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written by: Amanda Smith * edited by: Elizabeth Stannard Gromisch * updated: 7/12/2012

Accountability is one of the most important concepts to teach a child. Teaching students how to respect one another and work together as a team will help them succeed throughout their academic and working career. Here are seven steps to help create an accountability system in the classroom.

1. Redefine Group Work

Almost all students have had some experience working in groups. They have most likely worked in groups to complete large projects or worked with partners to complete smaller assignments. As the first step in creating a classroom accountability system, it is important to educate your students about what it really means to work in groups. Teach them how working with others holds them accountable. It is also a good idea to set up standards for group work in your classroom. Encourage students to hold each other accountable by limiting the amount of teacher facilitation. This will help students find ways to solve problems on their own and support one another during the process.

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7 Easy Steps for Creating a Classroom Accountability System

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Check out these seven easy steps to teach your students how to be accountable in the classroom. This is essential in helping students grow and succeed in their future endeavors. It is also a great way to create trust and team building in your classroom and may even cut down on bullying.

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1. Enough time is provided and their is plenty of time to ask questions if the student needs to.

2. Collaboration between the students and the teacher as well.

3. Be there for the students and be approachable, so they aren't afraid to come to you.

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Read "For the Public's Health: The Role of Measurement in Action and Accountability" at NAP.edu

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Read chapter 4 Measurement and Accountability: Despite having the costliest medical care delivery system in the world, Americans are not particularly heal...

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Pick the Brain | Motivation and Self Improvement

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You're working on a big project. It's taking weeks. Even months. And you're going it alone.

At first, you were excited. Jazzed. You poured energy and commitment into it along with your heart and soul.

But admit it. After a while, you lost focus. You had a week or two when you didn't take action, and it fell to the back of the queue. You didn't just feel alone with the project, you felt lonely.

Now you're behind. Really behind.

And you have no idea how you're going to catch up.

Use Peer Pressure to Your Advantage

But there is a way to maintain your commitment. To keep your energy and enthusiasm high, and feel like you're no longer alone.

We're taught to think of succumbing to peer pressure as a flaw, but our dislike of letting others down can actually be a powerful motivator.

An accountability group-in which a small bunch of people share their goals, report back on their progress and hold each other accountable-is a fantastic way of getting things done.

A great example of this is the annual "" (National Novel Writing Month) event, during which participants commit to writing 50,000 words in a single month. Accountability is built in: daily word count updates, regional writing groups, forums and buddies are all designed as ways to check in and report back.

But this tactic doesn't just work for writing novels; it can be applied to any sort of goal from losing weight to running a business. You can create your own accountability group to create the check-ins and support that will enable your version of success.

And you can set the group up right from the start to make it as effective as possible, ensuring that everyone achieves their goals without friction, hassle or extra work.

To get serious results, you need to keep just a few things in mind.

1. Don't (Just) Invite People You Like

It can be tempting to invite only your closest friends, or those you get along best with at work. But sometimes friends have a hard time offering constructive criticism, and a little distance and objectivity from group members can be helpful-when encouraging each other to focus more, for instance, or calling each other out on a lack of progress.

Accountability groups may not suit everyone-they work best for people who are driven to meet external obligations (try Gretchen Rubin's 'Four Tendencies' framework to see how you and your potential group members respond to expectations). So keep this in mind when extending invitations to join your group.

And don't just invite friends-go out to your wider network. Use social media and any interest groups you belong to, and set clear expectations (see #2 below) so that invitees can screen themselves in or out. You're only looking for 6-8 people, so choose wisely.

2. Ensure Everyone Knows What to Expect (and What's Expected)

When you invite people to join your accountability group, describe its purpose clearly so everyone understands the "psychological contract" of the group.

Keep its focus front and center, and be sure you are inviting in people who will actively participate.

Also be clear about what the group isn't. For example, mastermind groups are commonly confused with accountability groups.

In a mastermind (an idea based on Napoleon Hill's 1937 book Think and Grow Rich), the group meets regularly to share and work on challenges using the power of the group.

In an accountability group, the focus is more individually action-oriented. Members may suggest ideas or solutions to issues, but the main purpose of the group is to encourage action by holding each other accountable to their set goals.

A written description or group contract can be helpful. For example: "The group's goal is to encourage regular action from each member. Everyone will post weekly goals, and report back at the end of the week on what they did and didn't achieve."

3. Take Charge and Keep Everyone on Board

Although the collective energy is what makes this method work, someone does need to run the group. Someone must:

* structure it

* ask the group for updates

* give a gentle nudge if a member hasn't checked in for a week or two

* ask members diplomatically if they really want to be there if they've stopped checking in.

This requires drive, commitment and probably a small dose of bossiness-balanced-with-tact. It isn't for everyone . . . but there are advantages. For me, running my own group has meant that I'm not only committed to my goals as a member, but I also know I'd be letting people down if I didn't put up the posts to let everyone share their updates.

If you want to contribute rather than run the group, find someone else to do this for you to ensure that consistency is maintained.

4. Avoid Letting Style Outweigh Accessibility

Don't overcomplicate things.

