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Bolshevik Revolution & Russian Civil War

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Bolshevik Revolution & Russian Civil War

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1917
Protests and demonstrations dismantle the Tsarist autocracy, leading to the abdication of Nicholas II. The Imperial Government is replaced by the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. The revolutions led to a civil war in which the Red Army successfully defends the new Bolshevik government headed by Valdimir Lenin against various Russian and interventionist anti-Bolshevik armies.

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November 28-December 1, 1943
A war time conference held at Tehran, Iran that was attended by FDR, Churchill, and Stalin. It was the first meeting of the "Big Three" and it agreed on an opening of a second front (Overlord), and that the Soviet Union should enter the war against Japan after the end of the war in Europe.

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February 4-11, 1945
Held at Yalta, USSR, that was attended by FDR, Churchill, Stalin. It agreed on the unconditional surrender of Nazi Germany and its occupation, status of Poland , citizens of the Soviet Union and of Yugoslavia were to be handed over to their respective countries, regardless of their consent, the United Nations once it was agreed that each of the five permanent members of the Security Council would have veto power, and Stalin's entry against Japan.

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July 17-August 2, 1945
Held at Potsdam, Germany that was attended by Truman, Attlee, and Stalin. It agreed on the establishment of the Oder-Neisse line as the border of areas administrated by government of Poland, the expulsion of the German populations remaining beyond the borders of Germany, war reparations, reversion of all German annexations in Europe after 1937, statement of aims and means of the occupation of Germany, and the prosecution of Nazi war criminals. In addition, the Allies issued the Potsdam Declaration which outlined the terms of surrender for Japan.

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1946
British Prime Minister Winston Churchill describes the Soviet Union's policy of isolation during the Cold War in a speech at Westminster College. Winston coined the term used to describe the barrier that isolated Eastern Europe from the rest of the world.

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1947
President Harry S. Truman promised military and economic aid to nations threatened by armed minorities or outside groups. Specifically targeted at Greece and Turkey who were threatened by communist aggression.

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1947
American initiative to aid Western Europe, in which the United States gave over $13 billion in economic assistance to help rebuild Western European economies after the end of World War II. Helped prevent a post-war economic depression and assured continuation of American influence in the European economic sector. Restored economic stability and was believed to drive a Communist appeal away in Europe since a successful free market system was unlikely to have demanded a Communist structure.

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June 24, 1948-May 12, 1949
One of the first major international crises of the Cold War. The USSR blocked Western Allies' passage to railways, roads, and canal access to Berlin.

In response, the Allies organized an airlift in which they carried nearly 9,000 tons of supplies to West Berliners. The USSR did not disrupt the airlift for fear that it would lead to open conflict.

By the spring of 1949, the USSR lifted the blockade after the airlift has delivered more cargo than had been previously transported into the city by rail.

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Czechoslovakia separates from the Soviet Union

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Czechoslovakia separates from the Soviet Union

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1948
A coup d'état takes place, where Stalin asserts his authority through the Soviet Army. Leading Czech politicians who advocated democracy were arrested and imprisoned. The country soon became infiltrated by communists. Czech president Edvard Benes was ousted from power and replaced by Czech Communist Party leader Klement Gottwald, marking the end of the last independent government in Eastern Europe.

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April 4, 1949
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization is signed. It constitutes a system of collective defense in which its members agree to mutual defense in response to any attack on any member by any external party. The alliance consists of 29 independent member countries across North America and Europe

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Federal Republic of West Germany created

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Federal Republic of West Germany created

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May 23, 1949
Established from the 11 states formed in the three Allied zones of occupation held by the UK, the U.S., and France.

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September 21, 1949
Major combat in the Chinese Civil War ended in 1949 with a Communist victory. Communist Party Chairman Mao Zedong proclaimed the establishment of the People's Republic of China, followed by a mass celebration in Tiananmen Square on October 1, in what is now its Independence Day.

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November 1, 1952
The United States test the first full-scale thermonuclear device in Enewetak Atoll.

