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costi ricavi
teoria ed esempi

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come ricavare le equazioni e rappresentare la funzione profitto

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Schema riassuntivo domanda-offerta, costi-ricavi ed esercizi senza soluzioni 

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Schema riassuntivo domanda-offerta, costi-ricavi ed esercizi senza soluzioni 

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Funzione costo, costo medio, costo marginale; funzione ricavo

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Funzione costo, costo medio, costo marginale; funzione ricavo

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solo teoria

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Ottimizzazione profitto, costi; scelta tra più alternative

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Ottimizzazione profitto, costi; scelta tra più alternative

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esempi svolto max profitto (caso continuo e caso discreto); teoria ed esempio svolto min costo unitario; scelte tra più alternative

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revenue and cost functions-demand and supply functions

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revenue and cost functions-demand and supply functions

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exercise with solutions break even point

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exercise with solutions break even point

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In the world of economics, there are many terms associated with production and costs. When most people hear the term average cost, its meaning may seem a bit vague at first. People may wonder which cost is being questioned and how to calculate it. When professionals speak about average cost, it's generally about production costs. In this article, we discuss the key elements of average cost, how to calculate it, the difference between average cost and marginal cost, and why it's important.

Average cost is the total amount of all production costs divided by the quantity of output produced. This number is also known as average total cost or unit cost. In simpler terms, it measures how much a business has to spend on each unit or product of output produced. You can determine the ATC with a simple equation:
Average Total Cost = Total Cost of Production / Quantity of Units Produced Related: Economic Demand: Definition, Determinants and Types
Average cost includes fixed costs, like those necessary for production, that remain the same no matter the output. An example of a fixed cost is the building space and equipment used to assemble a product. Average cost also includes variable costs. Examples of variable costs are specific parts needed to build a product, which may increase or decrease according to output.

If you're looking to assign a value to inventory, you'll calculate the cost of goods available for sale divided by the number of units available for sale. This is the step-by-step guide you'll want to reference when calculating the average cost per unit:

To find the fixed cost of production, start by looking at a business's profit and loss account typically found in its annual financial reports. Fixed cost can include insurance premiums, setup costs, normal profit, depreciation, rent expense, selling expense, loan payments and more.

You can learn the variable cost of production by again referencing the profit and loss account. Some instances of the variable cost of production include things like raw materials, manufacturing labor directly related to production, packaging and more.

Now that you've found these totals, you can determine the average total cost of production by adding together the total fixed cost and total variable cost. For example:
Average Total Cost = Average Fixed Cost + Average Variable Cost
Once you've reached this step, you're ready to determine the quantity of units produced. You can find this number by referencing invoices, checking with your accounting department or calling the company that produced the units.

Now you're ready to find the average total cost of production. Calculate this cost by dividing the total cost of production that you computed in step three by the number of units that were produced (learned in step four). You will do this with the following average cost formula:
Average Total Cost = Total Cost of Production / Quantity of Units Produced
Let's check out an example of the average total cost formula:
Pretend that you have started an online business selling luxury winter hats for women. The total fixed and variable cost to produce these hats amounted to $5,000. You ended up producing 300 winter hats. Using the formula, your average cost per hat is $16.67. Of course, you'd want to sell those hats for much more than it cost to produce them to make money. And you would not want to sell them for less than that, or you'd be losing money. Here is an example of the equation: $16.67 cost per unit = $5,000 production cost / 300 winter hats Average Cost Per Unit = Total Production Cost / Number of Units Produced Related: The Value of Increasing Your Business Vocabulary
Average cost differs from marginal cost in one key way. Average cost is all about the total cost per unit of output, whereas marginal cost concerns the cost involved in producing an additional unit of a product or service. Marginal cost is often known as the cost of the last unit and can be calculated in three basic steps:

The level of output typically causes a cost increase or decrease. When you're subject to a higher output, you can expect higher costs. Similarly, a lower output results in a lower cost, which necessitates the presence of variable costs. As we mentioned, these variable costs are related to the output level directly and correspond with an increase or decrease in levels. Step one's fixed costs can increase this number too if a certain output level is attained. To calculate the change in cost, you follow this simple formula:
Change in cost = new cost - old cost
To get this calculation, all you must do is follow the same formula. That's because it works in the same way. When the output levels increase, the supply increases. Just deduct the old quantity from the new quantity to get the change in quantity. This is the simple formula:
Change in quantity = new quantity - old quantity
When you're selling units of something, your marginal cost will vary depending on the output. The marginal cost of selling 16 sunglasses instead of 15 will likely differ from the marginal cost of selling 201 units instead of 200. This is the final formula for determining marginal cost:
Marginal cost = change in cost / change in quantity Related: 6 Essential Accounting Skills
Knowing ATC is critical when making pricing decisions because any prices below ATC will result in a financial loss. Understanding the importance of average cost will also help you understand how it works for long periods of time. For example, cost fluctuates depending on seasonal demand and production efficiency. When you calculate the average cost, it normalizes or levels out the cost per unit of production overall.

