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http://www.businessinsider.com/can-us-border-agents-search-your-phone-at-the-airport-2017-2

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Reading presentation

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6 Scientific Benefits of Playing Videogames

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This article has been sponsored by Bethesda for their new game Prey – out on the 5 May 2017.

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Is a vegerarian diet more friendly than consuming meat?

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It may be meat-free but you can still think more sustainably. Shutterstock

Beef from Brazil, avocados from Mexico, lamb from New Zealand, wines from South Africa and green beans from Kenya - food shopping lists have a distinctly international flavour. And with many questioning the sustainability of importing so much food from so far away, we are beginning to ask if switching to a vegetarian diet to cut emissions caused by meat production is as sustainable as one might think.

The influence of the global trade of food on local diets and cultural choices has exploded over recent years. Food supply chains operate globally and deliver rural produce to nearly 4 billion people now living in cities and towns. It was this principle that established the world's first agricultural research station some 150 years ago when the founders of Rothamsted saw the potential of the agricultural land surrounding London to supply a growing urban population. In the 21st century, the whole world can be your bread basket.

Many are conscious of what they eat - both from a health and environmental perspective. But what is the impact of this? We're increasingly encouraged to eat less meat to tackle climate change. And meat consumption, in the European Union at least, has reduced and stabilised at around 42m tonnes over the last 15 years. There are also now new labels for different types of meat eaters: flexitarians (only eat meat sometimes) or the reducetarian (aim to eat less meat) that reflect the ways different groups are trying to cut down.

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But what about all those fruit, vegetable and staples crossing the globe - can we really label them as more sustainable than eating meat? The growth of ethical food purchases now make up close to 10% of grocery purchases in the UK, which is double that of tobacco. But in addition to the impact of air miles, global land and resource use determine the sustainability of the food we eat - food production can destroy or displace natural resources in order to supply growing demand. Changing land use to expand avocado production in Mexico, for example, is displacing the rainforest. Or the devastating impact of non-certificated palm oil, used in food but also a whole host of other products. And then there is the issue of food wastage.

Measuring the sustainability of food

However, the first thing we need to be able to do is measure the environmental impact of the food we eat. We can do this for different food supply chains using carbon footprinting methods. The difficulty is that consumers choose foods based on what they like - and this frequently changes but rarely considers the impact of climate change.

From this we can say that a vegetarian diet does deliver a decreased carbon footprint. But it also shows us that food miles and global distribution can be the least of our problems. This is because food wastage can be up to 20% of food purchases and food losses across the supply chain can be far greater than this. Food waste in turn increases the carbon footprint which counters the positive gains. And perishable fresh fruit and vegetables are more likely to be thrown away than fresh meat and fish.

So is vegetarian really best?

Ultimately, we cannot say that eating a vegan or vegetarian or meat diet is any better for the environment. This is because all can be appropriate if production systems are sustainable, there is no waste and positive health outcomes are achieved. There are clearly trade-offs in choosing foods. Air freighting of green beans from Kenya into the UK was seen as unsustainable because of air miles but it also supports up to 1.5m people and livelihoods in some of the poorest regions of Sub-Saharan Africa.

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It's not just meat that increase greenhouse gases. Rice - produced on 163m hectares, around 12% of the global arable area - has one of the greatest plant carbon footprints because it produces a lot of methane. But a fall in production of rice is not only unlikely, it could also disrupt greenhouse gases held in the soil. But there are different ways to do things - draining off paddies at particular times in the growing season, for example. Or using different fertilisers or rice varieties that are less susceptible to the heat.

The best way forward?

Consumers need to understand trade-offs and to keep up to date on information of what is best to buy. It is important to spot food trends, for example, and project any sustainability impacts. The number of gluten-free products available is doubling year-on-year in Europe and the US. This has resulted in an increase in the consumption of plant proteins from beans and lentils. These kinds of foods are arguably more eco-friendly than meat but - whatever your thoughts about gluten-free eating - it will change how protein crops are distributed globally and may divert pulses or increase the price of them for countries such as India that depend of non-livestock proteins.

Sustainability certifications have changed how we shop, giving us guidance on ethical purchases including sustainable fishing, rainforest produce and so on. This is one way to make sure that what you eat is less damaging and/or helps sustain livelihoods and good agricultural practices.

But it is day-to-day food waste - both at home and in supply chains - that can make any diet unsustainable whether you choose to be vegan, vegetarian, a meat eater or a combination of these. Different preservation formats can reduce food waste to zero. In the case of frozen food we know food waste can be halved compared with fresh foods - less of it is thrown away. Despite what you might think, frozen compares well to fresh and can be just as nutritious.

We all choose foods based on what we like, what we can access and what we can afford. But continued surveillance and interest in sustainable production will mean we can buy produce we know has a better supply chain. There isn't currently a certification that shows food produced with less waste (there should be), but we can aim to cut down our own and keep up with suppliers who show better commitments.

We might have an avocado - but maybe not five in a week. And of course we can source more food locally and seasonally as well as considering preserved options if we want to cut down on air miles. Like eating less meat, there are ways to make your footprint better.

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Is a vegetarian diet really more environmentally friendly than eating meat?

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Beef from Brazil, avocados from Mexico, lamb from New Zealand, wines from South Africa and green beans from Kenya - food shopping lists have a distinctly international flavour. And with many questioning the sustainability of importing so much food from so far away, we are beginning to ask if switching to a vegetarian diet to cut emissions caused by meat production is as sustainable as one might think.

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Is meat healthy?

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Thank you for supporting this site with purchases made through links in this article.
Is meat healthy? I doubt there is a question that stirs quite as much controversy as this one. If you've been around these parts for a while then you know I believe in real, traditional food. That means I think saturated fat, cholesterol, and real salt are essential to our diets. And I make no apologies for my diet that is full of butter, raw milk, and lots of eggs.

I will also be the first to tell you that there no single diet that is perfect for everyone. And I mean it. We are all so different. Things like genetics, epigenetics, environment, culture, tastes, gut health, food history, and our bio-diversity make it impossible to say that there is one right way to eat. But there are things we all need to keep our bodies functioning properly: Vitamins, minerals, enzymes, bacteria, carbohydrates, fat, and protein... just for example.

The good news: There is a number of ways we can get these things. This is why people have survived and thrived for thousands of years on a variety of "diets" including meat-heavy and vegetarian diets.

But back to the question at hand...

Is meat healthy?

Here it goes: I eat meat. *phew* So glad to have that off my chest. Recently, I've noticed a trend for people to lump us "meat eaters" into one giant category. Anytime I get a comment on this blog about how "us meat eaters" only consume meat for pleasure and that we are destroying the planet, I try to stay calm.

After all, it's true that most of the meat consumed in America these days is anything but healthy.

Concentrated Animal Feeding Operation (CAFO)

CAFOs are one of the saddest aspects of our modern day approach to "food." Animals in these factory farms are concentrated together within a very confined space. Inside these concentrated operations cows are fed a slurry of corn and soy ( which are both most likely GMO). And when the corn supply is low, they are fed candy. ( No, seriously.) And because cows aren't designed to consume this kind of food most of them get sick. In fact, so many get sick that along with their corn, soy, and candy these animals are also fed antibiotics. Mmmmm... sounds nutritious, right?

Broiler chickens spend their 6-7 week lives in windowless sheds, each containing around 40,000 birds. They are selectively bred to grow faster than they would naturally which often causes skeletal problems and lameness. Many die because their hearts and lungs cannot keep up with their rapid growth.

There are about 250 million hens in U.S. egg factories that supply 95% of the eggs in this country. In these facilities the birds are held in battery cages that are very small with slanted wire floors which cause severe discomfort and foot deformation. Between five and eight birds are crammed in cages only 14 square inches in size. Since the birds have no room to act naturally, they become very aggressive and attack the other birds in their cage. To help combat this behavior, the birds have their beaks cut off at a young age.

I could on. Pigs, dairy cows, you name it. There is a terrible story behind each factory farmed animal.
It's horrible.
Heart-breaking.
Devastating.
Is this meat healthy? No. It's not good for the planet and it's definitely not good for you.

Consider these facts about factory farmed meat:

The meat from cows fed this unnatural diet is virtually devoid of all Omega-3 fatty acids, and lacking in conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) which is known to fight cancer.

Animals in CAFOs are supplemented with extra vitamin E, but their meat is still contained significantly less vitamin E of those raised on pasture.

One study indicated that CAFO-raised animals harbor 314 times the amount of E Coli bacteria as animals that are grass-fed.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency estimates that CAFOs account for more than 250 million tons of manure every year.

In studies of CAFOs, CDC has shown that chemical and infectious compounds from animal waste are able to migrate into nearby soil and water, and the EPA has acknowledged that hog, chicken and cattle waste has polluted 35,000 miles of rivers in 22 states and contaminated groundwater in 17 states.

According to the Center for Disease Control, pollutants possibly associated with manure-related discharges at CAFOs include antibiotics; pathogens; excess nutrients, such as ammonia, nitrogen, and phosphorus; pesticides and hormones; solids, such as feed and feathers; and trace elements, such as arsenic and copper, which can contaminate surface waters and possibly harm human health.

Is this meat healthy? I don't think it takes a scientist to see how obviously NOT-healthy it is. And yet, most Americans are so far removed from the process of how we get our meat that we don't realize the inhumane and unhealthy practices that are happening. Instead, we feel blessed to live in a day where we can get "cheap" meat. But when you think about the real costs, I'm not sure we can afford to keep this up for much longer.

Health benefits of grass-fed meat

Now let's look at grass-fed meat. Keep in mind that not all "grass-fed" meat is created equal (just like "free range" doesn't mean a whole lot). Whenever possible, I buy from my local farmer. Why? Because I can go and see for myself their practices. I can see that the animals are treated humanely, that they have enough land, that the farm is using sustainable practices. I know what my food was fed. I know it's part of a more synergistic ecosystem that allows the surrounding environment to flourish instead of die.

So from a purely environmental and humane perspective, local grass-fed meat is what my family chooses to buy. But beyond those reasons, grass-fed meat has a lot of health benefits:

Grass-fed meat is healthy.

Compared to CAFO meat, grass-fed meat is:

Higher in antioxidants beta-carotene and vitamin E

Higher in the B-vitamins thiamin and riboflavin

Higher in the minerals calcium, magnesium, and potassium

Higher in total omega-3 fatty acids

A healthier omega-6 to omega-3 ratio (1.65 in grass-fed beef versus 4.84 in grain fed)

Higher in conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), a potential cancer fighter

Higher in vaccenic acid (which can be transformed into CLA)

Meat also provides our body with essential saturated fats (yes, essential).

To top this list off: I'm not worried about growth hormones, antibiotics, GMOs, pesticides, or bad bacteria.

So yes, grass-fed meat is healthy.

Personal beliefs about eating meat

For many people, meat is an essential part of a healthy diet. Most conscientious meat eaters that I know also have a diet rich in plant foods. After my own experimentation of a vegetarian diet, I found that I needed to add meat back in for health reasons. (And please don't tell me it's because I wasn't doing the whole vegetarian thing "right.") I'm not saying that everyone needs to eat meat, but I wasn't surprised to find countless stories like mine online.

