, the director of the U.S. National Security Archive, said that Arkhipov "saved the world".

1. ^ Noam Chomsky, in his book Hegemony or Survival: America's Quest for Global Dominance,[1] quoted Thomas Blanton of the National Security Archive as saying that we were "one word away from nuclear war." Chomsky stated that "a devastating response would have been a near certainty" and quoted President Dwight Eisenhower as saying that "a major war would destroy the Northern Hemisphere" (Chomsky, p. 74).

2. ^ Roberts, Priscilla Mary (2012). "Arkhipov, Vasily Alexandrovich (1926-1999)". Cuban Missile Crisis: The Essential Reference Guide. Abc-Clio Inc. pp. 13-14. ISBN 9781610690652.

3. Michael Dobbs, ^ One Minute to Midnight, Vintage, Random House, 2009. Includes photograph of B-59 surfacing.

4. ^ "Chronology of Submarine Contact During the Cuban Missile Crisis". National Security Archive of the George Washington University.

5. ^ Wilson, Edward (27 October 2012). "Thank you Vasili Arkhipov, the man who stopped nuclear war". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2 July 2021.

6. ^ "About participation of submarines "B-4," "B-36," "B-59," "B-130" of the 69th submarine brigade of the Northern Fleet in the Operation "Anadyr" during the period of October-December, 1962/CARIBBEAN CRISIS/" (PDF). National Security Archive.

7. ^ "The Man Who Saved the World". Secrets of the Dead. PBS. 24 October 2012.

8. ^ Savranskaya, Svetlana (24 January 2007). "New Sources on the Role of Soviet Submarines in the Cuban Missile Crisis" (PDF). Journal of Strategic Studies. 28 (2): 248. doi:10.1080/01402390500088312. S2CID 154967351.

9. ^ Isachsnkov, Vladimir (21 June 2002). "Russian Book Looks at Missile Crisis". Johnson's Russia List. Archived from the original on 30 May 2011.

10. ^ Leonard, Mark; Blackhurst, Rob (19 May 2002). "'I don't think anybody thought much about whether Agent Orange was against the rules of war'". The Observer. Archived from the original on 14 March 2021.

11. ^ Codi von Richthofen (21 February 2015), Missile Crisis: The Man Who Saved the World, archived from the original on 13 December 2021

12. ^ "Gorbachev Proposes Soviet Sub Crew For Nobel Peace Prize". Federation of American Scientists.

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Vasily Aleksandrovich Arkhipov (Russian: Василий Александрович Архипов , IPA: [vɐˈsʲilʲɪj ɐlʲɪkˈsandrəvʲɪtɕ arˈxʲipəf], 30 January 1926 - 19 August 1998) was a Soviet Naval officer credited with preventing a Soviet nuclear launch (and, potentially, all-out nuclear war) during the Cuban Missile Crisis. Such an attack likely would have caused a major global thermonuclear response.

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The Great Wall of China and Inner Mongolia are featured in this image photographed by Expedition 10 Commander Leroy Chiao on the International Space Station.
Despite myths to the contrary, the wall isn't visible from the moon, and is difficult or impossible to see from Earth orbit without the high-powered lenses used for this photo.
Image Credit: NASA

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The Great Wall of China and Inner Mongolia are featured in this image photographed by Expedition 10 Commander Leroy Chiao on the International Space Station. Despite myths to the contrary, the wall isn't visible from the moon, and is difficult or impossible to see from Earth orbit without the high-powered lenses used for this photo.

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Photographing This Monkey Ruined His Life #shorts

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https://youtu.be/Pvfx6KCeXMM?feature=shared

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The toponymy of England derives from a variety of linguistic origins. Many English toponyms have been corrupted and broken down over the years, due to language changes which have caused the original meanings to be lost. In some cases, words used in these place-names are derived from languages that are extinct, and of which there are no known definitions. Place-names may also be compounds composed of elements derived from two or more languages from different periods. The majority of the toponyms predate the radical changes in the English language triggered by the Norman Conquest, and some Celtic names even predate the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons in the first millennium AD.