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Economics 101: How To Calculate Average Cost

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In the world of economics, there are many terms associated with production and costs. When most people hear the term average cost, its meaning may seem a bit vague at first. People may wonder which cost is being questioned and how to calculate it. When professionals speak about average cost, it's generally about production costs.

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video molto semplice su come calcolare in modo intuitivo il costo medio

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video molto semplice su come calcolare in modo intuitivo il costo medio

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Average total cost (i.e. ATC) is defined as the sum of all production costs divided by the quantity of output produced. That is, it measures how much a firm has to spend on each unit of output it produces. This concept is extremely important to understand how firms set prices and how they compete with each other. Thus, if you are studying economics, chances are you'll have to calculate ATC sooner than later. Fortunately, that's a pretty straightforward process. We can calculate the average total cost by following three simple steps: (1) find total quantity, (2) calculate total cost, and (3) divide total cost by total quantity.

1) Find Total Quantity

First of all, we need to find the quantity of output (Q). Q represents how much of a good or service a company is producing and attempting to sell on the market. In many cases, the correct value for Q will be provided as part of the problem you are trying to solve. If not, then you may have to obtain Q by carrying out profit maximization first. For now, we'll assume that Q is provided.

To give an example, let's say you own an Italian restaurant, called Best Pizza. Next month, you plan to sell exactly 1,000 pizzas. Thus, the quantity of output Q is equal to 1,000. No complicated calculations needed here.

Note that while total quantity usually has the abbreviation of a capital Q, it sometimes appears as a lowercase q. This might happen in problems or models where the goal is to emphasize the fact that the company is small.

2) Calculate Total Cost

The next step is to find the total cost of production. Total cost (TC) is made up of two parts: fixed cost and variable cost. Fixed cost (FC) is fixed and constant just as the name suggests. It remains the same no matter what quantity of output is being produced. Meanwhile, variable costs (VC) increase as quantity rises. That means, higher output results in higher variable costs. To compute total cost, we simply need to add up fixed costs and variable costs, i.e. TC = FC + VC.

With that being said, let's revisit our Best Pizza case. To run this restaurant you have to pay rent. This is an example of a fixed cost (at least in the short run). Assume your monthly rent is USD 2,500. You'll have to pay that amount regardless of the number of pizzas you sell. Meanwhile, you also have to buy ingredients to make pizza (flour, water, cheese, etc.). These are variable costs. For the sake of this example, we'll assume that the ingredients needed for one pizza cost exactly USD 2.00 and there are no other fixed costs than the rent you pay. Thus, if you plan to sell 1,000 pizzas, your variable costs will add up to USD 2,000 and total cost is USD 4,500 ( i.e. 2,500 + 2,000).

3) Divide Total Cost by Total Quantity

Finally, we can calculate the average total cost by dividing total costs by total quantity (i.e. ATC = TC/Q). This step is necessary because we are looking for the average total cost, i.e. the cost per unit. As mentioned above, this value is critical for companies when it comes to pricing decisions. If they sell their products at a price below ATC they will incur a financial loss.

To illustrate this, let's calculate ATC for Best Pizza. By now we know that Q = 1,000 and TC = USD 4,500. If we plug these numbers into the formula above we find that ATC = USD 4.50 ( i.e. 4,500/1,000). That means, for your target level of output the average cost of one pizza will be USD 4.50. So to make a profit, you will need to sell your pizzas at a price higher than USD 4.50. If you sell it for less than that, you will essentially lose money.

Please note that ATC may vary as the level of output changes. This has to do with increasing or decreasing marginal costs. This is explained in more detail in our post on how to calculate marginal cost.

In a Nutshell

Average total cost (i.e. ATC) is defined as the sum of all production costs divided by the quantity of output produced. It describes the cost per unit of output. To calculate ATC, we can follow a three-step process: (1) Start by finding the quantity Q, which is the number of units the company is producing. (2) Calculate total cost by adding fixed cost and variable cost together. (3) Divide total cost by total quantity to obtain ATC.

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How to Calculate Average Total Cost - Quickonomics

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Average total cost (i.e. ATC) is defined as the sum of all production costs divided by the quantity of output produced. That is, it measures how much a firm has to spend on each unit of output it produces. This concept is extremely important to understand how firms set prices and how they compete with each other.