Even though I am a meat eater, my family chooses to eat meat sparingly for a number of reasons. Primarily, I believe I can get most of what I need from fruits, veggies, properly prepared grains, pastured eggs, cultured foods, and raw dairy products. We probably eat about 1 - 3 servings of meat a week (less in the spring/summer... more in the winter/fall).

I have a tremendous respect and appreciation for the sacrifice that all animal products represent, and this is why I am so picky about what animal products I will buy. It's not just a matter of health, it's about revering life.

Use it wisely.

In my transition from a SAD to real foods diet, the biggest "ah-ha" moment for me was realizing how wasteful I had been about the meat I had previously been eating. Factory farmed meat is designed to give American's what they want: juicy breasts, thick slabs of steak, boneless, skinless, and all of it packaged and ready to go. What about the rest?

When our ancestors consumed an animal, they used every last bit. Bones for stocks. Organs as nutrient-dense powerhouses. Blood, flesh, and skin. In fact, the actual "meat" was the least prized part of the animal. Some people find these parts unappealing, but I see it as taking responsibility for our place in the food chain. If animals are to be used, nothing should go to waste (especially when those parts are so healthy)!

So yes, I eat meat.

And yes, I think meat is healthy... or at least it can be. If raised unwisely, however, meat can also be very unhealthy. If we are to reclaim our health and our planet, we need to take an active role in our relationship with our food. We need to stop pretending not to see what's going on. We need get back to basics.
What do you think? Is meat healthy? Do you eat meat? Why or why not?

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Thank you for supporting this site with purchases made through links in this article. Is meat healthy? I doubt there is a question that stirs quite as much controversy as this one. If you've been around these parts for a while then you know I believe in real, traditional food.

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Red meat ???

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Denise Minger is a former vegan and very popular blogger. She is well-known for her thorough debunking of the China study.

The video above is her presentation at the 2012 Ancestral Health Symposium, Meet Your Meat: An Objective Look at a Controversial Food.

As she says, there may be a few concerns about high meat consumption, but they can easily be fixed with a few simple adjustments.

This article discusses the main concerns that she raises in her lecture.

Throughout evolution, humans didn't just eat muscle meat. Back in the day, they used to treasure the organs.

Hunter-gatherers ate "nose-to-tail," which means muscles, organs and other tissues. Organs like liver tend to have a lot more micronutrients than muscle, such as vitamin A, vitamin B and iron.

Muscle meat also tends to be very high in the amino acid methionine. Animal studies have shown that eating less methionine has health benefits and may lengthen lifespan ( 1, 2, 3).

Human studies have come to similar conclusions, suggesting that limiting methionine may improve metabolic health and even increase lifespan to a similar extent as calorie restriction ( 4, 5).

However, more human research on the topic is needed to form a solid conclusion.

Nonetheless, including more organ meat in your diet in place of muscle meat may help you limit your intake of methionine and increase your intake of many nutrients.

Summary Including organ meat in your diet in place of muscle meat may limit your intake of methionine. Limiting methionine in the diet may improve health and even affect longevity.

There are some dangers to cooking meat at very high temperatures.

The most common high-heat cooking methods include grilling, broiling, frying and deep-frying.

High-heat cooking methods can form unhealthy compounds like heterocyclic amines (HAs), advanced glycation end products (AGEs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs).

They tend to form as some of the nutrients in meat react with some of its other components at very high temperatures ( 6, 7).

These unhealthy compounds have been linked to an increased risk of several types of cancer, including breast and pancreatic cancer ( 8, 9, 10).

Below are a few tips on how to minimize these harmful compounds in foods:

Use gentler cooking methods like stewing, baking, steaming and boiling.

Limit your intake of charred and smoked foods. If your meat is burnt, cut away the charred pieces.

Don't expose meat directly to a flame and minimize cooking at temperatures above 150°C/300°F.

Marinating meat in olive oil, lemon juice, garlic or red wine can reduce HCAs by up to 90% (11).

When cooking at very high heat, flip the meat frequently.

Summary Cooking meat over high heat can form unhealthy compounds like heterocyclic amines, advanced glycation end products and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, all of which have been linked to an increased risk of disease.

Meat is generally very high in the mineral iron.

Iron binds to hemoglobin in the blood and plays a vital role in delivering oxygen to all the tissues in your body.

However, having very high iron levels in the body can cause problems in the long term, especially in men.

Women have menstruation to help them remove excess blood and iron from the body. However, men, non-menstruating women and children don't have an efficient mechanism to expel iron from the body.

If iron consumption is very high, it can cause iron to build up in the blood, causing symptoms of iron toxicity ( 12).

This is not a concern for most people, but a genetic disorder called hereditary hemochromatosis can result in elevated absorption of iron ( 13).

For those who have this disorder, eating a lot of iron-rich foods can cause problems, and red meat happens to be very rich in iron.

If you have this condition, there are a few things you can do to reduce your iron levels:

Donate blood regularly.

Drink coffee or tea with meals that contain a lot of iron, as they hinder the absorption of iron.

Avoid foods that are rich in vitamin C when you eat foods with a lot of iron, since vitamin C increases iron absorption.

Eat less red meat.

The only way to know if this pertains to you is to get your iron levels tested, or to get tested for the genetic mutation itself.

Summary Red meat is rich in iron. This is rarely a concern for healthy people, but it can be a problem for those who develop dangerously high blood levels of iron.

Meat, especially if the animal it comes from was naturally fed, is a healthy food.

However, as with most things in nutrition, there are some potential concerns regarding a high meat intake.

These include the consumption of the amino acid methionine and unhealthy compounds that form during cooking, as well as a high iron intake.

Luckily, these concerns can easily be accounted for with some minor adjustments to your diet.

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How to Make Your Meat as Healthy as Possible

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Denise Minger is a former vegan and very popular blogger. She is well-known for her thorough debunking of the China study. The video above is her presentation at the 2012 Ancestral Health Symposium, Meet Your Meat: An Objective Look at a Controversial Food.

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Red meat : Good or bad for health?

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Red meat contains numerous vitamins and minerals that are essential for a healthful, balanced diet. In recent years, however, its reputation has been severely blemished, with studies suggesting that red meat intake can increase the risk of cancer and other diseases. But is it really that bad for us? We investigate.

Intake of red meat in the U.S. has fallen dramatically over the past 4 decades.

Red meat is defined as any meat that comes from mammalian muscle. This includes beef, lamb, pork, goat, veal, and mutton.

For many households, red meat is considered a food staple, with some of us consuming beef, lamb, and pork in different variations on a daily basis.

Last year, the average person in the United States is estimated to have consumed around 106.6 pounds of red meat. Although this might appear a high intake, it is a significant reduction from the average 145.8 pounds consumed per capita in 1970.

Over the past 10 years alone, red meat consumption has fallen by around 10 pounds per person, with 2014 seeing the lowest intake of red meat since 1960, at just 101.7 pounds per person.

But why are so many of us cutting down on red meat?

A shift toward plant-based foods

According to a 2016 Harris Poll, approximately 8 million adults in the U.S. are vegetarian or vegan, with concerns about animal welfare being the driving factor.

However, it seems that millions more of us are opting for plant-based foods over meat-based products because we believe that they are more healthful. The 2016 Harris Poll found that 37 percent of U.S. adults "always" or "sometimes" eat vegetarian meals when eating out, with 36 percent of these citing health reasons for their choice.

A number of studies have suggested that when it comes to health, a plant-based diet is the way to go. In December 2016, a position paper from the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics claimed that a plant-based diet can lower the risk of type 2 diabetes by 62 percent, as well as reduce the risk of heart attack and stroke.

"If you could bottle up a plant-based prescription, it would become a blockbuster drug overnight," commented paper co-author Susan Levin, of the Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine in Washington, D.C.

It is not only the health benefits associated with plant-based diets that are steering us away from red meat, however, but the health risks that might arise from eating red meat. We take a look at what some of these risks are.

Cancer

When it comes to red meat intake, cancer is perhaps the most well-established health implication.

In October 2015, the World Health Organization (WHO) published a report concluding that red meat is "probably carcinogenic to humans," meaning that there is some evidence that it can increase the risk of cancer.

Additionally, the WHO concluded that processed meats - defined as "meat that has been transformed through salting, curing, fermentation, smoking, or other processes to enhance flavor or improve preservation" - is "carcinogenic to humans," meaning that there is sufficient evidence that processed meat intake increases cancer risk.

A high intake of processed meat is associated with a greater risk of colorectal cancer, according to the WHO.

To reach these conclusions, the WHO's International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) Working Group reviewed more than 800 studies assessing the effects of red and processed meats on various types of cancer.

They found that each 50-gram portion of processed meat - which primarily includes pork or beef - consumed daily increases the risk of colorectal cancer by 18 percent.

The IARC also uncovered evidence of a link between red meat intake and increased risk of colorectal, pancreatic, and prostate cancers.

It is thought that cooking red meats at high temperatures - through frying or barbecuing, for example - is what contributes to an increased cancer risk.

According to the National Cancer Institute - a part of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) - cooking meats at high temperatures can lead to the production of heterocyclic amines (HCAs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are chemicals that have been shown to increase cancer risk in animal models.

However, the report from WHO concluded that the role of HCAs and PAHs in human cancer risk is not fully understood, and from their review, there was not enough data to determine whether the way meat is cooked influences cancer risk.

Kidney failure

Kidney failure - whereby the kidneys are no longer able to filter waste products and water from the blood - is estimated to affect more than 661,000 people in the U.S.

Diabetes and high blood pressure are among the most common causes of kidney failure, but in July 2016, one study suggested that red meat intake might be a risk factor.

Published in the Journal of the American Society of Nephrology, the study reported a dose-dependent link between red meat consumption and risk of kidney failure. For example, participants who were in the highest 25 percent of red meat intake were found to have a 40 percent increased risk of kidney failure, compared with those in the lowest 25 percent.

"Our findings suggest that these individuals can still maintain protein intake but consider switching to plant-based sources; however, if they still choose to eat meat, fish/shellfish and poultry are better alternatives to red meat," says study co-author Dr. Woon-Puay Koh, of the Duke-NUS Medical School in Singapore.

Heart disease

Heart disease remains the number one killer in the U.S., responsible for the deaths of around 610,000 people in the country every year.

An unhealthful diet, high in saturated fat and cholesterol, is a well-known risk factor for heart disease. A number of studies have suggested that red meat falls into that category, raising the risk of heart disease and other cardiovascular conditions.

Some studies have associated red meat consumption with heart disease.

A 2014 study of more than 37,000 men from Sweden, for example, found that men who consumed more than 75 grams of processed red meat per day were at a 1.28 times greater risk of heart failure than those who consumed under 25 grams daily.

Another study, published in 2013, reported an association between red meat intake and increased risk of heart disease, but this link was not attributed to the high saturated fat and cholesterol content of red meat.