The place-names of England, as in most other regions, typically have meanings which were significant to the settlers of a locality (though these were not necessarily the first settlers). Sometimes these meanings have remained clear to speakers of modern English (for instance Newcastle and Sevenoaks); more often, however, elucidating them requires the study of older languages. As the names lost their original meanings either due to the introduction of a new language or linguistic drift, they gradually changed, or were appended with newer elements. An example is Breedon on the Hill in Leicestershire, whose name seems to have grown by the accretion of elements from three different languages at different times in its history, all emphasising the hill.

The west and eastern dialects of Norse in the 10th century, with the related Germanic yellow and, even closer, green (and the rarely comparable white denotes Celtic: in Britain and Ireland)

The place-names of England have diverse origins, largely due to historical changes in language and culture. These affected different regions at different times and to different extents. The exact nature of these linguistic/cultural changes is often controversial, but the general consensus is as follows.

The British Isles were inhabited during the Stone and Bronze Ages by peoples whose languages are unknown. During the Iron Age, the population of Great Britain shared a culture with the Celtic peoples inhabiting western Europe. Land use patterns do not appreciably change from the Bronze Age, suggesting that the population remained in situ. The evidence from this period, mainly in the form of place-names and personal names, makes it clear that a Celtic language, called Common Brittonic, was spoken across what came to be England by the Late Iron Age. At what point these languages spread to, or indeed developed in, the area is open to debate, with the majority of estimates falling at some point in the Bronze Age.

The principal substrate of British toponyms is thus Celtic in origin, and more specifically Brittonic ('British'), ancestral to modern Welsh and more distantly related to the Goidelic languages of Ireland and Scotland. The oldest place-names in England appear to be the names of rivers, many of which are interpreted as being Brittonic in origin. In the areas of England in which Brittonic languages were not replaced until relatively recently (Cumbria, Cornwall) many settlement names are still essentially Brittonic.

After the Roman conquest, many Latinate place-names appear, particularly associated with military settlements. Often, these were simply a Latinisation of existing names, including Verulamium for Verlamion ( St Albans) and Derventio for Derwent ( Malton). After the collapse of Roman Britain, few of these place-names survived. These settlements often continued to be inhabited so known by later names; many are marked as Roman strongholds by the suffix chester/cester/caster (an Old English borrowing from the Latin castra = camp), seldom drawing on the Roman/Romano-Celtic name. The influence of Latin on British place-names is thus generally only slight.

Following the end of the Roman Empire, several Germanic tribes living along the north sea coast began to migrate to Britain, variously displacing, intermarrying with, or ruling over local populations. The language of these settlers (which would become Old English) came to be spoken over much of lowland Britain. Due to this replacement of tongue and population growth, most settlement names in modern England are discernibly Old English in origin. A large proportion of them contain personal names from the settlers and their descendants.

Some English place-names commemorate non-Christian religions, referring instead to the old Germanic religion: see List of non-Christian religious place-names in Britain.

A few centuries later, around AD 850-1050, the north and east of England were settled by Danish and Norwegian ' Vikings'. Many toponyms in these areas are thus of Old Norse origin. Since Old Norse had many similarities to Old English, there are also many hybrid English/Norse place-names in the Danelaw, the part of England that was under Danish rule for a time. Norse toponyms also frequently contain personal names, suggesting that they were named for a local chieftain.

After the Norman invasion of England in 1066, some Norman French influences can be detected in place-names, notably the simplification of ⟨ch⟩ to ⟨c⟩ in Cerne and -cester, and suffixes of names of feudal lords as in Stoke Mandeville, or Church/Kirk/Bishop(s) (prefixed) or Episcopi/Abbot(t)s (rarely prefixed) in many cases of belonging to the church. The toponymy of England has remained relatively stable since the early Norman period, though the names have been generally simplified, harmonised to modern sounds and 'weathered' to modern forms.

