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3) Fertilization: Nucleus of the pollen grain travels down the tube to the ovule

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3) Fertilization: Nucleus of the pollen grain travels down the tube to the ovule

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Once the pollen tube forms, the pollen grain, carrying the generative nuclei, will be able to fuse with the egg cell.

The fused cells will form the zygote.

Two sperm nuclei will be released into the ovule through the micropyle.

Micropyle: a small opening in the ovule's wall through which the male gamete passes through

The Formation of Gamete

Gamete: haploid sex cell

Male gamete: the pollen grain

It is a tough-walled single cell containing two nuclei:

1. Tube nucleus         2. Generative nucleus

Female gamete: the egg cell

It is a large cell found in the ovule's embryo sac

Works Cited:
Arthur Cronquist (n.d.). angiosperm - Inflorescences | plant. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/plant/angiosperm/Inflorescences

leavingcertbiology.net (11 May 2017.). Chapter 28: Sexual Reproduction in the Flowering Plant. leavingcertbiology.net. Retrieved from http://leavingcertbiology.net/chapter-28-sexual-reproduction-in-the-flowering-plant.html

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1) Fertilization: Pollen grain grows a pollen tube down the stigma

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1) Fertilization: Pollen grain grows a pollen tube down the stigma

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A pollen grain from a flowering plant / angiosperm contains a vegetative cell and a reproductive cell containing two nuclei.
One of the nuclei from the reproductive cell splits to form two sperm cells. Within the pollen grain, the sperm cells are protected from the environment (e.g. UV radiation) during the transfer from the anther (where pollen is produced) to the stigma, the entry point to the female part of the flower.

Transfer of pollen between flowers is usually done by the wind or pollinators (e.g. bees, beetles). However, once pollen reaches the stigma the female ovules or egg cells are found below the style of the flower in the ovary, surrounded by plant tissue and the sperm cells are unable to reach the egg.

In order for the sperm cells in the pollen grain to reach the ovary, the pollen grain swells by absorbing water and produces a pollen tube to transport the sperm cells down the style to ovary.

SUMMARY
When a pollen grain lands on the stigma of a flower of the correct species, a pollen tube begins to grow.
It grows through the style until it reaches an ovule inside the ovary. The nucleus of the pollen then passes along the pollen tube and fuses (joins) with the nucleus of the ovule. This process is called fertilisation.

FIGURE 1
Pollen lands on stigma and grows a pollen tube
FIGURE 2
The pollen grain travels down the pollen tube to fertilise the female nucleus of theovule
FIGURE 3
The fertilized ovule develops into a seed. After fertilisation the female parts of the flower develop into a fruit:
the ovules become seeds. the rest of the carpel becomes the fruit

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9. 3 - Dissection of Flowers (PRETTY PICTURES)

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9. 3 - Dissection of Flowers (PRETTY PICTURES)

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Process: The pollen nucleus fuses with the ovule nucleus.
Some definitions:
Micropyle: The micropyle is a tiny pore in the testa opposite the tip of the radicle. It admits water to the embryo before active germination.
Hydrolysis: A chemical process of decomposition involving the splitting of a bond and the addition of the hydrogen cation and the hydroxide anion of water

Once the pollen tube breaks into the ovule through the micropyle, the micropyle bursts into the embryo sac. One of the male nuclei then fuses with the nucleus of the egg to create a diploid zygote inside the embryo sac. This is known as True Fertilization or Syngamy.
At the same time, the other male nucleus goes further into the embryo sac to fuse with the secondary egg nucleus. This creates a Triploid Nucleus called the Primary Endosperm Nucleus. The process where there is formation of Primary Endosperm Nucleus is a type of nuclear fission called triple fission
After the eggs are fertilized, the ovary then swells up and turns into a fruit. Fruits that have multiple seeds need multiple pollen grains to fertilize each ovule.
The pollen tube growth is controlled by the vegetative cytoplasm. In order to digest the female tissue, the pollen tube creates hydrolytic enzymes as it travels down towards the stigma and style to act as a nutrient source for the pollen tube

Works Cited:
Hydrolysis. (n.d.). Retrieved May 4, 2017, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hydrolysis
Mackean, D. G., & Mackean, I. (n.d.). Plants. Seeds and Germination. Retrieved May 05, 2017, from http://www.biology-resources.com/plants-seeds-01.html
T. (n.d.). Plant Fertilization. Retrieved May 05, 2017, from http://biology.tutorvista.com/plant-kingdom/plant-fertilization.html

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Definition and Benefits of Micropropagation

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Definition and Benefits of Micropropagation

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Kew Gardens, London

Oxford Definition
The breeding of specimens of a plant or animal by natural processes from the parent stock.

Definition
Utilizing plant tissues as a process of growing plants under sterile conditions. By creating a tissue culture, it serves as a practice of plant conservation and reintroducing species, through micro-propagation.