The researchers, from Columbia University in New York, found that gut bacteria digest a compound in red meat called L-carnitine, converting it into a compound called trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO).

In mice, the researchers found that TMAO led to the development of atherosclerosis - a condition characterized by the buildup of fatty substances in the arteries, which can lead to heart attack and stroke.

Although there are numerous studies linking red meat intake to poor heart health, other research challenges this association.

A recent study by researchers from Purdue University in West Lafayette, IN, for example, found that eating 3 ounces of red meat three times weekly did not lead to an increase in risk factors for cardiovascular disease.

Diverticulitis

Diverticulitis is a condition whereby inflammation occurs in one or more of the sacs that line the wall of the colon, which are called diverticula.

This inflammation can lead to a number of severe complications, including abscesses, perforation of the colon, and peritonitis (infection and swelling in the lining of the abdomen).

While the specific causes of diverticulitis are unclear, it has been suggested that a high-fiber diet can raise the risk of developing the condition.

Earlier this month, a study published in the journal Gut suggested that eating high amounts of red meat may also increase the likelihood of developing diverticulitis.

Compared with men who reported eating low quantities of red meat, those who reported eating the highest quantities were found to have a 58 percent greater risk of developing diverticulitis.

The risk was strongest with a high intake of unprocessed red meat, the researchers found.

How much red meat should we eat?

Despite overwhelming evidence of the potential health risks of red meat intake, it is important to note that red meat is full of nutrients.

As an example, a 100-gram portion of raw ground beef contains around 25 percent of the recommended daily allowance of vitamin B-3, and 32 percent of the recommended daily allowance of zinc.

Red meat is also high in heme-iron - which is absorbed better than plant-derived iron - vitamin B-6, selenium, and other vitamins and minerals.

Still, based on the evidence to date, public health guidelines recommend limiting red meat consumption.

The American Institute for Cancer Research, for example, recommend eating no more than 18 ounces of cooked red meats each week to reduce cancer risk, while processed meats should be avoided completely.

However, while the 2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend cutting back on red meat intake, they do not specify a daily limit.

According to Dr. Christopher Wild, director of the IARC, the 2015 report linking red meat intake to increased cancer risk supports public health recommendations to limit the consumption of red meat.

However, he notes that red meat has nutritional value, and that this should be considered in future research "in order to balance the risks and benefits of eating red meat and processed meat and to provide the best possible dietary recommendations."

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Red meat contains numerous vitamins and minerals that are essential for a healthful, balanced diet. In recent years, however, its reputation has been severely blemished, with studies suggesting that red meat intake can increase the risk of cancer and other diseases. But is it really that bad for us? We investigate.

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A Contribution of Beef to Human Health

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A Contribution of Beef to Human Health: A Review of the Role of the Animal Production Systems

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Meat and meat products constitute important source of protein, fat, and several functional compounds. Although beef consumption may implicate possible negative impacts on human health, its consumption can also contribute to human health. Quality traits of beef, as well as its nutritional properties, depend on animal genetics, feeding, livestock practices, and post mortem procedures.

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Meat as a component of healthy diet

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national center for biotechnology information

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united states national library of medicine

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Meat as a component of a healthy diet - are there any risks or benefits if meat is avoided in the diet? - PubMed - NCBI

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Role of poultry meat in a balanced diet aimed at maintaining health and wellbeing

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Abstract

The relationship between the consumption of meat and health is multifaceted, and it needs to be analyzed in detail, with specific attention to the relevant differences that characterize the effects of the different meat types, as yet considered by only a limited literature. A variable but moderate energy content, highly digestible proteins (with low levels of collagen) of good nutritional quality, unsaturated lipids (mainly found in the skin and easily removed), B-group vitamins (mainly thiamin, vitamin B6, and pantothenic acid), and minerals (like iron, zinc, and copper) make poultry meat a valuable food. Epidemiological studies performed across the world, in highly diverse populations with different food preferences and nutritional habits, provide solid information on the association between poultry consumption, within a balanced diet, and good health. Consumption of poultry meat, as part of a vegetable-rich diet, is associated with a risk reduction of developing overweight and obesity, cardiovascular diseases, and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Also, white meat (and poultry in particular) is considered moderately protective or neutral on cancer risk. The relevance of poultry meat for humans also has been recognized by the UN Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), who considers this widely available, relatively inexpensive food to be particularly useful in developing countries, where it can help to meet shortfalls in essential nutrients. Moreover, poultry meat consumption also contributes to the overall quality of the diet in specific ages and conditions (prior to conception, during pregnancy up to the end of breastfeeding, during growth, and in the geriatric age) and is suitable for those who have an increased need for calorie and protein compared to the general population.

Keywords: human nutrition, poultry meat consumption, poultry meat composition, balanced diet

When gauging the relationship between nutrition and health, animal-derived foods (and meat in particular) are usually assessed in a global manner: the lay public perception of their actions is consequently often quite negative. However, various aspects of this relationship deserve to be analyzed in detail, in particular the relevant differences that characterize the health effects of different meat types. Only a few studies, in fact, have considered the impact of these foods on health in relation to the animal species of origin ( 1- 4); in many cases, the distinction is simply made between red and white meat ( 5- 7). Nonetheless, the literature focused on poultry meat has identified many positive aspects, from a nutritional point of view ( 8- 10), associated with its regular consumption.

The aim of this consensus document is to review the available evidence on the association between poultry meat intake, diet quality, and general health status. In fact, a number of observational studies and meta-analyses have been published on these topics; these data represent the source of information on which this consensus document has been based.

Macro- and micronutrient composition and energetic value of chicken and turkey meat

Meat and its derived products provide relevant quantities of essential nutrients at higher concentrations compared with other foods. The nutrient content in the animal's musculature does not vary significantly between species, whilst the ratio between fat and muscle mass in the edible part does vary considerably. The quality of animal fat and the amounts of nutrients largely depend on the animal's diet or its genetic pattern, despite the fact that recent specific farming techniques (organic, free range) have been shown to influence some compositional aspects of meat (specifically, poultry meat). Cooking and heating processes usually have only minimal effects on the nutritional profile of meat, mostly corresponding to the concentration of nutrients (including fat) and a decrease in water content.

In particular, the energetic value of poultry meats varies between chicken breast and chicken thighs with skin () ( 11): the presence of skin (due to its fat content) increases the caloric value by around 25-30%. It must be noted that cooking also affects energetic value, which increases by 30-50% for meat with skin (essentially due to a loss of water during the cooking process) ( 12).

Table 1

Protein

Poultry meat, like other meats, milk, and eggs, has a protein component usually defined as 'high quality'. Animal-derived foods have a Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS) value equivalent to or slightly below one ( 13). Conversely, plant-derived foods, which - despite containing a relevant quantity of protein - have a less favorable protein profile (they are generally lacking in one or more essential amino acids and/or more difficult to digest), have a substantially lower PDCAAS value (e.g. 0.75 for beans and 0.5 for wheat).

Of all macronutrients, proteins are the minor contributors to the daily caloric intake. It is also noteworthy that protein is the only macronutrient for which, similar to micronutrients, a precise recommended intake has been established.

According to the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) Daily Reference Values ( 14), as an example, the average recommended daily intake of protein (i.e. the minimum consumption level required to satisfy the recommended intake for 50% of healthy subjects for adults (both men and women)) is 0.66 g protein/kg body weight per day based on nitrogen balance data, and reaches up to 1.12 g per kg of body weight for infants.

The reference dietary intake for the population (the population reference intake, or PRI, which is equivalent to the sufficient serving size required to insure the coverage of almost all (97.5% of) healthy subjects) is, of course, set at higher levels: it was estimated to be 0.83 g protein/kg body weight per day, applicable both to high-quality protein and to protein in mixed diets, for adults of all ages. Such levels are subject to a progressive increase throughout the three trimesters of pregnancy, according to weight gain, as well as during breastfeeding. Similar values are reported as Dietary Reference Intakes for the American population.

It is commonly assumed that the recommended protein intake also increases for men and women over 65 years of age in order to counteract sarcopenia, which occurs frequently in the elderly. Based on the analysis of the collected data in the context of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) III study on more than 6,300 men and women, in this stage of life, protein intake should equal about 1.2-1.3 g/kg/day, and it should be especially from protein of high biological value ( 15).

According to the EFSA, the available information on protein health effects is sufficient to establish the minimal levels, which essentially correspond to the amount of nitrogen required to maintain an equal balance, but not to set the maximal tolerable levels of protein. The EFSA suggests that an intake equivalent to twice the PRI can be considered safe. For example, this would correspond to 92.4 g of protein for an adult weighing 70 kg and following a moderately active lifestyle, equal to about 15% of the total calories of a 2,500 kcal diet.

The protein content of most meat (including poultry meat) ranges between 15 and 35%, depending on the water and fat content of the product. Cooking also causes an increase in protein concentration, which reaches up to 60% in weight for skinless turkey drumstick and skinless chicken drumstick.

The low content of collagen (a structural protein) is another favorable characteristic of poultry meat. Collagen reduces the digestibility of meat, and high levels of this protein in muscular meat are associated with a lower percentage of digested product per unit of time.

Fats

Meat contributes to fats, especially saturated ones; its consumption is therefore potentially associated with an excess intake of these nutrients and the corresponding negative health consequences. Nonetheless, the suggested dietary target for fats in the general healthy population ranges from 25 to 35% of total energy, so that a typical average intake of 2,000 kcal results in 70 or more grams of these nutrients per day. In addition, when consumed in appropriate quantities (i.e. compatible with a healthy balanced diet), fat plays a number of important roles: it provides 'essential fatty acids' (such as linoleic and alpha-linolenic acids) and lipophilic vitamins (A, D, E, and K); it represents a major source of energy; it promotes a sense of satiety due to slowing effects on gastric emptying; it reduces, for the same reason, the bioavailability of carbohydrates (and, hence, the glycemic response); and, finally, it enhances the taste, smell, and texture of foods.

It must also be noted that the muscular part of animals, lacking visible fat, has a fairly limited lipid content, which was further reduced over the past decades, thanks to the progress in farming techniques and feed quality and profile.

Lipid intake associated with poultry meat is variable and dependent on the cut considered. Fats are nonetheless mainly found in skin and can, therefore, be easily removed (). The lipid content of chicken and turkey is around 1% in the leanest cuts, such as chicken breast and turkey rump, and around 17% (at the opposite extreme) in cooked chicken wings with skin. The inclusion of skin can increase these values.

Cooking can also increase the fat content concentration (although less so compared to protein content), by removing water from meat, or by adding fats present in the condiments used during preparation (as for 'rotisserie' roast chicken). Nonetheless, when compared to other types of meat, poultry appears to be relatively low in fat.