Many languages have shaped and informed the nomenclature of England: various Celtic languages (including Brythonic, Goidelic (Old Irish), Welsh and Cornish (in the South West), Latin, Anglo-Saxon, Old Norse, Norman French and others.

As the first written records of travellers to Britain date to the end of the first millennium BC, the languages of Britain prior to the arrival of Celtic-speakers are unknown. It is certain that some form of pre-Indo-European ' Old European' language, or more probably, languages, were spoken on the island prior to the arrival of people peoples speaking Indo-European languages in Europe. These languages have left no record, and so identifying their possible traces in British toponymy is described by Richard Coates as "looking for needles in a haystack even though we are unsure exactly what needles look like and suspect that the haystack contains a few things which look a bit like what needles might look like."

Theo Vennemann suggests that, prior to the arrival of Indo-European languages, Europeans may have spoken languages related to Basque and the Afroasiatic languages. Coates suggests that some British island and River names may derive from these languages, giving the English examples of Thanet, Scilly, Humber and Severn. There is also evidence that a pre-Celtic, but Indo-European, language provides the etymologies of various English rivers, as part of the theorised Old European hydronymy. Kitson suggests that the Derwents, the Thames, the Don and the Avons may all have a pre-Celtic origin.

The main language spoken in Britain in the Iron Age is known as Common Brittonic, from which descend the modern languages of Cornish, Welsh and Breton. Cumbric, a now-extinct fourth descendant, was spoken in parts of northern England and lowland Scotland until the 11th century.

Brittonic place-names, or names with Brittonic elements, are extremely few in the south and east of England. Moving north and west, however, they increase substantially in frequency (for example, in Somerset and in Lancashire). Cornish toponyms are overwhelmingly Celtic in origin. In Cumbria, Celtic place-names are mostly associated with natural features rather than settlements, such as the mountains Blencathra and .

Very few Roman names survived the end of Roman Britain in their original form, though many Roman settlements were reoccupied. These were generally renamed, although usually with the suffix caster/ chester, from the Latin castra (camp). A number of Latin names survived through Celtic, such as Carlisle (cf. Welsh: caer for Latin: castra), Porthleven (compare with Latin: portus for 'harbour') and some associated with Christianity such as Eccles (compare with Latin from Greek ecclesia, 'church'). Several places contain the element street, derived from the Latin strata (paved road); these are generally on the course of a Roman road, e.g. Chester-le-Street, Stratton-on-the-Fosse. However, this word was almost certainly borrowed into the Germanic languages prior to the migration of the Anglo-Saxons into Britain, and it may have been used natively by Germanic-speaking settlers.

Other Latin elements in British place-names were adopted in the medieval period as affectations. This includes the use of magna and parva instead of the more usual Great/Little; e.g. , Linstead Magna and Linstead Parva. Some Latin elements are more recent still: Bognor Regis, for example, received its honorific suffix (meaning 'of the King') from George V after he convalesced there.

Old English was the West Germanic language brought to England and Southeastern Scotland by Germanic tribes such as the Angles, Saxons and Jutes. Old English is typically divided into the Northumbrian, Mercian, West Saxon and Kentish dialects. The language evolved into Middle English, which was used from about 100 years after the Norman Conquest until the end of the Middle Ages. Modern English is derived directly from Middle English.

The overwhelming majority of place-names in England are of Old English origin, particularly in the southeast. Many derive from the name of a particular Anglo-Saxon settler.

These suffixes are sometimes combined, as in Birmingham and Southampton.

Old Norse, a North Germanic language from which both Danish and Norwegian are derived, was spoken by the Scandinavian settlers who occupied many places in the north of the British Isles during the Viking era and the splitting of England by the establishment of the Danelaw. In England, the Danes generally settled in East Anglia, East Midlands ( Five Boroughs of the Danelaw, Danish Mercia) and Yorkshire ( Jorvik), whilst the Norwegians settled in the northwest. The regional distribution of Norse-derived toponyms reflect these settlement patterns.