Uses
By taking pieces of plant tissues and growing them on nutrient agar under sterile conditions. Some plants are later stored in liquid nitrogen for long-term storage, while some are later reintroducing them into the wild.

Benefits

1. Benefits tough situations where plants can't be grown from seeds.

2. Benefits tough situations where it is difficult to grow using conventional horticultural techniques.

3. Plant populations that are threatened can be propagated in the lab and be reintroduced.

At the Kew Gardens
At present there are more than 80,000 seed collections in the bank; representing over 37,600 species, from almost 5,800 genera and more than 330 families.

Example
The ten most well-represented families in the collection are listed in the table here. The numbers in brackets are the % of the total number of accepted names in The Plant List.

More stuffs at: http://www.kew.org/science/collections

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Aspects of Meristem - Elongate + Differentiate

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Aspects of Meristem - Elongate + Differentiate

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Auxin are what causes elongation in the roots and apex; it differs in function due to the effect of gravity + sunlight

Gravitropism:

Promotes more growth @ apex

growth works against gravity --> needs to be supported

Limits growth @ roots

growth works with gravity --> needs to be limited

Phototrophism:

Auxin is transported from the brighter to darker side (creates concentration gradient)

More growth in the side not getting sunlight in order for it to face the source of light (refer to page 426, Fig. 10)

Elongation occurs as more layers of cells get pushed to the surface (primary growth)

These cells are differentiated while a group of cells at the center remain meristematic

Phototropins are proteins that absorb light (photoreceptors)

Conformation changes after light absorption

Receptors bind to the cell + controls gene transcription

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1. A lot of skills is needed to maintain and handle compared to conventional techniques

2. "Shoot-tip derived plants may show genetic instability"

3. Cost of equipment is very high in large scale production

4. Procedure can vary, and trial and error may be required if there are no reviews for that specific plant type

5. May have error in the identity of organisms after culture

6. Infections and mutations will continue through generations if not careful

7. Decreases genetic variability (Less diverse)

8. "Virus-free plants are more susceptible to the same virus when exposed again"

Works Cited:
Advantages and Limitations of Micropropagation. (2015). Retrieved April 30, 2017, from http://agriinfo.in/?page=topic&superid=3&topicid=1921

Jha, N. (2015, October 16). Micro propagation: Technique, Factors, Applications and Disadvantages. Retrieved April 30, 2017, from http://www.biologydiscussion.com/biotechnology/clonal-propagation/micro-propagation-technique-factors-applications-and-disadvantages/10732

Tissue Culture- A Boon or a Bane. (n.d.). Retrieved April 30, 2017, from http://www.seedbuzz.com/knowledge-center/article/tissue-culture-a-boon-or-a-bane

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After reading Serene's and Kai Yen's:

Micropropagation/Tissue Culture is a way to grow plants by using a fresh part of the plant that still has a lot of meristematic cells. This is found in the areas where the first stage of growth occurs. The plants are grown in a sterile condition where temperature and light are carefully controlled. It is easier to grow plants using micropropagation instead of growing them through seeds and cuttings

My oversimplified definition:
Plant cloning

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Undifferentiated cells:

Creates every cell the plant uses

Plays an important role in the creation and placement of new plant organs

The process is called "Pattern Formation"

During pattern formation, the meristematic cells interpret where they are at the plant and decide what they need to be

There are two types of growth: Primary and Secondary

Primary:

Cell division and cell elongation in the apical meristem (Tip of plant)

Increases shoot and root length

Makes plant taller

Allows plant to have access to more water

Secondary:

Increases diameter of root and stems

Makes plant sturdier/more stable

Allows plant to grow taller

Some plants have a thing called intercalary meristem

Helps regeneration of parts of the plant that have been damaged by predators/environment

Plant growth is regulated by plant hormones (Refer to Kai Yen's Padlet)

Works Cited:
Rouse, S. T. (n.d.). Meristems. Retrieved April 30, 2017, from http://www.biologyreference.com/Ma-Mo/Meristems.html

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Controlled by Hornones

Plants grow larger via cell division and cell elongation. Throughout the life of the plant, the rate of cell division and cell elongation in the meristems is regulated by plant hormones.

Cytokinin and auxin are also important growth regulators.

Auxin stimulates growth by inducing cell elongation, while cytokinins are thought to stimulate both cell division and cell elongation.

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Definition & Benefits of Micropropagation

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Definition & Benefits of Micropropagation

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North Carolina University, USA

Definition:
Micropropagation is a way of removing meristematic cells under sterile conditions. The meristem is a special part of the plant where the first phase of growth occurs. Meristematic tissue is placed in a test tube in a special growing medium in an incubator, where temperature and light are carefully controlled. The cells begin to form a new plant. Producing plants in this manner is known as tissue culture.