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video1 in cui spiega come calcolare e interpretare  costo medio e costo marginale in un caso discreto

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video1 in cui spiega come calcolare e interpretare  costo medio e costo marginale in un caso discreto

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we hear the Khan Academy are working on some type of a software project and we need to think about what's the optimal number of programmers we should hire at least think about how much how much productivity we're getting per programmer when we are working on this software project and so what I've done over here this is a spreadsheet so I'm not going to be able to write I'll only be able to type this is a Microsoft Excel right over here in this column I have the different numbers of programmers and then let's say based on other studies or industry studies or past experience this tells us how many lines of programming code we can get per month and obviously lines of code isn't maybe the best way to measure things because someone can write good lines or bad lines of code but let's just say this is one way of measuring productivity for software engineers so the first thing I'm going to think about is what am i what are my fixed cost so what am I going to spend no matter how many software engineers I hire for this project and for the sake of this video my fixed cost will be the office space and the electricity and let's assume I just have an office that can accommodate any number of these programmers so that's a fixed cost that's not going to change depending on the number of programmers that I have and then the other fixed cost let's say I have a product manager for this project and I'm going to pay her salary to essentially help spec out what this brought what this what the software should should actually do so her salary is let's say ten thousand dollars a month and then another five thousand dollars a month in office space for everybody so it's going to come out to fifteen thousand dollars a month and that's not going to change regardless of however many programmers I have so I'm going to go into Excel I'm going to this little bottom right right over here and I'm going to drag that down and so it's going to be fifteen thousand dollars in fixed costs no matter how many programmers I end up hiring now the variable costs let's assume that the full is sometimes people well let's just say that the full compensation for a programmer is ten thousand dollars a month so if you include if you include the cost of their salary if you include the cost of their health insurance you include you know the extra goodies that they will eat from the company kitchen whatever it might be so it's going to be ten thousand dollars a month so my variable my total variable costs are going to be ten thousand dollars times the number of program murmurs so here I'm going to write equals equals and I'm going to write it's going to be $10,000 per programmer times that little snowflake guys pressed shift eight to get that snowflake times and I could say times whatever is in that cell so you see it's cell d7 and actually let me scroll this over so that you can see so you can actually see the cells so that is cell d7 and let me press ENTER so that's cell so it's $10,000 times d7 which is this one right over here and I just selected that and I can press ENTER and right now that's nothing let me scroll over so we can see everything a little bit a little bit better let me scroll over a little bit to the there you go I'm having trouble okay there you go now what are going to be my total cost my total costs are my fixed cost plus my variable costs so that's going to be equal to and I'm just using my I'm just using my arrow keys right now it's going to be equal to f7 right that's lf7 f7 plus this one plus my variable cost my total costs are my fixed cost plus my variable costs and so it's $15,000 and actually I can make this true for every row over here and this is one of the really useful things about a spreadsheet is I defined this I defined this cell as being $10,000 times whatever this cell or times whatever this cell is right over here and so what I can just do is I can just scroll take that drag that all the way down and for every one of these is going to take $10,000 times the cell that's essentially three to its left so now this is going to be 10,000 times d8 this will be 10,000 times d9 or and look look at that so that's we could see right there 10,000 times d9 and you could if you click on there you can actually see what the formula is 10,000 times d9 so by dragging that I was able to get the right formula all the way down now the total cost for every row here is going to be 2 to the left plus 1 to the left and so if I drag that down it will do that for every row over here so now this is 25 is the 15 plus the 10 five is 15 plus 90,000 our total costs are fixed costs plus variable costs now let's think about the average fixed costs and the average fixed cost we're going to think about it in fixed costs per line of code produced and over here line of code produced is zero so we're going to get you're going to divide by zero which is undefined so we could leave that blank but we could fill this one in so our total fixed cost this is going to be our total fixed costs which is cell f8 I just use the arrow keys to select f8 divided by divided by our total lines of code per month so divided by our total lines of code per month and so that gives me three dollars and seventy five fixed costs per line of code and then I can scroll I can do the same thing that I've been doing before I can drag this down and then we see what the fixed cost is so at any given point if I take the fixed cost $15,000 divided by the lines of code I get a dollar 38 and this actually makes sense because the more the more programmers I add on to this project the more lines of code I get I'm using the same fixed costs I'm using the same project manager I'm using the same office space so the cost of that project matter that office space gets spread out amongst or along more and more code so the cost the fixed cost per line of code goes down as we add more and more programmers now what is the what is the average variable cost so once again the variable cost is going to be whatever the variable cost is per lines of code per month so we're when we're talking about average time what average cost per line of code and maybe I should so this is per line of code per let me write it over here per line of code and I can even say per month per line of code per month actually I wanted that to spread out more but the way I've set it up so let me scroll down whoops let me I'm having issues here all right well these are all per lined average average lines of code per