Although the languages of the Danes and Norwegians were very similar, differences between the two can be found in place-names. For instance -by and torp are much more common in place-names of Denmark whilst toft/taft and bister/ster/bost are more common in names of Norway; all these elements essentially mean 'settlement/dwelling'.

Due to the Norman conquest, some place-names gained an additive, mainly a suffix, giving the names of their new owners: for example Grays Thurrock which is the rare prefix version and typical Stoke Mandeville; Stanton Lacy; Newport Pagnell. The influence often disambiguates place-names with Norman French conjunctions, such as Hartlepool (said Hart-le-pool), Chapel-en-le-Frith, Chester-le-Street. Further disambiguation occurred then and/or became the dominant form centuries later, such as Henley-in-Arden and Henley-on-Thames.

For a general list of toponymic processes, see Place name origins.

Back-formation: the process whereby names are derived from one another in the opposite direction to that which would be expected; for example, a river with an obsolete/forgotten name being renamed after a town on its banks, even though the river existed before the town did. The river running through Rochdale became known as the 'Roch' through this process.[citation needed ] Cambridge, perhaps uniquely, illustrates both normal and back-formation. Originally Grontabricc, a bridge on the Granta, the name evolved through Cantebruge and then Cambrugge, from which the river was renamed Cam.

Element order: In Germanic languages, and thus in Old English and Old Norse place-names, the substantive element is generally at the end of the name, preceded by its modifier(s); 'Badecca's water source' (Bakewell). In Celtic place-names, the order is usually the reverse, with the thing being described (hill, valley, farm etc.) as the first element: e.g. Tregonebris 'settlement (of) Cunebris' and 'mouth (of the) Dee'. An exception is 'bald hill'.

Translation: The general similarity of Old Norse and Old English meant that place-names in the Danelaw were often simply 'Norsified'. For instance, Askrigg in Yorkshire, 'ash ridge'; whilst the first element is indubitably the Norse asc (pronounced "ask"), ask- could easily represent a "Norsification" of the Old English element æsc (pronounced "ash"). In this case both asc and æsc mean the same: 'ash' (tree).

False analogy: Sometimes, however, the place-names were changed to match Norse pronunciation habits without reference to the original meaning. Thus Skipton should be 'Shipton' (Old English scipetun 'sheep farm'). However, since sh in Old English was usually cognate with sk in Old Norse, the name became changed by false analogy to Skipton, in this way losing its meaning to the Norse speakers (since the Old Norse for sheep was entirely different from the Old English), as well as rendering it obscure or unrecognizable in English.

Interpreting some names can be difficult if the reason for the name is no longer evident. Some names originally referred to a specific natural feature, such as a river, ford or hill, that can no longer be identified. For example, Whichford (Warwickshire) means "the ford on (of) the Hwicce", but the location of the ford is lost.

The elements den (valley) and don (hill) from Old English are sometimes confused now that their meanings are forgotten or obscure; for example Croydon is in a valley and Willesden is on a hill. Their expected spellings might therefore be "Croyden" and "Willesdon".

Another problematic element is -ey, as in Romsey. This commonly means 'island', from the Old English -eg. However, -ey can also be derived from the Old English hæg, meaning 'enclosure', as in Hornsey.

The elements wich and wick can have a variety of meanings. Generally wich/wick/wyke indicates a farm or settlement (e.g. Keswick = 'Cheese-farm'). However, some of the sites are of Roman, or shortly post-Roman origin, in which the wich is related to the Latin vicus ('place'). These "wics" seem to have been trading posts. On the coast, wick is often of Norse origin, meaning 'bay' or 'inlet' (e.g. Lerwick).