From a nutritional point of view, the composition of poultry fat is favorable: it includes significant amounts of monounsaturated fatty acids (only a third of total fat is made up of saturated fatty acids) () and, in comparison with bovine, ovine, or pig meat, substantial amounts of polyunsaturated fats, especially the omega-6 or n-6 linoleic acid (18:2 n-6) and arachidonic acid (20:4 n-6), which can be found mostly in the skin () ( 16). Thanks to vegetable-derived feed, rich in alpha-linolenic acid (a precursor of long-chain omega-3 or n-3 fatty acids), poultry also provides some amount of this class of fats. In most Western countries, where fish consumption (a major source of omega-3) is relatively low, poultry meat may thus represent an important source of these fatty acids ( 17).

Table 2

Carbohydrates

Animal-derived foods contain very few carbohydrates, which, conversely, are found abundantly in plant-based foods. The only naturally occurring carbohydrate in muscle is glycogen, whose content rapidly decreases following butchering. In certain cured meats, sucrose or glucose are added during the manufacturing process.

Vitamins and minerals

Meat represents an excellent source of the majority of hydrophilic vitamins, and it is the ideal dietary source of vitamin B12. The amounts of B-group vitamins (e.g. niacin, vitamin B6, and pantothenic acid) in poultry are very similar to those of other meats and do not significantly diminish during cooking. While red meat is the most abundant in terms of vitamin B12, poultry supplies an important amount of niacin. Lipophilic vitamins such as vitamins E and K, contained in muscles, are less abundant in meat compared to plant-based foods.

Meat also provides several minerals. As shown in , despite a large variability in iron concentration across different types of meat, poultry also provides this mineral (100 g of chicken thighs provide 1.4 mg of iron, compared to 1.3 mg for an equal amount of rump steak from an adult bovine) ( 18).

Table 3

Sodium is only minimally present in fresh meat and in poultry too, and does not significantly contribute to total dietary intake. Processed meat products, on the other hand, can contain high or very high quantities of sodium, added as a preservative or flavor enhancer.

Chicken meat is also an excellent source of selenium. Moreover, lean meat contains factors that promote the bioavailability of a variety of nutrients, which is hence often larger compared to that of the same nutrients present in plant-based foods. Besides heme iron, zinc, copper, and B vitamins are also highly bioavailable when consumed with meat. At the same time, meat also promotes the bioavailability of nutrients found in other foods when consumed concurrently. For example, the absorption of non-heme iron contained in other foods is increased when they are consumed with meat.

Poultry meat: levels of consumption

According to FAO data, the consumption of poultry meat, like all other types of meat, has progressively increased from the past century to today in Europe and in the USA and has generally remained stable over the past years.

European behavior with regard to dietary consumption in general and poultry consumption, in particular, is considerably different than that of the United States. The NHANES results ( 19) confirm that in the USA, the shift in consumption from red meat to white meat was higher than in any other country. Nonetheless, red meat still represents the majority of meat consumed in the USA (58%), while processed meats occupy about 22% of the market. According to the study, in 2003-2004, the total intake of meat in the American diet was equivalent to an average of 128 g per day, with a large variability in type and quantity of meat, also based on education, age, and gender. This survey has shown that meat consumption in the United States is therefore around three times higher compared to the global mean: this aspect should be taken into proper consideration when defining the sanitary policies oriented toward the reduction of the prevalence of chronic diseases.

In Europe, data on poultry meat consumption originating from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) study ( 20) provide values which differ across several geographical areas: total meat consumption reaches a maximum in Spain (126.9 g per day in San Sebastian) and a minimum in Greece (45.6 g per day), while daily intakes of poultry meat vary from 7.6 g in Umea (Sweden) to 29.2 g in San Sebastian. In Italian population groups, the average daily intake of poultry meat is of about 20 g (chicken representing 65% of total poultry meat), with a peak of 23.4 g for subjects recruited in the Center (Florence), and the lowest levels (14.6 g) for residents in the South (Naples).

Similar consumption levels of poultry meat have been registered in the representative sample of the Italian population recruited for the INRAN-SCAI 2005-2006 survey ( 21).

As reported in the FAO database, poultry meat represents less than 30% of the meat in the Italian diet, which is more abundant in cured meats, sausages, and other processed products.

Poultry consumption and human health

Epidemiological studies conducted across various parts of the world, in highly diverse populations, with different food preferences and nutritional habits, provide solid information on the association between diet and health. Several prospective studies support the association between poultry consumption, within a balanced diet, and a reduction in the risk of developing cardiovascular (CV) diseases and their risk factors, such as overweight and insulin resistance, and tumors.

Weight control/obesity

The benefits of protein consumption, including animal proteins, in weight management are supported by observational studies and have been the object of intervention trials, which yielded mixed results ( 22).

An analysis of 15 randomized controlled studies, with a follow-up ranging from 1 week to 1 year ( 23), comparing the effects of low- to high-protein diets on body weight, showed a statistically significant difference in weight loss between the two groups in the majority of cases, in favor to the higher protein intake. Only very few small-scale studies provide contradicting results, probably due to the different compliance of the enrolled subjects ( 24). There is evidence that in the short term (i.e. up to 6 months), weight loss increased in hypocaloric, high-protein diets if compared with hypocaloric diets with low protein content ( 25). The possible mechanisms responsible for this effect include increased satiety, followed by a lower calorie intake during subsequent meals and decreased carbohydrate consumption, within dietary regimens containing a higher proportion of protein ( 24, 26). It was also hypothesized that these mechanisms could in some way be synergistic. In addition to their satiety producing effect, yielding a subsequent reduction in energy intake, proteins are also responsible for higher thermogenesis (by increasing protein synthesis and adenosine triphosphate expense linked to peptide bond formation, as well as urea production and gluconeogenesis) ( 27).

The intake of one serving of protein in substitution of the same amount of carbohydrates decreases the overall glycemic load of the meal ( 28).

On the other hand, very high intakes of meat have been associated with increases in body weight. In the previously mentioned EPIC study, as an example, an increase of 250 g in daily meat consumption (including all meat types) was associated with an extra 2 kg weight gain over 5 years, in both normal-weight and overweight men and women ( 22). It is worth mentioning that 250 g/day (1.750 kg of meat per week) is a particularly large serving size, corresponding to about 450 additional kcal per day; this is currently considered as incompatible with any weight control strategy and is very infrequent in European countries ( 29).

Cardiovascular diseases

Also, as concerns CV health, the effect of protein intake seems to be dependent upon dietary sources ( 30).

A very large observational study carried out in the United States on a female population reported an inverse relationship between the intakes of poultry and fish and the risk of developing coronary artery disease, as well as the absence of a clear relationship between red meat consumption and the same risk ( 31). The analysis of the data collected 26 years after the beginning of the study also reveals a positive correlation between the consumption levels of different protein sources (poultry, fish, and nuts) and health condition and survival ( 32). In particular, the substitution of one daily serving of red meat with a daily serving of poultry reduced CV risk by 19% (13% if red meat was substituted for reduced-fat dairy products and 24% if substituted for fish). The authors suggest that these benefits are a consequence of the reduction of heme iron and sodium and of the increase in polyunsaturated fats. The substitution of red meat for other protein sources such as poultry could therefore constitute an effective strategy to reduce coronary risk ( 30).

Possible underlying mechanisms linking the consumption levels of various meats and the risk of coronary disease can be extrapolated from the examination of the compositional differences between red and processed meat and white meat. In particular, saturated fats, cholesterol, and heme iron, which are higher in red versus white meats, have been described to be the key factors involved in atherosclerotic processes, CV risk factors, and chronic diseases such as hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, endothelial dysfunction, insulin resistance, and type 2 diabetes ( 4).

Type 2 diabetes

A vast evidence demonstrates how lifestyle interventions can reduce the risk to develop type 2 diabetes by modifying several risk factors, including the excessive intake of fat, especially saturated fat ( 3). Studies dating back to the first half of the 20th century have highlighted that diabetes-related mortality increases in parallel to the increased Westernization of society, also characterized by a high consumption of meat ( 33, 34). More recent studies have confirmed the existence of a link between hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance and the intake of saturated fat of animal origin ( 32, 35).

The literature on this topic has been systematically reviewed and has been the target of a meta-analysis based on 12 studies ( 36), characterized by a vast heterogeneity of results, mainly attributable to the variability in methodology applied across different cases. This meta-analysis has confirmed the relationship between the type 2 diabetes risk and the consumption of fatty and processed meats, against the absence of any link between total meat supply and the risk itself. Other studies have led to the same conclusion: the Health Professionals Follow-up Study ( 37), which followed 42,504 adults for 12 years and identified an elevated risk of diabetes with 5 weekly servings of processed meat (the risk increase was absent for poultry consumption); the EPIC-InterACT study ( 38), on more than 340,000 adults from eight European countries; and the most consistent meta-analysis, conducted by the Harvard group ( 39), on 20 studies for a total of 1,218,380 individuals (in this case, the association between risk and processed meat was maintained) and recently updated ( 40).

A recent re-elaboration of the data from the Interact study ( 41) has shown that the incidence of type 2 diabetes was higher in subjects with high total and animal protein intake levels, especially in females and in particular in those with a body mass index (BMI) over 30. Despite this finding, specific data concerning the consumption of poultry have confirmed the absence of a statistically significant relationship between an increasing weekly intake (100 g portions) of chicken and turkey and the development of the disease ( 32).

Benefits associated with poultry consumption have been described by the available literature on the effects of the intake of different types of foods on the progression of diabetes (10 prospective studies, for a total of 190,000 subjects). A dietary pattern comprising a high poultry intake, along with whole-grain cereals, fish, fruit, and vegetables, and a decrease in red meat consumption, processed foods, starches, and simple sugars seems to be effective in the management of the disease ( 42). The results from the EPIC study also sustain that following a healthier lifestyle and consuming poultry, as well as fruit, legumes, nuts, cereals, and vegetable oils, is correlated with a reduction of the mortality risk in a population of type 2 diabetic subjects, thus confirming that these patients can gain significant benefits from an overall change in lifestyle which includes white meat consumption ( 43). Of course, the available observations are not sufficient to support any independent association between the consumption of poultry alone and health. However, they clearly support the inclusion of poultry meat in healthy diets ( 44).

Amongst the nutritional factors that potentially increase the risk of diabetes, it was suggested that heme iron could play a role, because it increases oxidative stress and insulin resistance ( 3, 45). However, this hypothesis does not explain the negative effects of processed meats, in which heme iron is generally reduced ( 40).

Another confounding factor that should be taken into account is the difference between processed or cured meat and fresh meat, which have different concentrations of preservatives and sodium. It is estimated that, on average, processed meats contain approximately 400% more sodium and 50% more nitrates, weight by weight, than fresh meat ( 39). As concerns processed products, the temperature used in the preparation can also influence the impact on health: high temperatures, commonly used in the industrial meat manufacture, can induce the formation of heterocyclic amines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons that could increase the risk of coronary artery disease, diabetes mellitus, and cancer (see below) ( 46). In particular, cross-sectional and prospective studies have highlighted the potential risks associated with the end products of glycation and lipoxidation present in processed foods, in addition to the mechanisms through which pancreatic cell function can be affected by the protein composition of cured meats ( 47).