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August 15-19, 1953
After Mosaddegh sought to nationalize Iranian petroleum reserves, the Central Intelligence Agency plans and executes a coup, in which they bribed Iranian politicians, security, and army high-ranking officials and produced pro-coup propaganda. Mosaddegh was overthrown, which strengthened the Iranian monarchy and in turn, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi's rule.

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Guatemalan President Jacobo Árbenz overthrown

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Guatemalan President Jacobo Árbenz overthrown

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June 18-27, 1954
Popular Guatemalan leader grew disliked by the American government after he instituted land reforms and granted property to landless peasants. The American government's contempt swelled when Árbenz legalized the Communist Party, prompting the U.S. to initiate a CIA-backed coup. The operation consisted of broadcasting anti-government propaganda, bombing Guatemala City, and instituting a naval blockade of Guatemala. Árbenz attempted to fend off the coup by arming his citizens before he resigned on June 27.

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May 14, 1955
As a response to the formation of NATO, the Soviet Union signs a collective defense treaty in Warsaw, Poland. It comprised of 8 members and was considered to have been motivated by Soviet desires to maintain control over military forces in Central and Eastern Europe

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1917-1921
The Russian Revolution prompts widespread fear of Communism and anarchism in the U.S. Concerns over the effects of radical political agitation in American society and the alleged spread of a Communist infiltration in the American labor movement fueled a general sense of anxiety.

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1950-1953
Conflict breaks out between the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and the Republic of Korea. The war attracted international attention when the North, supplies and advised by the Soviet Union, invaded the South. The United Nations and the U.S. joined the war to side with South Korea, with China coming to North Korea's aid. The Korean peninsula was divided at the 38th parallel, which continues until this day.

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1953-1959
Fidel Castro launches his 26th of July Movement against the authoritarian and American-backed government of Cuban President Fulgencio Batista. Though sporadic and ineffective because of its leaders' early exiles, the revolution finally ousted Batista on January 1, 1959. Thereafter, Batista's regime was replaced with a revolutionary socialist state. Its shift toward a communist sovereignty prompted the annulment of its U.S. ties after Castro initiated a program of nationalization and political consolidation.

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October 16-28, 1962
A 13 day confrontation between the U.S. and Cuba, which had been given intercontinental ballistic missiles by the Soviet Union. Upon learning that Cuba was equipped with missiles able to launch into the greater continental United States, President John F. Kennedy issued a naval blockade of all military shipments to Cuba, which prompted negotiations to remove missiles else risking mutually assured destruction. The U.S. and the Soviet Union came to an agreement in which the Soviets removed their missiles from Cuba, to which the U.S. would secretly remove missiles from Greece and Turkey, effectively ending the brief but trepidatious confrontation.

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1955-1975
Conflict that pitted the communist North against a democratic South. The North was supported by the Soviet Union and China, while the South Vietnamese forces were supplied by the U.S., South Korea, Australia, Thailand, and other anti-communist allies. Not a heavily combative conflict until the mid 1960s, the Vietnam War is considered by many the deadliest proxy war of the Cold War era. Direct U.S. involvement escalated after the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution in 1964, with gradual deployment increasing until the Nixon administration.

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September 11, 1973
Through CIA backing, the Chilean Armed Forces seized the country under militaristic control. Their suppression of power limited civil resistance. The coup was the result of an extended period of social unrest and political tension between the opposition-controlled Chilean Congress and democratically-elected socialist President Salvador Allende. The Chilean nation had been asphyxiated economically through orders from U.S. President Richard Nixon. Chilean Armed Forces leader Augusto Pinochet deposed Allende's Popular Unity government and established a junta--or faction--that suspended all political activity, repressing left-wing movements. Pinochet would assume power for more than 15 years after Allende killed himself during the coup.

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January 7, 1978-February 11, 1979
By 1979, the Iranian people grew discontent under the rule of Mohammad Reza Shah, who was supported by the U.S. Demonstrations against him and his police state government paralyzed the country, which culminated in his abdication and exile. Afterwards, Ayatollah Khomeini returned to Iran and assumed the role of Supreme Leader after Iran voted by national referendum to become an Islamic republic in spring of 1979.