Most English place-names are Old English. Personal names often appear within the place-names, presumably the names of landowners at the time of the naming. In the north and east, there are many place-names of Norse origin; similarly, these contain many personal names. In general, the Old English and Norse place-names tend to be rather mundane in origin, the most common types being [personal name + settlement/farm/place] or [type of farm + farm/settlement]; most names ending in wich, ton, ham, by, thorpe, stoke/ stock are of these types.

In Cumbria, there remain a number of place-names from Cumbric, the former Brythonic language of this region, examples including Carlisle, Helvellyn and Blencathra.

Most old Roman settlements, whether actually inhabited or not, were given the title of chester/caster in Old English (from the Latin castrum for 'camp'); the specific names for each may only have little relation to the Roman names (e.g. modern Chester was actually called Deva by the Romans). Modern Winchester was Venta Belgarum, the Win- element deriving from Venta in a similar way to the names and from Venta Silurum in south Wales.

In Cornwall, most place-names are Cornish in origin: e.g. (holy headland). In eastern Cornwall, the names show a stronger English influence. Place-names of Cornish origin are also found in the South Hams, North Devon and West Somerset. Brythonic but non-Cornish place-names, sometimes showing Cornish or Welsh influence, are found in North Somerset and parts of Dorset.

In Northern England, particularly Yorkshire and Lincolnshire, names record significant Scandinavian influence. For example, the names Howe and (both in North Yorkshire) reflect the Old Norse word haugr meaning a hill or mound.

G. B. Adams, Place-names from pre-Celtic languages in Ireland and Britain, Nomina 4 pp.46-83 (1980).

Henry Bradley (1910). "English place-names". Essays and studies: by members of the English Association. 1: 7-41. Wikidata Q107730082.

K. Cameron, A Dictionary of British Place Names (2003).

R Coates, Toponymic Topics - Essays on the early toponymy of the British Isles.

E. Ekwall, The Oxford English Dictionary of English Place-Names, Oxford University Press, Fourth Edition (1960)

E. McDonald and J. Creswell, The Guinness Book of British Place Names (1993).

M. Gelling, W. F. H. Nicholaisen and M. Richards, The Names of Towns and Cities in Britain (1986).

A. D. Mills, A Dictionary of British Place Names, Oxford Paperback Reference (2003).

W. F. H. Nicolaisen, Old European names in Britain, Nomina 6 pp37-42 (1982.

P. H. Reaney, The Origin of English Place Names (1960).

A. Room, A Concise Dictionary of Modern Place Names in Great Britain (1983).

A. Room, Dictionary of World Place Names derived from British Names (1989).

C. C. Smith, The survival of British Toponymy, Nomina 4 pp.27-41 (1980).

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The toponymy of England derives from a variety of linguistic origins. Many English toponyms have been corrupted and broken down over the years, due to language changes which have caused the original meanings to be lost. In some cases, words used in these place-names are derived from languages that are extinct, and of which there are no known definitions.

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History of First May / International Workers Day

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History of First May / International Workers Day

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Very interesting!
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Workers'_Day

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What's the Most difficult Word in the English Language?

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There are aspects of grammar and vocabulary that separate upper-intermediate (B2) and advanced (C1 and C2) German learners of English.

After years of teaching high-level German speakers of English, preparing for FCE (B2), CAE (C1) and CPE (C2) Cambridge Assessment English exams and applying for jobs where they need to speak fluent English, I've found that advanced level learners have a greater awareness of the differences between German and English.

In this post I list ten grammar or other points that I feel really identify if a German learner has reached an advanced level of English. Do you agree with me? I'd love to hear from you what you struggle with, or feel should be added to this list.

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10 (advanced level) mistakes that German learners make in English

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Are you a German speaker learning English? Here are 10 top mistakes to overcome to be considered an advanced speaker of English.

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How American R is different than British R and other dialects

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You will not catch me sleeping in a tent, sorry.