While setting up a recent group, I got lost down a rabbit hole of possibilities and I held everyone up by a week or so while I did research on the growing number of "accountability apps" out there (e.g., or ). These apps can be powerful, game-ifying your experience or helping you to structure it, but they can also add another layer of complexity.

Know your audience. In my group, for instance, not everyone uses their mobile devices religiously but everyone has a Facebook account. I resisted at first, wanting to use an environment specifically designed for accountability, but in the end I realized that clarity, accessibility and ease of use were more important than style and fun features. So I set up a private Facebook group, and this has proven extremely effective.

5. Keep Your Setup Simple...

...and stay simple.

In my current group, I put up a thread on Mondays saying something like "Accountability Goals Week Commencing <date>: Post your goals here."

I state the date so that people know which thread is the right one for the week, and I use a photo to make it pop out of their newsfeeds. (I also use bad jokes like posting a picture of a mountain and asking "what mountains are you going to climb this week," but that may just be me...)

On Sunday I post another photo with this: "Goals update week commending <date>: How did you do this week? Share with the group here."

This sharing makes up 80% of the activity in the group. We try to keep it clean and distraction-free (no cat posts here!) so that our purpose-achieving our goals-is always at the heart of the group.

We've had the occasional thread on "learnings," about what kind of goals have and haven't worked for us in terms of the group and goal-setting, and sometimes the odd question or support thread. This is an opportunity to connect with others and know you have a supportive community around you while not heading off into the weeds.

6. Keep Goals Smart and Stupid

Help the group shape personal goals that are "SMART":

S pecific - Rather than "work on my course," say "work on module 2 of my writing course."

M easurable - Can you tell when you have achieved the goal? For example "complete module 2.1 and 2.2 of my online writing course."

A ttainable - The goal should be achievable (even if it's a stretch).

R elevant - Each small goal should relate to whatever your bigger goals are.

T ime-bound - Be clear when you will complete each goal.

But also keep each goal "stupid"-as in, "Keep it Simple, Stupid." Overly complex goals can drain your energy while you work out what it was you were supposed to be doing.

A "stupid" goal, with too many different aspects which also aren't specified clearly, might be: "complete and do well in this week's course module, get home admin tasks done, and do rest of my day job work. Get better at presentation skills and do non-fiction reading." A SMART goal would be "By Friday, complete modules 2.1. and 2.2, submit homework and get feedback from my professor on my performance."

7. Agree on Consequences (but Tolerate Failure)

The group's energy is crucial, so if you have people who have stopped checking in, ask them if they're still interested in being there. Try setting up the consequences of non-participation up front. For example, my group has a "rule" (pinned to the top of our Facebook page) that "if you don't post anything for two weeks (unless you've told us all you're away), then you'll be gently released from the group."

But be flexible. Everyone will have bad weeks where they don't achieve their goals, or busy weeks where they fail to check in. A small nudge may be enough to help them refocus. If not, give them some private feedback to ask if they really want to be there.

Get Serious Results (and Keep Your Sense of Humor)

Run well, an accountability group can be fantastic for making progress over time on your goals. It will force you to look strategically at the week ahead and establish clear priorities that you can check back in on if you start to procrastinate or become overwhelmed about what to do next.

And after a bad week, you'll have a community of people who will support you, and will remind you to wipe the slate clean.

That way you can start each week fresh, with a smile.

A great accountability group will help you keep on top of your projects, not only letting you catch up but get ahead.

Choose your group wisely and set it up well, and you will be ready to achieve some serious results.

Ellen Bard's mission is to help you shine more brightly in business and life. She has a fancy degree, works with those who want to be productive but still kind to themselves, and loves all things that sparkle. For more ideas on self-compassionate productivity, grab her free pdf "101 Ideas to Boost Your Creativity, Have Fun, and Play. "

Erin shows overscheduled, overwhelmed women how to do less so that they can achieve more. Traditional productivity books-written by men-barely touch the tangle of cultural pressures that women feel when facing down a to-do list. How to Get Sh*t Done will teach you how to zero in on the three areas of your life where you want to excel, and then it will show you how to off-load, outsource, or just stop giving a damn about the rest.

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How to Set Up an Accountability Group and Get Serious Results

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You're working on a big project. It's taking weeks. Even months. And you're going it alone. At first, you were excited. Jazzed. You poured energy and commitment into it along with your heart and soul. But admit it. After a while, you lost focus.

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Digital story about sharing in the classroom. Made for Social Studies Methods class Spring 2013.

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new sesame street. sesame street season 44

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Sesame Street: Big Bird sings "That's Cooperation"

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Even the proudest of the peacocks knows when to give an inch. Listen to Big Bird's wisdom and start cooperating today. Subscribe to the Sesame Street Channel here: http://www.youtube.com/subscription_center?add_user=SesameStreet For more fun games and videos for your preschooler in a safe, child-friendly environment, visit us at http://www.sesamestreet.org Sesame Street is a production of Sesame Workshop, a nonprofit educational organization.

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References Online Resources Return to Small Group Home

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Getting the students involved!