Cancer

Epidemiological studies conducted in populations with high or very high consumption levels of animal products show that excessive meat intake is a potential risk factor for specific cancer sites ( 48). The saturated fats, heme iron, sodium, and N-nitroso compounds contained in meat and the heterocyclic aromatic amines generated during cooking at high temperatures have been indicated as possible factors responsible for the positive meat-cancer relationship ( 49). The differences in the composition of poultry meat compared to red meat, in particular the lower amounts of potentially dangerous components, along with the content of others which, conversely, are nutritionally favorable (e.g. polyunsaturated fats), could at least partially explain the different impacts recorded for the risk of certain types of cancer across the two food categories. In general, increased consumption of red meat is associated with higher cancer risk, whereas white meat is considered moderately protective or neutral ( 50- 52). Notably, red meat is characterized by a higher proportion of total fat (up to 20% vs. approximately 4% in lean poultry meat), especially of saturated fats, and a reduced content of polyunsaturated fats ( 11, 53).

According to the periodic report by the World Cancer Research Fund, individuals who usually consume animal products should privilege poultry and all types of fish over red meat. The consumption of the latter in the general population should not exceed 300 g of cooked red meat per week and, on an individual level, should be limited to a maximum of 500 g per week (equivalent to about 750 g of raw meat), limiting processed meats as much as possible ( 54).

Of all cancer types, those related to the digestive system are more commonly associated with the consumption of animal products. This observation emerged from studies conducted within populations with much higher consumption levels than those recommended by dietary guidelines (close to an excess); it was hypothesized that myoglobin supplied by red meat triggers precancerous lesions through the catalytic effect of heme iron on the production of carcinogenic N-nitroso compounds, and the development of cytotoxic and genotoxic aldehydes through lipid peroxidation ( 55). This hypothesis, which excludes the involvement of white meat in cancer risk, is confirmed across several meta-analyses.

For example, an analysis of the results of 13 studies with a total of over 500,000 subjects and 4,100 cases of oropharynx cancers ( 56) shows that these cancers' risk increased for regular consumers of processed meat (3-6 servings per week on average), but not for consumers of other types of meat. This result confirms those obtained in a case-controlled study conducted by the Mario Negri Institute of Milan in the late 1990s across three provinces of Northern Italy (Milan, Padua, and Pordenone), showing that chicken and turkey meat were among those foods (along with pasta, raw vegetables, citrus fruits, and fruit in general) whose consumption correlates with a reduced risk of developing esophageal cancers ( 57). The effect was more pronounced (with an odd ratio equal to 0.4 and, hence, a relative risk reduction of about 60%) for the highest consumption levels. The relationship between reduced risk of esophageal cancer and white meat consumption, although not statistically significant, has been confirmed for both esophageal adenocarcinoma and esophageal squamous cell carcinoma in the meta-analysis of four cohort studies and 31 case-control studies carried on between 1990 and 2011 ( 51). The most recent systematic review of the literature confirms the inverse association between the number of poultry servings per week and the risk of esophageal carcinoma. This adds an important piece of information: considering only the highest quality European studies, high levels of poultry consumption have been shown to be associated with a total risk reduction of about 53% ( 52). The protective effect of chicken and turkey on esophageal tumors, similar to that on other cancers of the digestive system, has also been associated with nutritional status and lifestyle quality, which are generally higher in subjects who prefer these foods ( 58).

The negative influence of excess salt in preserved foods and processed meat on stomach cancer risk has been extensively described ( 59). In contrast, however, a few authors observed that the risk of such cancers is inversely associated with high levels of vegetable, fruit, vegetable oil, and poultry consumption, which would therefore exert a protective effect at the gastric mucosal level ( 60).

The survival of patients who are already affected by a colorectal cancer also seems to be negatively influenced by the intake of red and processed meat ( 61) with the prognosis in non-metastasized colorectal carcinoma being a notable example ( 62). As demonstrated by a meta-analysis ( 63), no relationship, on the other hand, was observed in cohort and epidemiological studies between chicken and turkey meat (assessed both separately and in the general context of white meat) and the risk of developing a colorectal cancer.

The available information concerning the effects of meat consumption on the risk of female breast cancer is rather heterogeneous. However, the absence of any significant relationship between poultry and this type of cancer has been assessed across various populations ( 64- 67). This observation has been confirmed by a meta-analysis ( 1). In a prospective study conducted in a subpopulation of American nurses in premenopause at the time of recruitment, the incidence of invasive mammary carcinoma across 20 years of observation was inversely associated with poultry consumption ( 68). The assessment of the effects of different protein sources on the progression of the disease enabled one to estimate that the substitution of one daily portion of red meat with one of poultry could reduce the risk of breast cancer by approximately 17% in general and by 24% in postmenopausal women.

Both cohort and case-control studies tend to exclude the presence of a relationship between meat consumption and ovarian carcinoma, hypothesized on the basis of the results of ecological studies, most probably influenced by confounding factors ( 69). Despite a limited number of high-quality studies, both a meta-analysis of prospective studies ( 70) and the EPIC study conducted on more than 350,000 European women ( 71) have concluded that no type of meat, including white meat, has a significant effect on the incidence of ovarian tumors. In addition, analysis of the impact of various nutrients led to the exclusion of any association between this type of cancer and total fats, saturated fats, and more specifically fat from meat ( 72); only a positive correlation with industrially produced unsaturated trans fats was observed.

Literature evidence remains inconsistent for endometrial cancer ( 73); total, lymphocytic, and myeloid leukemia ( 74); and hepatocellular carcinoma ( 75). However, a high intake of poultry could reduce the risk of lung cancer by approximately 10% according to a meta-analysis on 23 case-control and 11 cohort studies ( 6).

Poultry meat consumption and the overall quality of the diet in various stages of life

The relevance of poultry meat for humans has been evaluated by FAO which, in a recent document, states that 'the human population benefits greatly from poultry meat and eggs, which provide food containing high-quality protein, and a low level of fat with a desirable fatty acid profile'. In particular, these foods, which are widely available and relatively inexpensive, might be particularly useful in developing countries, where they can help to meet shortfalls in essential nutrients for impoverished people. The incidence of several common metabolic diseases associated with deficiencies in critical dietary minerals, vitamins, and amino acids can be reduced by the contribution of poultry products, which are rich in all essential nutrients except vitamin C ( 76). Moreover, poultry meat consumption also contributes to the overall quality of the diet in specific ages and conditions. For example, in the period prior to conception, during pregnancy, and up to the end of breastfeeding, the quality of the maternal diet is amongst the factors affecting the health of both the mother and the infant.

The guidelines relative to this delicate period generally refer to the variety of foods to be consumed, the number of meals ( 4, 5), consumption modalities (chewing slowly), and adequate hydration. Well-cooked lean meats (e.g. chicken and turkey) are to be privileged during pregnancy ( 77).

The required dietary intakes of vitamins (A, D, C, B6, B12, and folic acid), minerals (calcium, iron, and phosphorus), and essential fatty acids all increase during gestation ( 78). Poultry, which is a good source of some of these nutrients, and also of the essential linoleic and alpha-linolenic fatty acids, can represent a good nutrient source.

At the same time, poultry meat consumption can also help in reducing salt intake and, therefore, that of sodium, which should be as moderate as possible for both the mother and her child.

Chicken and turkey also are valuable components of a balanced diet during growth, when their meat can fulfill specific growth requirements, due to its high protein content (characterized by the presence of the essential amino acids lysine, histidine, and arginine) and moderate fats (especially after skin removal), which are prevalently unsaturated as opposed to saturated and are highly bioavailable; vitamins (e.g. B group vitamins); and minerals (e.g. iron) ( 79).

In particular, among meats recommended for weaning, chicken and turkey (together with fish and lamb) are the easiest to puree. Moreover, baby foods containing these meats are easily digestible and are characterized by a low allergenicity ( 80).

The level of minerals, in particular iron, in poultry meats makes them suitable for even the most advanced stages of growth, such as adolescence, during which greater autonomy can increase the risk of an unbalanced nutrient intake ( 81).

The geriatric age is another life period in which wellbeing is more strictly associated with diet and lifestyle, as demonstrated by epidemiological observations in several countries ( 82). The increased availability of good-quality foods has eradicated most nutritional deficiencies in the elderly and has contributed to the increase in healthy life expectancy. Nonetheless, nutritional balance cannot be taken for granted in this stage of life, even in developed Western countries.

An increased required intake of specific nutrients such as calcium (useful in the control of bone mass loss, particularly in the female population) and protein goes in parallel with a reduction in total caloric needs (essentially due to the age-associated decrease in physical activity). Many studies have found that an adequate intake of protein in old age helps fight against physiological age-related sarcopenia, the gradual decrease in muscle mass with serious consequences in terms of movement and individual autonomy ( 83). Specifically, poultry meat, which is a good-quality protein source that is characterized by high digestibility and chewability, especially when prepared using light cooking methods, is particularly important for the elderly, who often have to deal with digestive disorders or chewing difficulties.

Finally, it must be noted that poultry meat is significantly less expensive compared to other meats: a non-negligible aspect in the context of elderly nutrition, as this population group is subject to generally lower incomes and is at risk of following an unbalanced diet due to financial limitations.

Conclusions

Poultry meats are characterized by a good overall nutritional profile. Their high-biological-value protein, vitamin, and mineral content associated with a low fat content (most of which is composed of unsaturated fatty acids) enables these meats to be optimally incorporated into the diet at all ages.

Cross-sectional and prospective epidemiological studies support this view, showing that adequate consumption of chicken meat can facilitate the control of body weight (especially due to its high protein content), with a neutral or positive effect on the risk of developing the main degenerative diseases typical of our society (i.e. CV disease, diabetes, and cancer).

Chicken meat, because of its favorable nutritional profile, can play an important role for individuals in specific age groups (pregnant women, children, and the elderly).

Consumption of these meats in the context of a balanced diet and alongside an adequate intake of protein-based foods, including plant-based ones, would likely contribute to the overall quality of the diet in the population.

Conflict of interest and funding

The preparation of this consensus document has been made possible by an unrestricted grant from Unaitalia.

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Role of poultry meat in a balanced diet aimed at maintaining health and wellbeing: an Italian consensus document

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The relationship between the consumption of meat and health is multifaceted, and it needs to be analyzed in detail, with specific attention to the relevant differences that characterize the effects of the different meat types, as yet considered by only ...

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Is red meat essential in your diet?

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Red meat: the steak in your Philly Cheesesteak, the burger in your BBQ Bacon Burger, and the sizzle on your grill.

I don't know about you, but there are few things I enjoy more than a properly cooked piece of beef (or pork). Something about the rich, meaty goodness with just a hint of salt and pepper makes for one heck of an epic meal.

Red meat has gotten a pretty bad reputation in the last few decades. With saturated fat believed to be the "devil" behind heart attacks, most nutritionists and diet "experts" advised reducing red meat intake. Add to that hormone injected into cows, a higher calorie content, and the increased risk of gout, and you have good reasons to cut back on red meat, right?

But is red meat really all that bad? On the flip side, is it really all that good? How harmful/beneficial is red meat? Should you be trying to avoid it, or can, you go nuts and eat as much as you want? THAT is the question I intend to answer today...