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English Language Learners Stack Exchange

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"S" pronounced as /s/ or /z/

Some additional guidelines beyond Hunter's:

Based on the immediately surrounding letters:

Word-internal -ns- (including -nse, with "silent e" after the s), is almost always pronounced /ns/ with unvoiced /s/ (e.g. in ). This is different from the pattern for word-final -ns, which is usually pronounced /nz/ (as in pens or lens).
Exceptions:

Some words spelled with -nsy are pronounced with /nzi/, such as The word teensy seems to be variable: I'm an American, and I've only heard it pronounced with /nsi/, but the OED and Collins indicate that it is pronounced with /nzi/ in British English.

It might make sense to compare these to words ending in /mzi/ and spelled with -msy, such as

For some speakers, certain (but not necessarily all) words starting with trans- such as transit and transition have /nz/.

Word-internal -ls-, e.g. in is almost always pronounced /ls/ with unvoiced /s/. This is different from the pattern for word-final -ls, which is usually pronounced /lz/ (as in eels or steals). Exception: palsy, which has /lz/.

Word-internal -rs-, e.g. in is almost always pronounced /rs/* with unvoiced /s/. (Or in a non-rhotic accent, there is no /r/.) This is different from the pattern for word-final -rs, which is usually pronounced /rz/ (as in stars or yours).
Exceptions:

* Speakers of non-rhotic accents would not pronounce a consonant /r/ in these contexts, but would just use a different value for the preceding vowel, e.g. /vɜːs/, /stɑːz/.

Based on identifying particular suffixes:

The ending -sive is usually pronounced /sɪv/ with voiceless /s/, even when there is a vowel letter immediately preceding the letter "s". For example, are all pronounced with /s/. There is at least one known possible exception, but it is optional: divisive (there is also some variation in the pronunciation of the stressed vowel in this word: see the ELU question Differing pronunciations of "divisive").

The ending -osity is always pronounced with voiceless /s/.

"S" as /z/ after one-syllable prefixes ending in fully unstressed vowels

If you include unstressed re-, de-, and pre- as prefixes, then hunter's first rule isn't entirely correct. It is usual for "s" to be pronounced as /z/ when it comes before a vowel and after a fully unstressed version of one of these prefixes. Examples: /z/ is used in resolve, resound, resign, reserve, resume, result, resist, resent; deserve, design, desire, desert; preserve, present, presume, preside.

When these prefixes have any stress (and in newly-formed words, they do tend to have at least secondary stress) then a following "s" is pronounced as voiceless /s/. Examples: /s/ is used in resale, reset, reseat, reseal, resupply, resell; desalt; preset, presell, presoak.

"S" pronounced as a postalveolar consonant

Also, when "s" comes before a letter like "i", "u" or "e", it may represent a postalveolar consonant like /ʃ/ or /ʒ/ because of historical palatalization. Usually, the rules for /ʃ/ vs. /ʒ/ parallel the rules for /s/ vs. /z/, but in a few cases they differ. For example, words spelled with -rsion are usually pronounced with a postalveolar fricative, and in American English they are often pronounced with voiced /ʒ/ in contradiction to the general rule for "rs". (E.g. "immerse" and "immersive" have /rs/, but "immersion" has /rʒ/ for me; I also have /rʒ/ in "Persia(n)". But for some reason, only /rʃ/ is possible for me in "torsion".)

Note that variability between /ʃ/ or /ʒ/ in words spelled with the letter "s" (and sometimes "ss") is fairly common in other contexts too, not just after /r/: e.g. "fission" and "Asia". Usually, the /ʒ/ variant is more common in American English, and the /ʃ/ variant is more common in British English.

I can't think of any word where "c" is pronounced /z/ in a modern accent, but "ti" is usually pronounced /ʒ/ in the word "equation".

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When to pronounce ‹s› as /z/ in the middle of words?

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When do you pronounce ‹s› as /z/ in the middle of words? Is there any rule? I also saw there are some differences in articulating medial s between American and British accents. I already know the r...

