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The importance of transportation to a trading nation as vast as Canada cannot be underestimated. The great distances between mines, farms, forests and urban centres make efficient transport systems essential to the economy so that natural and manufactured goods can move freely through domestic and international markets. Transportation has and will continue to play an important role in the social and political unity of Canada.

The importance of transportation to a trading nation as vast as Canada cannot be underestimated. The great distances between mines, farms, forests and urban centres make efficient transport systems essential to the economy so that natural and manufactured goods can move freely through domestic and international markets. Transportation has and will continue to play an important role in the social and political unity of Canada.

History of Transportation

Canada's history is closely tied to the history of transportation and its development. The first settlers ventured only into those areas that were accessible by water and boats; canoes were the primary mode of transportation on the nation's lakes and rivers. Later, canals were constructed. Settlement in much of Canada followed the construction of railway lines. Roads and highways later gave access to regions of Canada that had not been served by railways. Today, air transport makes it possible for Canadians to travel to any area of the nation, regardless of how remote it may be ( see Transportation in the North).

Railways have always been important in Canada. They were built to open new areas to settlement, to make profits for the railway builders, to unify the nation, and for defence and political reasons. The first railway line in Canada was built in 1836; some ten years after England built its first steam railway line. In the 1850s railway construction began in earnest with the Grand Trunk Railway from Sarnia through Torontoand Montréalto Portland, Maine. In 1854 the Great Western Railway built a line between the Niagara and the Detroit rivers via Hamilton. It connected with US railways in New York and Michigan. Much of this early railway construction resulted from a speculative boom in which some promoters sought to make quick profits. As a result many railways were poorly planned and constructed. Much of the early railway construction was financed by British capitalists, Canadian merchants and landowners, and by municipalities. Some construction was financed by bonds.

The Intercolonial Railway was the largest system. Completed in the 1870s, it was built for national defence and unity, in fulfilment of the terms of Confederation, and was never expected to make a profit. Many of Canada's rail lines had financial problems. When it appeared that a number of them might collapse, they were amalgamated into the Canadian National Railways system and taken over by the federal government after the First World War. Many financial problems were thus inherited by that government-owned corporation.

Railways were responsible, in part, for some of the provinces joining Canadian confederation. It was not until the federal government agreed to build a railway to the Pacific Ocean that British Columbia agreed to join, an agreement that led eventually to construction of the western sections of the Canadian Pacific Railway. Transportation also played an essential role in the history of Prince Edward Island, which was at first unenthusiastic about Confederation; the severe financial problems of its railway played a large part in the decision to join Canada in 1873. Part of the confederation arrangement provided that the federal government would assume the railway's enormous debt. Newfoundland and Labrador, the last of the provinces to join Canada, also received guarantees from the federal government that it would be provided with various transport services.

Modes of Transportation

There are five principal modes of transportation in Canada: water, rail, motor carrier, air and pipeline.

Water Transportation

Water transportation is generally used for the movement of bulk commodities of relatively low value per tonne, such as coal, ore, grain, gravel and salt. Water transportation may be separated into three general categories: ocean transportation, inland water transportation and coastal transportation. Ocean transportation is important to Canada because about one-third of all that Canada produces is exported by ship to customers overseas, carried by large, oceangoing vessels that serve Canada's major ports. Canadian and American lake carriers and other vessels operating on the Great Lakes and in canals and inland waterways supply goods to inland regions of Canada. For example, much of Canada's iron ore moves via the Great Lakes-St Lawrence Seaway system to steel mills in the US. On the return journey, many of these vessels carry coal from US mines. Transportation in coastal waters is also important. Logs, wood chips, lumber and other bulk commodities are moved by barge in BC's coastal waters ( see: Forest Harvesting; Ports and Harbours; Shipping Industry).

Rail Transportation

Rail transportation is used principally for the movement of bulk commodities such as grain, coal, ore, lumber and chemicals, for the movement of containers and for other types of merchandise freight. Canada's major mainline rail carriers include Canadian National (CN) and Canadian Pacific (CP). Rail transport offers an efficient means of transport because entire containers can be moved between trains, trucks and ships. Each year Canada's railways move millions of tonnes of bulk commodities, such as coal, potash, grain and sulphur. Railways are able to transport large quantities of bulk materials over long distances and at relatively low cost, thus enabling the products of Canada's mines, fields and forests to compete effectively in world markets.