Benefits of Red Meat

Aside from its delicious flavor (sorry, vegans and vegetarians, I just can't find it in my heart to not love meat!), there are many things that make red meat a good addition to your diet:

B Vitamins -- Your body needs more B vitamins to function, as the vitamins play a role in your immune health, metabolic function, brain health, and so on. Vitamin B12 is one of the most important of the B vitamins, and a deficiency of this vitamin can lead to cardiovascular disease, cancer, aging, mental illness, neurological conditions, and many other problems. B12 boosts your metabolism and helps you burn more calories every day, but it also keeps you healthy. Red meat is one of the best natural forms of B12, making it an important food!

As a bonus, you also get a lot of other B Vitamins from red meat:

By eating more red meat, you ensure you get more of these vital nutrients.

Iron -- Iron is one of the most important minerals in your body for a very simple reason: it's needed to produce red blood cells. Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs and nutrients from your intestines to every cell in your body. More red blood cells = better oxygen/nutrient transportation = better body function.

Red meat contains mostly a form of iron known as "heme iron," a type of dietary iron that is very easy to absorb and use. Plant-based sources of iron are nonheme iron, which is less bioavailable. But what's more, the heme iron in red meat can facilitate the absorption and use of non-heme iron. The iron in red meat will actually help you absorb MORE iron from other foods.

Vitamin D -- Most of our daily Vitamin D comes from sunlight, or from oily fish. But for those who live in places with less sunlight (far north or south) and don't eat a lot of fish, red meat is the next best option. It contains 25-hydroxycholecalciferol, a form of Vitamin D that can easily be absorbed by the human body. Among people with less exposure to sunlight, red meat can help to reduce the risk of Vitamin D deficiencies. Not even Vitamin D-enriched milk can offer the same benefits!

Fatty Acids -- Both red and white meat (poultry) contain fats, but did you know that the fatty acid profile of red meat is actually BETTER than that of white meat? This is because cows (ruminant animals) have a digestive system that maintains the quantities of saturated, polyunsaturated, and monounsaturated fat in the cow's body. It doesn't matter if they eat grain, grass, or other types of feed--the fatty acid profile of their meat will be consistent regardless.

The same cannot be said of white meat. The fatty acid profile of pork and poultry will change according to their diet. But with cows (beef), you get a consistent fatty acid profile that has a lot more unsaturated fatty acids than you might think. With grass-fed cows, you even get a healthy dose of Omega-3 fatty acids!

Other Minerals -- Red meat contains a lot of zinc, which plays a role in your metabolism as well as your immune system. Zinc is often a lot harder to get in your diet than you'd think unless you eat a lot of shellfish or organ meats. But with red meat, you get not only a good source of zinc but a source that is easily absorbed and used and which helps your body to absorb more zinc from other foods (plants).

Red meats are also rich in selenium (an antioxidant), chromium, copper, nickel, phosphorus, magnesium, and other minerals that play a role in the health of your bones, muscles, joints, organs, and tissues.

Complete Protein -- For an active person, protein is the single most important nutrient around. Carbs and fats provide energy, but it's the protein that ensures your body is able to build, repair, and restore muscle fiber.

Your body needs nine specific amino acids to build muscle. Red meat contains all nine "essential" amino acids (as does chicken, pork, turkey, fish, eggs, and many other foods). However, what sets red meat apart from the rest is the amino acid profile. All proteins have a certain balance of amino acids, but red meat contains a good balance of the three most important amino acids (the BCAAs) for muscle growth. Red meat contains more BCAAs than almost any other food, making it one of the most efficient for muscle-building. Why else do you think red meat is such a staple of a bodybuilder's diet?

Mental Health -- One of the additional benefits of red meat (beyond its nutrition) is its contribution to our mental health. An Australian study found that women who eat red meat are far less likely to develop clinical depression than women who don't. The women who ate less than the "recommended" amount of red meat had double the chances of developing an anxiety or depressive disorder.

All VERY good reasons to eat red meat, right?

Dangers of Red Meat

Now, to be truly fair, we have to present both sides of the coin. We've looked at why you should be eating red meat, so let's take a look at the reasons we should be eliminating red meat from our diet:

Increased Cancer Risk -- some studies have found that grilled red meat can increase your risk of developing cancer. No, it's not the meat's fault, but it's the fault of the cooking method.

You see, when you grill red meat, the high heat tends to burn the fat. This burned fat can become carcinogenic, increase your risk of cancer.

On the flip side, if you broil, fry, or smoke your meat, there is NO added cancer risk. It's only the high-heat methods (which can burn the steak) that contribute to a higher chance of developing cancer.

Cardiovascular Disease -- The myth that the saturated fat in red meat causes heart attacks and strokes has been debunked once and for all. Saturated fat is no longer demonized, but we've come to understand its place in our diets and health.

But, that doesn't mean red meat is off the hook. A 2013 study found that red meat can still lead to heart attacks. This is because red meat contains carnitine, which causes your body to produce TMAO, a compound that promotes the build-up of fat on your arterial walls. The more fat that builds up, the harder your heart has to work to pump blood. This can lead to an increase in blood pressure, weakening of the arterial walls, and eventually a clog. The result: heart attack or stroke.

Alzheimer's Disease -- Iron may play an important role in our overall health, but one UCLA study suggests that excessive iron accumulation can be behind Alzheimer's. Excessive iron intake (from too much red meat) can increase the risk of oxidative damage, which causes the degeneration of brain cells.

While the link between red meat and Alzheimer's may be thin, it's important you understand ALL the risks.

Colon Cancer -- A Harvard study found a link between red meat and colon cancer, though they're not quite sure what's the cause of that link. It could be:

HCAs produced when meat is cooked at high temperatures

Nitrates, a preservative, used in meat products, which are converted into carcinogenic nitrosamines

N-nitroso compounds (NOCs), cancer-causing chemicals that build up as a result of eating meat

The study found that there WAS a clear link, but more research is needed to determine exactly what is the problem.

Diabetes -- You may think Diabetes may only come from eating too many sweets, but according to a 2013 study, red meat plays a role in the problem as well.

Of more than 100,000 people studied, a significant number of people who ate a lot of red meat developed Type 2 Diabetes. Eating just 1 serving of meat per day raised the risk of developing diabetes by almost 50%. Cutting back on meat intake to less than half a serving per day lowered the chance of developing diabetes to under 15%!

Harsh Truth: It's About the Quality

Prevention has a list of 10 Reasons to Stop Eating Red Meat, but if you take a look at most of them, you'll find that they have nothing to do with the meat itself. Instead, you'll find that the real danger lies in what's in your meat:

The "glue" used to hold together meat scraps

The artificial chemicals and fillers used to make the "pink slime" that eventually becomes "meat products."

The processing that turns waste meat products into hot dogs and salami

The bacteria that may contaminate meat

The hormones injected into cows

If you eat "healthy" red meat (ergo, grass-fed beef), you are exposed to NONE of these dangers.

Red Meat: Essential or No?

This article isn't about "is red meat healthy or dangerous?" Instead, it's about "is red meat essential?"

Yes: Red meat is one of the best sources of protein, and it has a balanced nutritional profile that few other foods can offer. It delivers vitamins, minerals, and fatty acids, and is one of the most satiating foods on the planet.

No: There are other sources of protein, and you can get minerals from other foods. If you are trying to reduce your risk of cancer, heart disease, and diabetes, you may want to find other "safer" foods than the highly controversial red meat.

In the end, it's up to you!

We've listed the benefits of red meat above, but we've also looked at what could make it dangerous. In small quantities (a few servings per week), red meat can offer a lot of health benefits. In excess, red meat may increase your risk of health problems.

If you're going to eat red meat, try to make it high-quality meat. Stick with the leaner cuts of beef for the most part, but if you're going to buy meat to grill, make sure you buy mostly grass-fed beef. It's the best way to get a proper balance of proteins and healthy fats.

Note: Don't take our word for it! The "meat vs. no meat" debate has raged for years, and will rage on for many more years. It's up to you to do further research and find out more about the meat you eat. Be a smart consumer and learn as much as you can about the safety/dangers of your food.

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6 0 5 1 0 Red meat: the steak in your Philly Cheesesteak, the burger in your BBQ Bacon Burger, and the sizzle on your grill.I don't know about you, but there are few things I enjoy more than a properly cooked piece of beef (or pork).

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Meat offers both pros and cons to your diet.

In many parts of the world, meat makes up a considerable portion of a typical diet. It contributes protein, minerals, vitamins and fat, and these nutrients are important for their beneficial effects on your well-being. However, some components of meat, such as saturated fats, can confer negative health consequences. It's up to you to weigh the pros and cons when you're choosing whether to include meat in your diet.

Protein Content

The protein you consume each day supplies your body with a pool of amino acids, which are the building blocks of protein molecules. Your cells use these amino acids to synthesize new proteins as you need them - for example, to build muscle tissue, manufacture antibodies or replace red blood cells. Of the 20 amino acids in proteins, your body can make 11 of them. The other nine, known as essential amino acids, must be included in the foods you eat to avoid a protein deficiency. Meat is important in your diet because it is a protein-rich food that supplies you with all the essential amino acids you need for good health.

Minerals, Including Iron

In addition to offering significant protein, meat provides a wide variety of minerals to support the optimal functioning of your cells and tissues. For instance, it is an important source of both iron and zinc. Iron helps carry oxygen to and throughout your tissues, while zinc is required for a strong immune system, wound healing and enzyme activity within your cells. The phosphorus content of meat helps keep your bones strong, the sulfur it contains can be incorporated into new amino acids and the chromium found in meat assists in metabolizing your dietary sugars.

Vitamins, Especially B-12

A number of B vitamins are available from the meat you consume. Thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid and biotin help your cells extract energy from the foods you eat each day. Vitamin B-6 keeps your nervous and circulatory systems healthy, and it functions in both protein synthesis and protein metabolism. This vitamin also assists in the absorption of vitamin B-12, another vitamin essential for circulatory and nerve health, as well as energy production. Meat is an especially important source of vitamin B-12, because, unlike other B vitamins, B-12 is not found in any plant-based foods.

Fats, Including Unhealthy Fat

Although you need a limited supply of fats in your diet for good health, the saturated fats found in meat can be detrimental to your well-being. Consuming high levels of saturated fats can increase your risk of atherosclerosis, a condition in which plaque deposits form on the walls of your arteries, and can lead to heart disease. Taking in too many dietary fats, such as from fatty cuts of meat, can result in accumulation of fat stores in and around your organs, causing eventual organ damage. High fat intake can also lead to an increased risk of obesity and diabetes. Selecting lean cuts of meat and trimming off excess fat help minimize the harmful effects of meat while allowing you to benefit from its rich nutrient content.