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Travelling like a seasoned pro is not an overnight miracle. It comes with definite hardships and the trickiest of situations. Want an easy way out? Simple. To save the day from many likely travel disasters, you will need this list of handy travel hacks. That's right, there exists a bunch of secret tips and tricks that will change the way you travel forever! Whether it be never missing a flight again, or hacks to pack better or saving a few extra bucks, these 50 pro-tips and travel hacks will make the journey less stressful and your vacation a whole lot peaceful.

50 travel hacks that will change the way you travel forever

Below are the tips and hacks you're here for. Read on and thank me later!

#1 Email yourself a scan of your passport

Carrying a hardcopy of your passport is important, but forgetfulness or theft and loss can always hit you at the wrong time. By emailing yourself a scan of your passport, you ensure that in case of an unfortunate event, your passport is only a click away. This also goes for any other type of journey confirmations (tickets, etc.), either scan or screenshot the same and save yourself a buttload of trouble in the future.

#2 Roll your clothes for more space

Packing smart does not take too much effort. One of the easiest and most effective travel hacks related to packing is to roll your clothes rather than fold. Not only does this method save you a lot of space, it also keeps your clothes wrinkle-free. Plus, little rolled tubes means you can easily see what you have packed.

#3 Sign up for last-minute deals on Headout

Planned a spontaneous trip and are looking for killer last-minute deals? Sign up on Headout and land great discounts on the top experiences in the city. Remember that great deals don't last too long, and by signing up on Headout you can make sure to grab a few before they disappear.

#10 Download Google Maps offline

Using an actual map today is obsolete but many think Google Maps without an internet connection is just as useless. But you must know that no access to WiFi, patchy network or throwing away money on data shouldn't be a reason to lose your way because you can go off grid and still use Google Maps! Just download Google Maps - go on the map to the area you want to save, type 'ok map' into the search option and then press 'download' - you can now use it even when on airplane mode.

#11 Google Translate is god sent in a foreign country. Download it.

A language barrier can put a damper on the best of spirits, so if you know the international country you're traveling to uses a foreign language to communicate, do yourself a favour and download Google Translate. It lets you take photos of text in a different language and translate what it means in real time. Just like Google Maps, Google Translate works in airplane mode too.

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50 Travel Hacks For That Perfect Holiday

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Whether it's never missing flights, packing hacks or saving extra bucks, these 50 proven travel hacks will make your next vacation so peaceful.

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Oxford Learner's Dictionaries | Find definitions, translations, and grammar explanations at Oxford Learner's Dictionaries

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The largest and most trusted free online dictionary for learners of British and American English with definitions, pictures, example sentences, synonyms, antonyms, word origins, audio pronunciation, and more. Look up the meanings of words, abbreviations, phrases, and idioms in our free English Dictionary.

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Sign up for free and get access to exclusive content:

Free word lists and quizzes from Cambridge

Tools to create your own word lists and quizzes

Word lists shared by our community of dictionary fans

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Learn new words and improve your grammar with free quizzes and word lists.

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Handbags are an essential accessory for most women. They not only serve as a fashion statement but also as a functional item to carry daily essentials. From totes to clutches, there are various types of handbags available in the market to suit different occasions and purposes.

Types of Handbags Vocabulary

Understanding Handbags

When it comes to handbags, there are a variety of styles available to choose from. Each type of handbag has its unique design, purpose, and functionality. In this section, we will discuss some of the most popular types of handbags.
Tote Bags
Tote bags are large, spacious bags with open tops and two shoulder straps. They are perfect for carrying everyday essentials, such as books, laptops, and groceries. Tote bags come in a variety of materials, including canvas, leather, and nylon.
Crossbody Bags
Crossbody bags are designed to be worn across the body, with a long strap that can be adjusted to fit comfortably. They are perfect for when you need to be hands-free, such as when traveling or running errands. Crossbody bags come in a variety of sizes and materials, from small leather bags to larger canvas bags.
Clutch Bags
Clutch bags are small, handheld bags that are perfect for formal occasions. They are designed to be carried in the hand or tucked under the arm and come in a variety of materials, including leather, satin, and velvet.
Shoulder Bags
Shoulder bags are designed to be worn over the shoulder, with a single strap or two straps. They are perfect for everyday use and come in a variety of materials, including leather, canvas, and suede.
Satchel Bags
Satchel bags are medium-sized bags with a structured shape and a top handle. They are perfect for carrying everyday essentials, such as a wallet, phone, and keys. Satchel bags come in a variety of materials, including leather, suede, and canvas.