For many years passenger trains represented an important part of the railway business. Today, however, railway passenger trains face intense competition from other forms of transport. Via Rail Canada Inc. is now responsible for most of the passenger train operations, particularly in the Windsor-Québec corridor, by contracting with the two major railways for the operation and maintenance of trains. After suffering significant losses in the 1980s, VIA Rail discontinued service on several lines, but continues its cross-country passenger rail service.

Motor Carrier Transportation

Trucks are used in a variety of ways. Small trucks are used as delivery vehicles in cities and towns. In the North, trucks transport logs, petroleum, consumer goods and a great variety of industrial products. Possibly the greatest virtue of motor carrier transportation is its flexibility. They can move wherever there is a highway, a road, a street - or even a relatively flat, hard surface. Virtually everything that we eat or wear has made at least some of its journey to us by truck ( see Trucking Industry). A number of large companies operate trucks. Both of Canada's major railways have trucking divisions.

Air Transportation

Air transportation is used to move large and small items when speed is important or when remote areas are inaccessible by land or water ( see Aviation). Extensive deregulation of the air transport industry in the mid-1980s favoured the domination of major companies such as Air Canada. The 1995 Open Skies agreement between the US and Canada resulted in an explosion of trans-border services. The National Airports Policy (NAP) was established in July 1994. Under the NAP, the federal government changed its role from airport owner and operator to owner and landlord, but maintained its function as regulator.

Pipeline Transportation

Pipelines, the unseen carrier, are used for the transportation of petroleum, petroleum products, gas and certain chemicals. Pipelines transport enormous quantities of petroleum, gasoline, chemicals and other products, sometimes over long distances. Pipeline transportation requires little labour and is relatively trouble-free because it provides reliable and low-cost transportation. However, it has two principal drawbacks: pipelines require an enormous amount of capital to establish; and they are seldom efficient unless large quantities of product are moved from a single point of origin to a single destination over a long period of time. Pipelines are also used for the transportation of bitumen from Alberta oil sands projects.

Intermodal Transportation

Except for items moved by truck, virtually all other methods use two or more transport modes. Large shippers often have several transport alternatives available to them (e.g., rail, water, truck). The shippers of petroleum, chemicals and other products in liquid or gaseous form also use pipelines. Passengers usually have several transport alternatives available. Because of competition between modes and companies, there is a continuing need for research to improve transport technology. "Piggyback" transportation is an example. Goods may be loaded into trucks or trailers and hauled to some point on a railway where the truck or trailer is loaded on a railroad flatcar. The goods then move by rail, sometimes over a relatively long distance. At the end of their rail journey, the trailers or containers are again moved by truck to their final destination.

There are other ways in which the various transport modes can co-operate to provide more efficient intermodal transportation. Trucks can be carried on ferries or ships. This is sometimes called "fishyback" transportation or Ro/Ro (roll on/roll off) transportation. Canada Steamship Lines operates the largest fleet of self-unloading bulk carriers in the world.

Canada's "land bridge" is also based on intermodal operations. Shipments from Japan and Hong Kong destined for Europe can move by ship via the Panama Canal. Or, by using Canada as a land bridge, they can move by water to Vancouver or other western ports, then by rail to one of Canada's eastern ports, and again by water to their European destinations, saving a significant amount of time.

Transport Infrastructure

Every mode of transportation has two essential parts: the transport vehicle itself; and the road, track or infrastructure on which it operates. When two modes of transportation are coordinated, there may be a junction or terminal at which the transfer is made. Some of the transport infrastructure is natural, but much of it is constructed ( see: St Lawrence Seaway; Track and Yard; Airport). Transport Canada, and its predecessors, built, maintain and operate most of Canada's airports, as well as the airways, and the radio and navigation systems. Most of Canada's roads and highways have been built by provincial governments, the major exceptions being highways in national parks and Aboriginal reserves, the Alaska Highway and the Trans-Canada Highway ( see Roads and Highways). Most streets have been built by cities and have been financed in a variety of ways. Users of airports, seaway locks and port facilities pay landing fees, lockage fees and port duties to compensate in part for the taxpayers' investment.