Issue:
By 1995, the North Carolina sweetpotato industry was beginning to lose market share. Seed root quality had declined to the point where growers were producing poor crops and undermining demand for North Carolina sweetpotatoes.

What they did with it:
Grow sweet potatoes, strawberries, blackberries, raspberries.

Benefits:
1. Helped the vegetation industry to bounce back from the crisis that happened in 1995, as the sweet potatoes market was losing its market share.
2. Today, they are using Micropropagation on other fruits to ensure  the industry will continue to supply the public.
3. Strict standards are designed to protect the plants from viirus infection.

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9.3: Definition & Benefits of Micropropagation

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9.3: Definition & Benefits of Micropropagation

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(San Diego Zoo, USA)

Definition:
Micropropagation is the process in which any part of a plant, from single cells to its flowers, is “in vitro” regenerated under sterile conditions. It is easier to grow certain plants by micropropagation instead of growing them from seeds or cuttings.

Note: “in vitro” translates directly to “in glass”

What they did with it:
They grew particular plant species using micropropagation (specifically orchids, bamboo, cycads, and coral trees).

Benefits:
1. Large quantities of plants can be produced from it, making it useful in plant conservation, like in reintroduction projects and fieldwork.

2. More rare plant species can be produced. This makes the illegal activity of destroying habitats by collecting them in the wild less desirable.

3. Trade between institutions is facilitated
| institutions.

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(Doing mitosis continually)
Explanation:
Meristems are essential for the growth and development of the plant because it is the primary site of mitosis. Cell division occurs continuously because it is the function of cells in the meristem to produce new cells.

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https://padlet.com/solitaryfreedom/ib_bio_xylemhexagons

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·       Epidermis Tissue: fruits, leaves

o   Covers the outer surface of plants

o   Composed of epidermal cells, closely packed cells that secrete a waxy cuticle that aids in the prevention of water loss

·       Ground Tissue:

o   Comprises the bulk of the primary plant body.

§  Parenchyma

§  Collenchyma

·       Vascular:

o   Distributes solutes and water throughout the body, where resources are distributed= where the veins are located

o   Transports food, water, hormones and minerals within the plant

§   Xylem

§  Phloem parenchyma

§  Cambium cells.

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1.     Increase surface area for water and mineral ion absorption from the soil

Root hairs

2.     Hydrogen bonding between water molecules allow for the formation of water columns.

Cohesion
3.      Main photosynthetic tissue, allows transpiration and stores various food material

Leaves
4.     Pair of cells that can open or close the stoma and thus control the amount of transpiration

Guard cells

5.     Pores that allows for carbon dioxide for photosynthesis to diffuse in and oxygen to diffuse out

Stomata

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Transpirational Pull (Process in Xylem Structure)

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Transpirational Pull (Process in Xylem Structure)

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Transpiration (Process in Xylem Structure)

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Transpiration (Process in Xylem Structure)

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In Class Video: Plant Parts and Functions

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In Class Video: Plant Parts and Functions

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Covers the major parts of plants, their shoot and root systems as well as the complex and simple tissue of plants. Macro and microstructure of the root, stem, and leaves are covered and types of growth and water transport is also addressed.

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Covers the major parts of plants, their shoot and root systems as well as the complex and simple tissue of plants. Macro and microstructure of the root, stem, and leaves are covered and types of growth and water transport is also addressed.

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Plant Parts and Functions video

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Brief: How Carbon Dioxide Comes into Play

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Brief: How Carbon Dioxide Comes into Play

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carbon dioxide comes through the stomata

makes its way through gaps of spongy mesophylls

reaches to the palisade layer for photosynthesis

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(Transport in the System of Plants)

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Structure Of The Leaf | Plant | Biology | The FuseSchool

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Absorption of light

Glucose production (photosynthesis)

Gas exchange

Water conservation

Transport of water

Transport of products/materials

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Transpiration Stream vs. Transpiration Pull

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Transpiration Stream vs. Transpiration Pull

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Transpiration stream is basically is flow of water via the xylem vessels, from roots and stems to the leaf.

Transpiration pull is the suction force that draws the water from the roots and stems to the leaf.

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Cuticle:

Traps gasses

Upper Epidermis

Absorbs sunlight

Palisade Cells

Glucose production (photosynthesis)

Vascular Bundle

Contains a hollow tube that has xylem and phloem

Xylem

Transport of water

Phloem

Transport of products/materials

Lower Epidermis

Contains spongy mesophyll

Stomata

Gas exchange

Guard cells

regulate when stomata opens/ closes

The stomata only opens when the leaf is fully hydrated. When the leaf lacks water they close.

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Cuticle and Epidermis

Upper Epidermis:
Palisade Mesophyll
Spongy Mesophyll

Vascular Bundle:
Xylem
Phloem

Lower Epidermis:
Stomata
Guard Cells
Cuticle (Some plants only)