month and so let's think about what happens with our variable costs so I'm also going to start here because I don't want to divide by 0 so in this month our total variable costs were $10,000 and our total lines of code are going to be $4,000 g8 / e8 and so average variable cost per line of code is two dollars and fifty and then what happens so let's do that for every row over here so when we do it for every row something interesting happens our average fixed cost went down because we're taking the same cost and we're spreading it out amongst more code but our average variable costs went up as we added more programmers per line of code it actually costs us a little bit more on average per line of code and that's actually if you look here as we add the incremental lines of code we get programmer is actually going down that first programmer by themselves she can write 4,000 lines of code but then that second programmer is only not you're not getting to 8,000 you're getting to 3,000 and probably because they have to coordinate with each other they have to plan a little bit more it's not all in one person's head and then when you have the third one you're not even adding three thousand lines of code you're only adding two thousand lines of code and this is actually a real phenomenon that actually happens in companies the more people you add on to a product project obviously they can maybe do more work but there's also more coordination there's going to be more meetings there's going to be more interruptions and so each person's individual productivity is going to go down and this isn't to say that this third coder is somehow worse than the first coder all of their on average all of them are now only going to produce 3,000 code 3,000 lines of code a month when maybe individually they could have each perused 4,000 lines of code but they have to spend some of their energies now coordinating it and so that's why our average variable cost per line of code is going up as we add more and more people's getting us incremental e it's getting it's becoming more and more expensive on average to write that line of code and if we look at average total cost that's going to be and this is once again this is per line of code it's going to be our total costs h8 h8 divided by the total lines of code per month so on if we just hire one engineer we're going to have six dollars and 25 spent per line of code and that's because a lot is spent on and these are this is actually just the sum of these two right over here and then let me get let me make that true we set that formula for every row and so we see something interesting when we start to hire you engineers were able to spread out our fixed cost even though our average variable cost per line of code or going up our fixed costs are going down so we're it's actually we're getting a little bit of a benefit because we're spreading our fixed cost per line of code but then it starts to get expensive again because as we said the more people you have working on the project they're going to have spend more time coordinating with each other and and maybe even undoing each other's work or redoing each other's work as opposed to just writing the actual software and now let's think about the marginal cost the marginal cost the best way to think about is what is the incremental cost of that next set of line of code so one way to think about it so this is going to be how much more you're spending divided by how much more code you're getting so how much more so for example how much more and this is going to be once again per line of code so once again so we're getting we're spending when we go from zero programmers to one programmer we're going from $15,000 of total costs to 25,000 dollars of total cost so we're going from we do in parentheses 25 if we're going from 15 to 12 to 25 that means we're increasing our expenditure by 25 minus 15 and so that's why I'm doing H 8 minus H 7 so that's how much more we're spending in expenditures and then how much more code are we getting well we're getting we're getting four thousand minus zero lines of code and the reason why I'm doing the formula this way so that when we drag it down on all the rows the formula will be right because it's relatively taking the right cells into account and the reason why I'm saying it's average is because this is saying what's the incremental cost per line of code for this first 4,000 lines of code and then we can go from there and we can drag it down and now this tells us the incremental cost per code for the next 3,000 lines of code and once again it got a little bit more expensive because we're getting a little bit less efficient as we add more and more people and there's something very interesting that happens here and you might have even noticed it in these numbers over here we actually get a negative marginal cost and this isn't meaning that when we add more lines of code somehow we're getting money it's actually saying that as we spend more money or actually we're actually killing lines of code because at some point if you have too many people on this one project team they actually start killing each other's productivity and you can even see it right here in the numbers when we had seven people were able to add eleven thousand four hundred lines of code but then the eighth person because of coordination it's not that this eighth person is incompetent it just when you have eight people in a team everyone's productivity goes down so that you're only able to produce eleven thousand two hundred lines of code and that's why you had this negative marginal cost now when you get to eight people all of a sudden buy at spending more dollars you're actually destroying some of what you are actually trying to produce so what I wanted to do here is just to really get you behind the numbers and really maybe give you a little sense of how you can actually do this with a spreadsheet and get you thinking a little bit about how a firm's cost structure might actually work

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Fixed, variable, and marginal cost (video) | Khan Academy

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we hear the Khan Academy are working on some type of a software project and we need to think about what's the optimal number of programmers we should hire at least think about how much how much productivity we're getting per programmer when we are working on this software project

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Marginal cost, average variable cost, and average total cost (video) | Khan Academy

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In this video we calculate the costs of producing a good, including fixed costs, variable costs, marginal cost, average variable cost, average fixed cost, and average total cost.