Passenger Transportation

Passenger transportation includes many modes of self-propelled, animal-propelled and motorized travel, including planes, trains, boats, buses, automobiles, taxis, manual and electric bicycles, horses, snowmobile or dogsled. The automobile accounts for the greatest percentage of passenger travel in Canada today as well as much of the congestion in and around urban roadways. Most of Canada's urban areas have some form of public transportation. Both Montréal and Toronto are served by commuter railway systems. Some cities have subways, while others are served by buses ( see Bus Transportation), streetcars, electric trolley cars or a mixture of vehicle types. Some urban transportation systems are operated by the cities themselves, some by regional districts and some by special transit authorities. Many cities provide parallel transit services for people with disabilities.

Most Canadian cities have taxi service. In some cities a licence is required to operate a taxi, and a limited number of licences are issued. Some taxi companies enjoy a monopoly. One or more companies may be given the exclusive right to pick up passengers at airports, railway stations or other areas where passengers originate. The largest ferry system in Canada is operated by the BC Ferries, providing service between the Vancouver area and the cities of Victoria, Nanaimo, many of the Gulf Islands and some remote northern communities. There are ferries on Canada's East Coast, and on some of its lakes and inland waterways. Ferry service is provided from New Brunswick to PEI, although most passenger traffic occurs via the Confederation Bridge.

Technological Change

New inventions, technological change and human ingenuity have resulted in many changes in Canada's transport. Most changes have meant greater speed, lower cost or increased productivity. Some have made possible the development of entirely new industries. Recent advances in water transportation have resulted in greatly increased productivity. Some improvements have come through the development of larger ships that carry far more cargo than earlier ships. As large ships seldom require more crew members than smaller ships, crew productivity has increased, and shipping costs have been reduced. There have been advances in navigation, ship design and ship propulsion. Research has been done on the use in ships of powdered coal and other petroleum extenders, and substitutes for fuelling ships. Still other increases in productivity have resulted from the use of containers. Today, enormous cranes at a modern port may load a large oceangoing liner with containerized freight in half a day. It would have taken three or four days to load that freight before the shift from manual loading of freight to the mechanical loading of containers. Much of the savings stems from ships spending less time in port. This makes it possible for them to move more cargo each year, since they can spend a greater portion of their time at sea.

Railway productivity has also increased in recent years through the use of more efficient railway cars, some of which were specially designed to carry a particular product (such as grain or coal). Other increases in productivity have come from the use of longer trains, robot locomotives and better train scheduling. Robot locomotives, placed near the middle of trains, make it possible to use longer trains. The train engineer can effectively handle five or six diesel locomotives and control a train more than a kilometre long, even in mountainous areas. Better communications and electronic signals systems make it possible to operate far more trains over a track than was possible with more primitive manual signals. Less space is required between trains, and especially between trains going in opposite directions on a single railway track.

With a modern control system the railway dispatcher can determine the location and speed of every train quickly and electronically. The dispatcher is able to plan train movements carefully and to shunt approaching trains onto railway sidings so that other trains may pass. This makes it possible for more trains to use the track and thus increases railway productivity. Other improvements have come from more efficient use of railway cars, locomotives and other expensive equipment. Much research has focused on the linear induction motor which is highly efficient and enables trains to accelerate and decelerate more rapidly. These motors are used in LRT (light rapid transit) trains.

Aviation technology has changed radically in recent decades and operates more efficiently. Modern jets are much larger, quieter and more fuel efficient than earlier models. Aviation technology is changing in other areas too. Modern conveyor belts handle passengers' baggage faster and more efficiently. Photoelectric cells and other devices "read" baggage labels, and robots direct baggage and freight to specific bins and carts so that they can be quickly loaded onto aircrafts. Better radar and other electronic devices have been developed to enable planes to operate more reliably in bad weather. Aviation technology is also changing on the ground. Airlines have developed better systems for reservations and ticketing. Canadians can now order and pay for their tickets electronically and within minutes.