A Meaty Choice

Plenty of Americans - though far from a majority - manage to live without meat in their diet. By some counts, 2 percent of Americans are vegetarian and one in four vegetarians is vegan. (Vegetarians are those who have cut meat, fish and chicken from their diets while vegans eradicate all products that come from an animal, including eggs and all dairy products.) The Mayo Clinic seems to support these dietary choices: "A plant-based diet, which emphasizes fruits, vegetables, grains, beans, legumes and nuts, is rich in fiber, vitamins and other nutrients. And people who don't eat meat - vegetarians - generally eat fewer calories and less fat, weigh less and have a lower risk of heart disease than nonvegetarians do. Even reducing meat intake has a protective effect. Research shows that people who eat red meat are at an increased risk of death from heart disease, stroke or diabetes." But what about people who simply crave meat - who like nothing more than slicing into a thick, juicy steak on a Saturday night? The Mayo Clinic advises a cautious approach, or limiting that steak to a lean, 3-ounce serving size. If the issue of incorporating meat into a diet comes down to personal choice - as most dietary choices do - the clinic advocates the approach of a "flexitarian," or someone who eats mostly plant-based foods but sometimes indulges on meat, poultry and fish. Balance is a choice, too.

About the Author

A writer since 1985, Jan Annigan is published in "Plant Physiology," "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences," "Journal of Biological Chemistry" and on various websites. She holds a sports medicine and human performance certificate from the University of Washington, as well as a Bachelor of Science in animal sciences from Purdue University.

Photo Credits

roast beef platte image by Lucky Dragon from Fotolia.com

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Meat teems with nutritional benefits. It supplies protein, iron, vitamins and fat - all of which your body needs to function properly. As with all dietary choices, you can have too much of a good thing, and consuming too much meat can lead to health risks that seem to point to a balanced approach.

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Why All Humans Need To Eat Meat For Health

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With veganism trending, many people are convincing themselves that plant-based foods can suffice when it comes to daily nutritional needs, removing all traces of meat from their diets. Unfortunately, these people may be experiencing vitamin deficiencies and suffering decreased brain volume, fatigue, and confusion.

The Myths About Eating Meat

One of the greatest and most harmful nutrition myths is that meat doesn't belong in a healthy diet. Meat consumption is blamed for high cholesterol, high blood pressure, heart disease, and obesity. But if you want to point fingers at the culprit behind these health issues, point at sugar. Blame the overconsumption of carbohydrates like grains and potatoes that break down into sugar in the body. ¹

For more than two million years we were primarily meat eaters. Only in the last 10,000 years did the human diet shift, with the cultivation of grains and legumes. But are we more suited to this diet lower in meat? In the last 10,000 years we've gotten smaller in stature and brain size. With a heavily grain- and sugar-based diet, we are suffering increased rates of obesity, cancer, diabetes, and osteoporosis. We're also experiencing alarming incidence of skin problems, heart disease, and inflammation of all kinds. ²

I have to politely disagree with the anti-meat argument. Our genes were developed before the agricultural revolution, when we were not only meat eaters, but enthusiastic ones at that. On top of that, the human genome has changed less than 0.02% in the last 40,000 years. Our bodies were genetically programed for optimal functioning on a diet including meat, and that programming has not changed.

There's plenty of information circulating about why we shouldn't eat meat. Here are some reasons why we should:

We Were Created That Way

By nature, humans are meat eaters, and our bodies are designed for it. We have incisors for tearing meat, and molars for grinding it. If we were meant to subsist on vegetables alone, our digestive system would be similar to that of the cow, with four stomachs and the ability to ferment cellulose in order to break down plant material.

The degenerative health conditions that are prevalent now weren't around when the cavemen were living off meat, vegetables, fish, nuts, seeds, and fruits. In hunter/gatherer societies, 45-65% of energy requirements were derived from animal sources, and heart disease, obesity and type 2 diabetes - the diseases that plague society today - were not a problem. ³ With the introduction of grains and processed foods, these diseases reared their ugly heads at alarming rates. ⁴

Stable Blood Sugar

Meat helps keep blood sugar levels stable due to its fat and high protein content. Steady blood sugar is critical in preventing type 2 diabetes, as well as other chronic diseases. It also helps keep energy levels steady and creates a feeling of satiety between meals, reducing cravings for unhealthy foods. ⁵ With stable blood sugar, you're less likely to drool for fattening snacks and sweets between meals. Battle sugar cravings by eating more meat. ⁶

Muscle Growth

You can work yourself to the bone trying to gain muscle or bulk up, but if you don't nourish your body appropriately, you might as well toss your training schedule and start long distance running. You have to fuel your body with the right nutrients to achieve sufficient muscle repair and recovery to make gains.

You can take protein supplements, but the best source of protein is meat. Meat also contains vitamins and minerals that aid in muscle growth like zinc, which assists in muscle repair, and iron, which boosts energy levels and combats fatigue. Meat also contains creatine, a nitrogen-containing compound that improves protein synthesis and provides muscles with energy, encouraging muscle gain.

If meat's positive - strike that, crucial - role in muscle growth isn't enough, meat also helps burn fat. Meat has a high thermogenic effect because of its protein content, so that approximately thirty percent of its calories are burned off during digestion alone. Digesting carbohydrates produces only a six to eight percent increase in energy expenditure, while digesting the protein in meat typically produces a whopping 25 to 40 percent increase. ⁷

Neurotransmitter Health

People who don't eat meat are especially vulnerable to neurotransmitter imbalances because of the absence of meat protein, which provides all of the essential amino acids human bodies need. Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that regulate many of our functions, including physical, cognitive, and mental performance, as well as our sleep cycle, weight, and emotional states. Meat protein provides all of the essential amino acids human bodies need. People who don't eat meat are especially vulnerable to neurotransmitter imbalances, which can result in problems like depression, anxiety, and hyperactivity.

According to research conducted at the University of Graz, vegetarians are two to three times more likely than meat eaters to suffer from depression, anxiety, eating disorders, and somatoform disorders and syndromes. ⁸ We rely on prescribed medication to cure some of these conditions, when the answer may be as simple as eating a juicy hamburger or tender chicken breast.

Long-Lasting Energy

Everyone has experienced that post-meal slump when caffeine is the only thing that can keep one's head off a pillow. Simple carbs are broken down into sugar that our body burns through quickly, causing us to crash. Conversely, our bodies utilize the protein in meats for sustained, long-lasting energy.

Another critical component of feeling energized is the stimulation of orexin cells in the brain. The stimulation of orexin cells is directly linked to energy expenditure and wakefulness. Scientists at the University of Cambridge discovered that amino acids stimulate orexin cells more than any other nutrients do. Thus, consuming meat protein leads to burning more calories and more energy. Reduced activity in orexin cells has been linked to both weight gain and narcolepsy. ⁹

In addition, meat is one of the best sources of iron. Iron deficits put you at risk for anemia and low energy, which is why anemia is a chronic problem for vegetarians. Pair meat with vegetables boasting a low glycemic index, and you'll be feeling like the energizer bunny all day long.

Essential Nutrients

There are many nutrients in meat that are critical to overall health. While there are many sources of protein, meat is a great source of complete protein, containing all the amino acids our bodies needs, including the ones our bodies can't produce.

All B vitamins are found in greater concentration in meats than in plant sources, and vitamin B-12 can only be found in animal sources. The B vitamins are critical to health, especially mental health. Deficits in these vitamins can cause confusion, impaired senses, aggression, insomnia, weakness, dementia, and peripheral neuropathy.

The Bottom Line

The last reason to eat meat? It tastes pretty damn good. Steak off the grill, roasted chicken, tender pot roasts, need I say more? For most of us, a meal is not a meal without a delicious cut of meat at the center of it. We love meat, and meat loves us back with a host of critical health benefits. So be true to your human nature and to your taste buds. Don't cut meat out of your life. It has way too much to offer.

1. Chase, B. " Sugar and Cholesterol Connection - ProgressiveHealth.com." Progressive Health. Accessed October 4, 2014.

2. Thiessen, D. " The Awful Truth About Eating Grains." Mercola.com. Accessed October 4, 2014.

3. Cordain, L. et al. " Plant-animal subsistence ratios and macronutrient energy estimations in worldwide hunter-gatherer diets." The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. Accessed October 4, 2014.

4. Auer, D. " Understanding Gluten: Part 1- A Brief History." Doctor Auer. Accessed October 4, 2014.

5. Paddon-Jones, D. et al. " Protein, weight management, and satiety." Am J Clin Nutr. 2008. Accessed October 4, 2014.

6. Paddon-Jones, D. et al. " Protein, weight management, and satiety." Am J Clin Nutr. 2008. Accessed October 4, 2014.

7. Halton, TL. et al. " The Effects of High Protein Diets on Thermogenesis, Satiety and Weight Loss: A Critical Review." Journal of the American College of Nutrition. Accessed October 4, 2014.

8. National Health Service. " Vegetarians have 'poorer quality of life' study claims." Health News. Accessed October 4, 2014.

9. University of Cambridge. " 3pm slump? Why a sugar rush may not be the answer." Accessed October 5, 2014.
Photos courtesy of Shutterstock.

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Why All Humans Need to Eat Meat for Health - Breaking Muscle

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With veganism trending, many people are convincing themselves that plant-based foods can suffice when it comes to daily nutritional needs, removing all traces of meat from their diets. Unfortunately, these people may be experiencing vitamin deficiencies and suffering decreased brain volume, fatigue, and confusion. The Myths About Eating Meat One of the greatest and most ...

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The pros and cons of eating meat

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"Dr. Hyman, I see so many conflicting reports about meat," begins this week's house call question. "Some say it can be part of a healthy diet. Others declare it is the root cause of disease - including heart disease, cancer and diabetes. I have friends who completely avoid it and other friends of mine who embrace meat as an everyday staple. What's the truth about meat?"

There are very real concerns involving meat, including the ethical treatment of animals and their impact on the environment, as well as medical and health issues.For some, there are very real ethical concerns about eating meat. For example, if you are a Buddhist and believe that any creature could be your mother from your past life or in your next life, then we can fully support being a vegetarian.

From a health and wellness standpoint, we question if eating meat truly causes heart disease , cancer and leads to a shorter life .Or is eating meat the key to longevity, as it seemed to be for the Plains Indians who lived on buffalo and had the highest number of centenarians in history? On the other hand, we have the Seventh Day Adventists, who are vegetarians but are among the longest-lived people on the planet.

It's not hard to see why the average person, or even doctor or nutritionist is confused. The whole carnivore-vegan debate misses the real point - the root of chronic disease and obesity:sugar and refined carbs.

Admittedly, it would be almost impossible to perform an accurate study about meat. You would have to randomize people into a whole foods, low-glycemic, plant-rich diet with grass-fed or organic animal protein and compare them to those on a high-quality vegan diet. That study has never been done.Anyone have a $100 million?I have the team to do that study at Cleveland Clinic!Call me! We need to do THAT study.

Many of the studies demonizing meat use subjects who are smokers, drink too much, eat way too much sugar and processed foods, eat very little fruits and veggies, and do not exercise.And of course, they don't take vitamins!So it's no wonder that these meat eaters with bad habits and horrible diets are sicker and fatter!