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December 24, 1979-February 15, 1989
Insurgent groups in Afghanistan known as the mujahideen and small Maoist groups fought a guerrilla war against the Soviet Army and the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. For nearly a decade, the Soviets failed to quell the Afghan mujahideen insurgency and finally withdrew their forces from Afghanistan in 1989.

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December 26, 1991
In August of 1991, members of the Soviet government attempted to seize control from Soviet President and General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev. Coup leaders were staunch communists who were opposed to Gorbachev's reform program and the new union treaty that he had negotiated, which relinquished much of the central government's power to the surrounding Soviet republics. The coup mainly involved a campaign of widespread civil resistance and though unsuccessful, it did destabilize the Soviet government. On December 26 of that same year, the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union granted self-governing independence to the surrounding Soviet republics, effectively disbanding the Soviet Union and established it into 15 independent republics. The Soviet Union's dissolution marked the end of the Cold War.

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1933-1945
A common argument about the inception of the Cold War is that the near fifty-year conflict developed through misunderstandings, in particular with talks between the United States and the Soviet Union during the war under Roosevelt and Stalin, respectively. Roosevelt believed it was plausible to cooperate with the Soviet Union in a post-war world, and had avoided taking a tough stance during the war, since Soviet support was essential to defeat Japan.

Many of Roosevelt's advisors, however, wanted for him to take a tougher line on the 'spheres of influence,' though Roosevelt never lived to see the end of the war

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1945-1953
Upon assuming the presidency, Truman -- who had minimal foreign policy experience -- heeded the advice of the officials whom Roosevelt ignored. Truman felt he was continuing Roosevelt's line of approach, but his hardline stance only brew Soviet suspicions.

Truman's secretary of state, James Byrnes, was just as inexperienced in foreign relations as Truman. He attempted to reach an agreement with Moscow, in which he believed Stalin would make concessions if the U.S. provided loans for economic reconstruction.
Truman's decision to use the U.S.'s economic and military superiority after 1945 to push for an 'open door' policy was seen as a major contributing factor to the onset of the Cold War

After the conclusion of the Second World War, Truman issued financial aid to European nations whose economic systems were devastated from the conflict. This was in part to establish American dominance in Europe and to repel appeal of communism in areas that were susceptible to turning into socialist states because of their proximity to the Soviet Union.

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1953-1961
As the Supreme Allied Commander of the European Forces during WWII, Eisenhower brought expertise in U.S. national security and international relations to the White House. The main elements of Eisenhower's
New Look policy were:

-To maintain the vitality of the American economy while still building sufficient strength to prosecute the Cold War
-Rely on nuclear weapons to deter communist aggression or to fight a war if absolutely necessary
-Use the CIA to carry out secret/covert actions against subversive governments and/or leaders
-Strengthen allies and win the friendship of neutral governments

During this time, there was a resurged fear of communist infiltration in the American government. Such fears were mounted because of people like Senator Joseph McCarthy and Congressman Martin Dies Jr. Various committees were established to investigate suspected communists thought to have a large impact and influence because of their professions. Grilling movements largely died down after McCarthy's smear tactics led to his censure in the Senate.

Eisenhower established the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in 1958 to "encourage peaceful applications in space science," but was in actuality, a response to the Soviet launch of the Sputnik satellite. NASA would later on provide oversight of launch operations and unmanned space launches.

Eisenhower's tenure early on coincided with the death of Stalin, who was succeeded by Nikita Khrushchev. Eisenhower remained skeptical of the Soviets despite Khrushchev promoting a "peaceful coexistence."

However, the two leaders did meet in the mid 50s to discuss détente and a treaty banning nuclear weapon testing. Hopes for a potential treaty agreement collapsed when a U-2 spy plane was shot when flying over Soviet territory. It was found that the pilot was American and was trying to record information on behalf of the U.S. Khrushchev exploited the incident as a threat and demanded an apology from Eisenhower, to which Eisenhower refused. The apparent détente instead turned into a sour turn for U.S.-Soviet relations.