There have also been significant increases in productivity in the motor carrier industry. Some increases have resulted from the use of trucks and trailers which are longer, wider and higher. Other productivity increases have come from utilizing more of the available space and in scheduling vehicles more efficiently. Some provinces permit a truck (or tractor) to pull more than one trailer. As a truck requires little more fuel to pull two trailers than one (and only one driver is required), trucks which pull two trailers can be more efficient. Motor carrier productivity has also increased because of the development of more fuel-efficient engines and because of experimentation with the use of lower grade fuel. In some cities the cost of urban transit has been reduced by the introduction of articulated buses (two passenger units pulled by a single engine). Such buses have been used in European cities for some time.

In pipeline transportation, productivity has increased due to the use of larger pipes and faster speeds. This has been made possible by technological improvements in valves, compressors and friction-reducing agents.

Transportation and Communications

The transportation and communications industries have always been related. When good communications are established with another country, trade will often follow. Certainly, there cannot be much trade without good communications. Some system has to be available for the transmission of orders and the movement of shipping documents and other shipping details. In these areas transportation and communication are complementary. In other areas they may compete. Personal transactions have been replaced in many instances by electronic communications. As transport costs increase and better communications systems are developed, transportation and communications will compete increasingly in certain areas ( see Computer Communications; Communications Technology; Telecommunications).

Transportation and Travel

The availability of comfortable, convenient and relatively low-cost transportation (by air, train and bus or automobile) has encouraged the development of the travel industry - one of the fastest-growing segments of the Canadian economy ( see Tourism). Much of this development results from co-operative arrangements between transportation companies, travel agents and the operators of hotels, car rental agencies and other such facilities. Tour packages that include hotels, meals, guides and other items are frequently arranged by a tour operator (sometimes called a wholesaler) and marketed by travel agents. A number of these operators are subsidiaries of airlines.

Government Role in Transportation

Governments have traditionally played an important role in transportation. That role has taken several forms: promotion, regulation, subsidization and operation. The federal government began the promotion of transportation more than a century ago when it encouraged the construction of railways. It promoted railway development through loans, grants and guarantees. After the railways were built, they had enormous power over users of their services. Governments then began to regulate the rates charged by the railways to ensure the fair treatment of all shippers and a fair return to the transportation companies ( see Transportation Regulation).

Governments have subsidized every form of transportation in Canada at one time or another. Transportation subsidies may be divided into two general categories: direct subsidies and indirect subsidies. As mentioned, enormous construction subsidies were given to the railways. Substantial operating subsidies have been given to VIA Rail Canada and to other carriers. Most urban transportation systems are subsidized. Governments have also given indirect subsidies of many kinds. Sometimes a government has permitted the use of government-constructed facilities at less than the cost of providing these facilities, thus providing an indirect subsidy to the users of the facilities. For many years the railways have carried export grain at far less than it cost them to haul it. Additional indirect subsidies result when a government agency provides transport infrastructures (such as an airport, a highway or port facilities) and does not charge sufficient user fees ( see Transportation Agencies).

Transport Canada's mandate is to ensure that Canada's transportation system is safe and environmentally sustainable. The government agency monitors all aspects of the system and recommends improvements as required to protect life, property and the environment. Transport Canada is responsible for aviation system safety, commercial aviation, air regulation enforcement, aerodrome safety and the regulation of air navigation systems and airspace; shipping activities in Canadian waters; monitoring the operation and maintenance of the railways system; monitoring road and motor vehicle safety; and ensuring emergency preparedness.

Transportation Research

The Transportation Development Centre is Transport Canada's research facility. Its work ranges from improved air bags to rules for de-icing aircraft, and includes developing and evaluating technical data, laboratory hardware, computer software and prototype transport systems. Many of the major transport companies have research departments. Some of these work with vehicle and equipment manufacturers in the development and adaptation of new technology, some engage in market research and some make contributions to more basic research. But since much of this research is of a proprietary nature, there are no good statistics concerning its extent.

Employment Opportunities

Transportation is labour intensive; about half of every revenue dollar received by a transportation company is used for employee salaries, wages and benefits. Since transportation is vital to so many sectors of the economy, it provides many good job opportunities. These vary from entry-level jobs such as a clerk, a truck driver or a maintenance apprentice to high-level jobs such as the manager of an airport, a steamship company or a transportation conglomerate. Some transportation jobs require personnel who are interested in accounting, finance or marketing; others require personnel skilled in labour relations, production management or computer systems. As transportation technology changes and as greater demands are made on Canada's transport systems, job opportunities will increase, particularly for trained, hardworking and innovative personnel.