List of Handbags

Popular Types of Handbags

When it comes to handbags, there are so many different styles to choose from. Here are some of the most popular types of handbags that you might want to consider:

Clutch Purse

A clutch purse is a small, handheld bag that is perfect for carrying your essentials. It's great for a night out on the town or for a formal event. Clutch purses come in a variety of styles, from simple and classic to bold and colorful.

Satchel Bag

A satchel bag is a medium-sized bag with a long strap that can be worn over the shoulder or across the body. It's great for everyday use and can hold all of your essentials, including a small laptop or tablet. Satchel bags come in a variety of materials, from leather to canvas.

Hobo Bag

A hobo bag is a large, slouchy bag that is perfect for carrying everything you need for the day. It's great for running errands or for traveling. Hobo bags come in a variety of materials and styles, from leather to suede to canvas.

Tote Bag

A tote bag is a large, open bag that is perfect for carrying all of your essentials. It's great for a day at the beach or for running errands. Tote bags come in a variety of materials and styles, from canvas to leather to straw.

These are just a few of the most popular types of handbags. No matter what your style or needs are, there is a handbag out there that is perfect for you.

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Different Types of Handbags in English - ESLBUZZ

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In this lesson, you will learn different types of handbags in English.

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Extra reading resource for our NEW book!!

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Extra reading resource for our NEW book!!

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Introduction to Parabon Snapshot DNA Phenotyping Service

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We've just scratched the surface, a lot to read, but very interesting!
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_risk_from_artificial_general_intelligence

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This is the NEW book for us. Please buy the workbook too. The Oxford sales office closed down recently in Germany. I believe you can order it from German distributors who import it from England. I do not have a German ISBN number for these books. There is a German version for the German market but you can also just buy the English (international version) That is your choice. We will start  using this book in about 4-5 weeks!

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This is the NEW book for us. Please buy the workbook too. The Oxford sales office closed down recently in Germany. I believe you can order it from German distributors who import it from England. I do not have a German ISBN number for these books. There is a German version for the German market but you can also just buy the English (international version) That is your choice. We will start  using this book in about 4-5 weeks!

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English File: Intermediate Plus: Student's Book with Online Practice

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English File: Intermediate Plus: Student's Book with Online Practice | Oxford University Press | ISBN: 9780194038911 | Kostenloser Versand für alle Bücher mit Versand und Verkauf duch Amazon.

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RoadtoGrammar.com - Free quizzes, notes and games to improve your grammar

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Mind maps vocab Eng.file . int - Verknüpfung

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Tech giants Google, Microsoft and Facebook are all applying the lessons of machine learning to translation, but a small company called DeepL has outdone them all and raised the bar for the field.
Its translation tool is just as quick as the outsized competition, but more accurate and nuanced than any we've tried.

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DeepL Translate: The world's most accurate translator

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Translate texts & full document files instantly. Accurate translations for individuals and Teams. Millions translate with DeepL every day.

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Oxford Learner's Dictionaries | Find definitions, translations, and grammar explanations at Oxford Learner's Dictionaries

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The largest and most trusted free online dictionary for learners of British and American English with definitions, pictures, example sentences, synonyms, antonyms, word origins, audio pronunciation, and more. Look up the meanings of words, abbreviations, phrases, and idioms in our free English Dictionary.

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Watch a video and report back to your group

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Share things that will help our English. Maybe share a photo? Funny picture?