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1961-1963
Kennedy entered the White House as a relatively inexperienced legislator and even less experienced foreign policy expert.

Just a few months after assuming office, Kennedy approved of an Eisenhower-supported CIA plan to topple Cuban leader Fidel Castro from power. The plan turned out to be a catastrophic failure and soured Kennedy's relationship with the intelligence community.

Months after this fiasco, Kennedy met with Khrushchev in Vienna, where Khrushchev renewed his threat to "solve" the Berlin issue, which forced Kennedy to respond by stating that he would move with every means at his disposal, including use of nuclear weapons. Two months after the meeting, the Soviets and East Germans constructed a wall separating East and West Berlin.

Moreover, Kennedy's diplomatic mettle was tested when in October 1962, the U.S. discovered that Cubans had been given intercontinental ballistic-range missiles capable of reaching any city in the mainland United States. In a televised address, Kennedy issued a naval blockade of Cuba in which the U.S. would intercept any military shipments made to the island. The move heightened tensions between the  nuclear-equipped U.S. and Soviet Union. But the serious confrontation was ended before any missiles were launched when the U.S. and Soviet Union agreed that the Soviets would remove their missiles from Cuba provided that the U.S. would secretly remove their missiles from Turkey and Greece.

In regards to the developing nations of the world, Kennedy created the Peace Corps as a way to send willing volunteers to improve social and economic conditions throughout the world to capitalize on the decolonization process. This program was aided by fears that Castro's example in Cuba would inspire and foment communist uprisings in Latin America. This would later lead to the creation of the Alliance for Progress, which consisted of a series of measures to improve Latin America's social and economic fortunes and sought to improve America's standing in the region.

Kennedy's most difficult inheritance from Eisenhower is arguably the Southeast Asian conflicts. The U.S. had been sending military advisers to Vietnam and Laos since the 1950s in its wage of war against communist forces. Kennedy announced continued commitment to foreign aid to these countries and approved of Ngo Dinh Diem's assassination after he continuously repressed political opponents.

Kennedy considered his greatest foreign policy accomplishment to be the passing of the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, which limited nuclear weapon testing in space, underwater, and in the earth's atmosphere between the U.S., the UK, and the Soviet Union. This proved that Kennedy was capable of engaging the Soviet Union in constructive negotiations and reduce tensions over arms, which he highlighted in a speech made at American University in 1963.

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1963-1969
Upon Kennedy's assassination in 1963, Johnson immediately assumed the presidency.

Because Kennedy never lived to take action in Vietnam, be it withdrawal of more forces or further deployment, Johnson was pushed to continue American commitment to the war. It was after taking the office that Johnson issued a national security agency memorandum to assist the people of South Vietnam in their war against the communist North.

In the summer of 1964, heading into election season in November, Johnson stated that he had no intention of escalating the war if it were not absolutely necessary. However, Johnson eventually deployed thousands of American troops to Vietnam, despite earlier saying that the U.S. should not "do the job that Asian boys should do." Eventually, it was hawkish members of Congress that pushed Johnson to commit even further to the conflict, which attracted the support of the Chinese and Soviets on the North Vietnamese efforts.

In regards to his other foreign performances, Johnson signed the Outer Space Treaty with Soviet Premier Aleksei Kosygin, which banned nuclear weapons in earth orbit, the moon, other planets, and in deep space. Additionally, Johnson successfully defused the the Arab-Israeli War through diplomatic negotiations with Kosygin to sort out contradictory American and Soviet interests in the Middle East.

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1969-1974
Nixon rose to stardom once again in a heavily contentious presidential campaign, where he promised "law and order" in response to the various riots and protests taking place in the United States.

Despite his militant opposition to communism, Nixon saw opportunities to ease relations with the Soviet Union and establish diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China, whom the United States would not recognize until 1979.