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The importance of transportation to a trading nation as vast as Canada cannot be underestimated. The great distances between mines, farms, forests and urban centres make efficient transport systems essential to the economy so that natural and manufactured goods can move freely through domestic and international markets.

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Just as the Los Angeles land boom of the late 1880s created an increased demand for water, new arrivals to the region created the need for expanded transportation arteries and options.

Initially the region relied on steam rail to carry people between the urban core and surrounding communities such as Monrovia and the San Gabriel Valley. When city and business leaders saw the financial benefits of establishing a rail line within city limits, they found ways to connect the pockets of neighborhoods that were quickly establishing across Los Angeles.

The Pasadena Street Railroad built its first electric line in 1893. In 1895 this line merged with the Los Angeles Electric Railway to form the Pasadena & Los Angeles Railway-the first interurban rail line in Southern California. The line transported passengers from (downtown) Los Angeles through Highland Park and Garvanza, across the Arroyo Seco and into Pasadena.

1911 brought "The Great Merger": Southern Pacific's buyout of various small lines, consolidating them all into an extensive Pacific Electric "Red Car" system. Henry Huntington, owner of the original Pacific Electric, retained control of the Los Angeles Railway, or the "Yellow Cars." This expansion brought new visitors and residents into Northeast Los Angeles and provided the dual benefits of growth and connection for the city.

While electric rail and horse drawn vehicles were the main transportation options in the city in the late 1800s, bicycling was another popular mode of transportation. The privately funded California Cycleway began its construction in 1899-an elevated bikeway meant to connect Pasadena to Los Angeles through Highland Park, and eventually to Santa Monica. Its founder Horace Dobbins set his sights high, even including plans to build a large casino along the route. But his dream was never fully realized. The partially completed bikeway was dismantled on order of the city of Pasadena in 1901.

Years later, with the arrival of the automobile and the construction of the Arroyo Seco Parkway (using the right-of-way of what was once the Cycleway), Highland Park and Garvanza were no longer important throughways that connected two major metro areas, becoming a "sleepy" community whose pace and lifestyle offered a respite from the nearby city.

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Just as the Los Angeles land boom of the late 1880s created an increased demand for water, new arrivals to the region created the need for expanded transportation arteries and options. Initially the region relied on steam rail to carry people between the urban core and surrounding communities such as Monrovia and the San Gabriel Valley.

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These three goals are by no means a harmonious triad; they conflict at many points. In the past as in the present, our cities have favored innovation and competition at the expense of community. New products and methods of production, new transportation, new ways of doing business have been introduced without regard for the dislocation and suffering they create.

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plantation-slaves - Slave Life Pictures - Slavery in America - HISTORY.com

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The steam engine made transportation easier in the North. Railroads and horses also made transportation accessible and easier.

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In the south, they used the railroad which provided easy access to other parts of the area. Turnpikes, or toll roads, increased the transportation of crops from place to place.

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The large scaled farms were worked by the millions of slaves. The warm climate brought great farming for the south. Slaves were excluded from all but the most menial jobs.

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1/4 of Northerners lived in Urban areas by 1860. In the North, slavery had died out because of growing cities and manufacturing.

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The South's economy was based on agriculture. The cotton gin provided a lot of money for cotton farmers. With slaves, the south was able to make them work in plantations or other places, this gave them profit.

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The North was mainly based around manufacturing. The North did not need slaves to fill jobs because it had willing immigrants who were in need of work.

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The South had barely an large cities besides New Orleans. Since almost all white people owned slaves, most of the south was plantations where the slaves worked.

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Growing cities faced many problems. There were citywide fires, the streets were filthy, and there was a lack of clean water.

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In 1790 there were about 698,000 slaves. There were 4 million slaves and 5.5 millions whites. The price for slaves increased 10 or twenty times by this time.

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The North was filled with crowded cities. In 1840, there were 23,000 people. More than 43,000 people in 1850. Immigrants also entered the United States, adding to the population.

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The South wasn't as advanced in inventions than the North side.  The white people used these slaves and made them work at plantations, typically picking cotton. Cotton was so in demand that Eli Whitney improved an already complete version of the cotton gin. This brought much profit to the South.