What about featuring Paleo enthusiasts in these studies? These are pro-meat eaters who choose grass-fed meats. They shop at Whole Foods or health food stores. They don't smoke, and they drink in moderation, if at all. They take vitamins, eat lots of fruits and veggies, and exercise regularly. And they have very little sugar and no refined carbs.

The same goes for whole food vegans (not the chips and soda vegans).They would be interesting subjects.

What if Meat Eaters Only Ate Health Food and Grass-Fed Meat?

Some camps rail against the saturated and cholesterol found in meat, or say that meat is inflammatory , or that it contributes to or type 2 diabetes .

The story is not as simple as meat is bad, veggies are good. The real question to ask is this: do grass-fed meat eaters, who also eat lots of healthy food, don't smoke, exercise, and take vitamins have heart disease?

Yet in this study, researchers found the overall death rates were cut in half for both health-conscious meat eaters and for vegetarians, as compared to the average person eating a western-style, processed food diet. The study concluded that for the vegetarians, there was no benefit found; and for the meat eaters, there was no increased risk forheart disease, cancer or death.

However, the meat eaters in the study smoked more. They weighed more. They consumed an average of 800 more calories a day. They exercised less. They ate more sugar. They drank more alcohol. They ate fewer fruits and vegetables but less fiber. And they took fewer vitamins.Are you surprised that they had more heart disease, cancer and higher rates of death?

Unfortunately, the only headline the media grabbed was some variation of "Meat Kills."'

Does the Type of Meat You Eat Matter?

Another problem with most meat eater vs. non meat eater studies is that the type of meat consumed is industrially raised, factory farmed meat, known as confined animal feeding operations (or CAFOs). This industrial grain-fed meat is full of hormones, antibiotics and pesticides, with more inflammatory omega-6 fats from corn and fewer anti-inflammatory omega-3 fats. These population studies don't include people who eat only grass-fed meat without hormones, pesticides or antibiotics.

What About Saturated Fat?

These same limitations apply for studies that show meat causes diabetes and cancer: Most focused on generally unhealthy people eating a highly processed diet.

For the record, a true Paleolithic-type diet contains good-quality, fresh meat, eggs, lots of fruits and veggies, nuts and seeds but no grains, dairy, beans, or processed food.

I hope you can see how eating meat can become healthy or unhealthy when you consider the many factors. If you opt to eat meat, follow these 5 rules to help you make the best choices.

1. Choose grass-fed, pasture-raised organic meats. They're more expensive but ideally you will eat less of the meat and more plant-based foods. Think of meat as a condiment, not a main dish. Fifty to seventy five percent of your plate should be vegetables!

2. Avoid all processed meats. Stay away from processed meats such as deli meats. These are the meats that the World Health Organization points to that have been proven to cause disease, illness and cancer.

3. Prepare your meat the right way. The way we prepare meats is the key.High-temperature cooking like grilling, frying, smoking or charring causes toxic byproducts. This also happens when you cook fish or chicken at high temperatures. All of this leads to the production of compounds called polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and heterocyclic amines (HCAs), which have shown, cause cancer in animals. Change your cooking methods to reduce your exposure of these toxic compounds. The same rule applies to grains and veggies. Cooking these foods at a too-high temperature can cause the same problems. Focus on lower-temperature, slow cooking for meat and veggies - such as baking, roasting, poaching, and stewing.

4. Pile on the vegetables. Fill your plate with at least 75 percent phytonutrient-rich, colorful, non-starchy veggies and use meat as a condiment or as I like to say a "condi-meat."

5. Eat Pegan. Consider combining the best traits of Paleo and vegan, which I've called "Pegan." You can learn more about that hybrid diet.

At the end of the day, the message on meat is pretty simple. About half the studies show it's a problem; half of them don't. For those studies that show meat eaters, as a whole, aren't a healthy bunch, the reason is most likely not the meat, but rather the smoking, sugar-filled, and sedentary lifestyle that creates heart disease and other problems.

A diet filled with lots of high-fiber fruits and veggies that rejects sugar and refined carbs, welcomes grass-fed meat as a health food, lowering inflammation and improving all of the cardiovascular risk factors like cholesterol, blood pressure and blood sugar.

Next week, we will dispel more dietary fat myths at our Fat Summit starting January 25th - February 1st. Come join us! We're going to blow up the old myths about fat and meat, so you don't want to miss it.

Wishing you health and happiness,

Mark Hyman, MD

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Is Meat Good or Bad for You? - Dr. Mark Hyman

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"Dr. Hyman, I see so many conflicting reports about meat," begins this week's house call question. "Some say it can be part of a healthy diet. Others declare it is the root cause of disease - including heart disease, cancer and diabetes. I have friends who completely avoid it and other friends of mine who ...

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Jan Sheehan

Jan Sheehan is an award-winning medical and nutrition writer, having entered journalism in 1992. She is a former contributing editor for "Parents" magazine. She has also written nutrition articles for "Self," "Fitness," "Ladies' Home Journal," "Health" and other magazines. Sheehan has a Bachelor of Arts in journalism from Purdue University.

Meat-free diets are popular with many health-conscious diners and those with ethical concerns about consuming animal products, but eating meat can be important in your diet. Meat has many nutritional, disease-prevention and even weight-loss properties, according to Elisa Zied, a registered dietitian in New York City and the author of "Nutrition at Your Fingertips."

Video of the Day

Meat is an excellent source of complete protein, containing all the amino acids your body needs to develop and maintain muscles. Vegetarian foods don't contain complete proteins, so they aren't as good at building and maintaining strong muscles. One study found children who consumed two spoonfuls of meat daily in addition to their regular diet had an 80-percent increase in upper-arm muscle compared to other children in the two-year study, according to an article on BioEd Online, the website of the Baylor College of Medicine.

Meat is one of the best sources of iron in the American diet, Zied says. If you don't get enough of this mineral from foods or supplements, you are at risk for anemia and low energy. Iron boosts your energy because it's needed to make red blood cells, which carry oxygen from your lungs to other parts of your the body, including the brain.

One serving of beef gives you about 20 percent of your daily recommended intake of iron, Zied reports. Red meat contains heme iron, which is the form of iron most easily absorbed by the body, but pork, lamb and chicken are also good sources of iron as are organ meats.

Meat is a top-notch source of zinc. This mineral helps the immune system function properly and is necessary for some biochemical reactions. During the winter, zinc can be important for helping ease suffering from colds and the flu, Zied says. While other foods, especially oysters, also contain zinc, meat is the most efficient food source, Zied says.

Vitamin B12, another nutrient found in beef, helps prevent heart disease and may play a role in lowering the risk of breast cancer, Alzheimer's disease and depression, according to Oregon State University's Linus Pauling Institute.

Although red meat can be a source of unhealthy fat and cholesterol, lean meat aids weight loss by making you feel fuller longer after a meal. In a 2008 study published in the "Journal of the American College of Nutrition," small portions of roast beef and boiled beef helped produce feelings of satiety in a group of 20 normal-weight adults. To reduce the fat and cholesterol in meat, the MayoClinic.com recommends choosing lean cuts, trimming any visible fat and using low-fat cooking methods.

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Why Is Eating Meat Important in Your Diet?

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Meat-free diets are popular with many health-conscious diners and those with ethical concerns about consuming animal products, but eating meat can be important in your diet. Meat has many nutritional, disease-prevention and even weight-loss properties, according to Elisa Zied, a registered dietitian in New York City and the author of...

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Meat is an essential part of a healthy diet

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“How red meat can beef up your Nutrition by David Hu Ms” -Libin Yuan

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“How red meat can beef up your Nutrition by David Hu Ms” -Libin Yuan

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It's time to put the red light on the misperceptions on red meat. Red meat has tons of nutrition benefits and can be part of a healthful and balanced diet. Here are 3 science-based facts about why red meat can actually benefit your health:

1. Red meat is an excellent source of high- quality protein

Lean red meat is one of the best protein sources that we can eat, containing roughly 23-28g per 4 ounce serving. The protein found in red meat, as with all other animal products, is considered a complete protein source. This means that it provides our bodies with all the essential amino acids in the right amounts.You might just associate protein with building bigger muscles, and although that's true, protein serves an immeasurable number of other functions within our bodies. It is responsible for the growth and repair of all our tissues, organs, and bones. Proteins facilitate oxygen and nutrient transport through our bloodstream and across cell membranes. Proteins are essential for DNA replication, which is important for cellular turnover, and are key components of your immune system, which is critical for fighting disease! Protein also plays an important role in weight loss and weight maintenance as it contributes to the feeling of being full. Of course, you can also meet your protein needs with vegetarian sources like soy if you choose to not eat meat. Just remember, there are a variety of delicious protein sources to fit any taste, budget, or preference.

2. Red meat is full of vitamins and minerals

Red meat also contains a variety of highly bioavailable nutrients, including heme iron, zinc, and B-vitamins. Studies have shown that heme iron (iron that is attached to a heme protein) and zinc from animal sources are more easily transported across the membranes in our gut, aiding in the absorption of these minerals. This means that we get more bang for our buck in terms of iron and zinc from red meat. Iron is necessary for red blood cell health, oxygen transport, enzyme production, and mental development. Zinc, on the other hand, plays an important role in boosting immune function, regulating hormones, and healing wounds. The high riboflavin content of red meat further facilitates proper iron storage and utilization in our bodies. Additionally, red meat is a source of a variety of antioxidants, such as carnosine, anserine, and lipoic acid among others. These antioxidants protect against cellular damage and dampen excessive inflammation.

3. Red meat as part of a heart healthy diet

Although most of us associate red meat with high saturated fat, it turns out that less than half of the fat content in lean red meat is actually saturated. Still, choosing lean meats (those that are lower in total fat) over those that are higher in fat is a good way to reduce our intake of saturated fatty acids. Lean meats are defined if they have no more than 4.5 g saturated fatty acids, no more than 10 g of total fat, and less than 95 mg cholesterol. There are 29 cuts of beef that meet government guidelines for lean. For pork or beef, choose cuts with the names round or loin in the name, or 95% lean ground beef. Additionally, a large portion of these saturated fats is stearic acid, which is known to have no effect on cholesterol levels. The other 50% of the fat content in red meat is composed mostly of monounsaturated fats (MUFAa) with small amounts of polyunsaturated fats (PUFAs), omega-3, and omega-6 fatty acids. Studies have shown that diets including lean beef every day can be effective in lowering cholesterol as part of a standard heart-healthy diet. In the end, if you are choosing your red meat sources wisely and trimming excessive fat, there may be great health benefits such as lower cholesterol as a result.

The misperceptions about red meat are misguided and these three facts based in science should help put an end to any confusion. As with any food, portion control is important to make sure you are staying within your daily calorie budget. A 3 oz serving of meat is equal to a deck of cards so that imagery might be helpful to limiting your portions. However, feel free to enjoy red meat as part of a balanced diet knowing that you are getting important nutrients and vitamins.

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It's time to put the red light on the misperceptions on red meat. Red meat has tons of nutrition benefits and can be part of a healthful and balanced diet. Here are 3 science-based facts about why red meat can actually benefit your health:
 

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