It was his hope that he would be remembered best for his foreign accomplishments, for which he would strengthen relations with Moscow and Beijing to play both sides against each other. His seriousness in dealing with foreign policy is best reflected in his appointment of Henry Kissinger as National Security Advisor, in which he expanded the importance of the National Security Council.

In a break from precedent, Nixon addressed China by its official name. Later on, Nixon announced he would make an unprecedented trip to Beijing, which would start rapprochement between the two states.

Nixon would also convene a meeting with Leonid Brezhnev in the Soviet Union, signifying that the U.S. was in the path toward détente in a Cold War era.

Nixon's main motives for establishing improved relations with the Soviet Union and China was to pressure North Vietnam into making a settlement, though none could be found that would effectively end the war. Instead, Nixon pushed for a strategy dubbed Vietnamization, which was to train and arm the South Vietnamese to take over the war for their own defense, creating a course for the United States to withdraw their troops.

The U.S. would eventually withdraw on January 23, 1973 when the Paris Peace Accords were signed.

It was during Nixon's tenure that the United States launched the first manned space flight to the moon in July 1969.

Much of Nixon's foreign policy accomplishments were shadowed by the Watergate scandal, where he was responsible for covering up an incident that grew into obstruction of justice and abuse of power. Nixon would resign before impeachment proceedings began in the Senate.

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1974-1977
Ford retained much of Nixon's foreign policy advisors as a continuation of strategy. While inexperienced as a politician, Ford was familiar with international affairs.

Despite Nixon's resignation, Ford made it clear that he still hoped to pursue détente with China and the Soviet Union. However, the Yom Kippur War in the Middle East made it difficult for Ford to follow that path when massive military involvement called the attention of all global superpowers.

Ford was able to further détente in 1975, when he and Soviet Premier Brezhnev, with the heads of other European nations, signed the Helsinki Accords, which recognized the existing boundaries of European countries post-WWII.

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1977-1981
Took the Oval Office after Ford served the remainder of Nixon's term.

Carter's presidency was riddled with international incidents and events, which included the Panama Canal Treaties, the SALT II treaty, the Camp David Accords, and the Iranian Revolution and hostage crisis.

Because of Carter's relatively inexperienced in national politics and hence, his most memorable weight is in foreign policy.

In Latin America, Carter signed a treaty granting Panama control over the Panama Canal beginning in 2000, ending an agreement signed in 1904 that gave the U.S. the right to build the canal and a renewable lease to control 5 miles of land along either side of it.

With Soviet premier Leonid Brezhnev, Carter signed the SALT II agreement that dealt limitations and guidelines for nuclear weapons.

In hopes of extinguishing a state of war between Egypt and Israel that had been blazing since 1948, Carter invited Egyptian president Anwar el-Sadat and Israeli PM Begin to Camp David to cool tensions and agree on peace.

Viewed as the most disastrous failure of his presidency, Carter could not negotiate the release of American hostages at the U.S. Embassy in Tehran when Iranian students took them captive in response to Carter's permission to allow the deposed Shah to seek cancer treatment in the U.S. The hostages would not be freed until Carter was out of office, on January 21, 1981 when Ronald Reagan was inaugurated.

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1981-1989
Reagan's policy was focused on winning the Cold War and rolling back communist progression in Eastern Europe. Reagan achieved this by seeking a strategy known as "peace through strength," which is building up the country's military to confront an adversary.

His presidency funded "freedom fighters," or anti-communist groups around the world that would overwhelm the global influence of the Soviet Union in an attempt to hasten the end of the Cold War. Examples of American-funded freedom fighters include the Contras in Nicaragua, the Mujahideen in Afghanistan, and the UNITA in Angola.

Reagan did not hide his contempt for the Soviet Union, calling them the "evil empire." He predicted that through his doctrine, the Soviet Union would collapse because of its serious economic problems. Reagan would later relax his aggressive rhetoric when Gorbachev became chairman of the Soviet Politburo in 1985, initiating policies for openness called glasnost and perestroika.