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The inventions in the North were more advanced than the inventions in the South. The North was more industrial. With factories, large cities, and inventions like the telegraph and sewing machines, etc.

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This picture shows the north sides factories and growing cities.

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Many experts are in agreement that the Midwest as a whole has been growing its manufacturing industry in recent years. So it's not a big surprise that two Midwestern cities - Milwaukee included - made Chief Executive's top 5 list of places to grow your manufacturing business.

Winning with Wheat

Milwaukee has long been known as a manufacturing city of beer, leather and machining tools. But in its earlier days during the middle of the 19th century, the city was better known for its wheat production. In fact, by the early 1860s, Milwaukee was shipping more wheat than any other city in the world.

The wheat production during that time was important to Milwaukee because it had recently lost the competition with Chicago for many other goods. Chicago won because it was - and arguably still is - better situated geographically for shipping products via railways to and from both the eastern and western parts of the country. But wheat kept Milwaukee in business; at one point allowing the city to claim to be the second largest producer of the crop in the country.

Making it a Process

If there were two things Milwaukee succeeded in producing in the early 19th century they were wheat crops and animal stock. But the city couldn't survive on just shipping these products out. It was soon realized that it would be better to take these products and process something even greater.

Mills were built and the wheat was turned into flour and the flour in turn into bread and other baked goods. Animal hides were harvested and leather tanning businesses began popping up in the city.

But where Milwaukee really made its mark at the time was with its brewing industry. Wheat could also be processed into beer and beer was a very popular commodity. This knowledge was brought to Milwaukee largely by the Germans.

In the 1840s, Milwaukee was flooded with a surge of German immigrants - most of them political refugees. They brought with them their language, their religion, their fish fries and of course their love of beer. It wasn't long before they were setting up breweries in Milwaukee to not only sell to other locations but to also consume in the city they referred to as the "German Athens."

Introducing Industrial Machining

Like many cities, Milwaukee went through an industrialization period after the conclusion of the Civil War. By the late 1800s, the city was outputting machined products such as agricultural tools, automobile parts and electrical equipment. This industrial machining was greatly welcomed since the city had started losing its wheat trade to Minneapolis.

While the Germans maintained a steady population in Milwaukee, the new jobs created by the city's industrialization and new manufacturing industry attracted more immigrants. Soon the city became a diverse mix of British, Polish, Russian Jews and other groups.

Why Diversity Makes Milwaukee Great

Each group that immigrated to Milwaukee during the industrialization brought its own unique culture and skill set to the city. Once known for producing only a rather small number of specific goods, Milwaukee has grown into a city rich in diversity of culture, religion, skills and even manufacturing.

The diversity in its manufacturing industry is what put Milwaukee on Chief Executive's top 5 list of places to grow your manufacturing business. Here's what they had to say:

The increasingly diversified factory base of southeastern Wisconsin relies on Harley-Davidson, Master Lock, Badger Meter water meters, General Electric medical-imaging equipment, West Bend kitchen appliances, Johnsonville sausages, Kohler sinks and a variety of other types of goods. A planned water-technology research hub will no doubt further diversify things.

In case you are wondering, Detroit was the other Midwestern city to make the list which cited the fact that the city is putting more resources back into its local manufacturing. The other three places that made the list (in no particular order) were:

1. Chattanooga, Tenn., for its newer Volkswagen plant and high-speed Internet network

2. Reno, Nevada, for its Tesla-Panasonic electric-car-battery "gigafactory" that will likely attract other large manufacturing companies

3. "Anywhere," South Carolina, because the state overall is attracting billion dollar commitments from larger companies such as Boeing and BMW

But Milwaukee is the only one on the list that can directly attribute its manufacturing success to its colorful and diverse history.

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Milwaukee in top 5 of places to grow manufacturing business

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Many experts are in agreement that the Midwest as a whole has been growing its manufacturing industry in recent years. So it's not a big surprise that two Midwestern cities - Milwaukee included - made Chief Executive's top 5 list of places to grow your manufacturing business.

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This picture shows white men rounding up slaves.

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Henry Bibb, 1815-1854. Narrative of the Life and Adventures of Henry Bibb, an American Slave, Written by Himself.

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Narrative of the Life and Adventures of Henry Bibb, an American Slave, Written by Himself By Henry Bibb, 1815-1854