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While increasing participation is an obvious goal in courses that include frequent discussions and small-group work, it is also important in a lecture course. In short, if only a few students participate by volunteering answers, asking questions, or contributing to discussions, class sessions become to some extent a lost opportunity to assess and promote learning. You can improve student participation in your course by devoting time and thought to shaping the environment and planning each class session. Furthermore, the way in which you interact, both verbally and non-verbally, communicates to students your attitude about participation.

Ideally, the goal of increasing participation is not to have every student participate in the same way or at the same rate. Instead, it is to create an environment in which all participants have the opportunity to learn and in which the class explores issues and ideas in depth, from a variety of viewpoints. Some students will raise their voices more than others; this variation is a result of differences in learning preferences as well as differences in personalities. For example, some students who do not speak often in class are reflective learners, who typically develop ideas and questions in their minds before speaking; others are shy students who feel uncomfortable speaking in front of groups (at least initially). Many students who frequently volunteer to contribute are active learners, who typically think while they speak. The instructor's goal is to create conditions that enable students of various learning preferences and personalities to contribute. To reach this goal, you will need to take extra steps to encourage quiet students to speak up and, occasionally, ask the more verbose students to hold back from commenting in order to give others a chance.

This handout is divided into the following sections:

Shaping the Environment
Planning
Listening and Responding
Links and References for Increasing Student Participation

Reserve a classroom that will accommodate the kind of participation you have in mind. Starting on the first day of class, arrange the room in a way that encourages active engagement. When it is time to reserve a classroom, keep in mind not only the number of student chairs you will need, but also whether these chairs should be moveable. If you lead frequent discussions, consider moving the chairs into a circle or "U" to ensure that students can see, and speak to, one another. If you are teaching in a large lecture hall, consider asking students to move so that they are concentrated near the front of the room. Move the chairs back to their standard configuration at the end of class (in University-managed classrooms, see the diagram posted near the door).

Make clear from the beginning your expectation that students will participate. On the first day of class, explain what you see as valuable about class participation. Indicate that you want to do all you can to ensure that the classroom dynamics and activities support full participation, including calling on students who do not raise their hands and sometimes asking frequent contributors to allow others to have a chance. Ask students to inform you if you can make any changes to improve the classroom dynamics and rates of participation.

On the first day of class, give students a clear idea of what to expect regarding participation. If you plan to lecture each day with pauses for questions and discussion, do so on the first day; if you plan to lead more extended discussions, then do so on the first day.

Consider whether you will assign a grade to students' performance in discussions so that they understand the importance of participating. If you do plan to grade participation, inform students of the specific criteria that you will use. For example, will you evaluate the frequency and quality of their contributions, as well as how effectively they each respond to others' comments? Will you include in each participation grade the student's performance on informal writing, online discussions, minor group projects, or other work? Grading student participation is especially important, and usually essential, in discussion courses (see Teaching with Discussions).

Learn and use students' names. Students will be more engaged if they believe that you perceive them as individuals, rather than as anonymous members of a group. Encourage students to learn one another's names, as well; this strategy will increase the possibility that they will address one another by name and direct their comments to one another, not just to you.

In a discussion course, assign to your students some of the responsibility for increasing participation by all. For example, on the first day of class, you might tell students your goals for class participation (e.g., informed and lively discussions in which everyone participates) and ask them to come up with a list of guidelines that will help the class reach this goal. Typically, they will generate excellent guidelines such as "do not interrupt others when they are talking" and "critique the ideas; don't criticize the person." Post this list on the course Web site and hand it out in class. Students who feel invested from the beginning in making the discussions successful will be more likely to work together to increase participation.

Consider requiring students to lead discussions or to submit discussion questions before class. Provide guidance and assess student performance on these tasks (assigning a score, for example, that forms a part of the class participation grade.)

In discussion courses in which you are having trouble getting students to participate, consider asking students to submit anonymous comments on class participation as well as suggestions on how to get more people involved; often, they will let you know that there are problems with the classroom dynamics that you may not see yourself (such as that some students resent the "domination" of discussion by one or two others) or that the structure of the discussions has become too predictable or formulaic.

Use a variety of teaching methods, including lectures, discussions, and small-group work. If you are teaching a lecture course, set aside time during each lecture to ask and answer questions, to ask students to solve a problem, or to discuss an issue. Pause every 15-20 minutes for this purpose. When students learn to expect these opportunities for discussion or questioning, they will listen more actively to the lecture. If you lecture for 45 minutes before you pause for questions or discussion, your students will have been taking notes for so long that they may find it difficult to switch modes quickly. Furthermore, they may well have forgotten questions, comments, or unclear concepts from the earlier parts of class (see Teaching with Lectures).

If you are teaching a discussion course, integrate short lectures into the lesson plan in order to introduce concepts, clarify and order ideas, and help students make connections. Use small-group discussions, informal writing assignments, and online discussions before or at the start of class to prompt student thinking about the discussion topic. These strategies can be effective ways to provide reflective learners and shy students a means of developing ideas that they can then contribute to the class discussion. Commenting on the insights that quieter students contribute in small-group discussions and on informal writing assignments and online discussions can encourage them to speak up in the larger group; you might comment on a student's written work, for example, "this analysis is insightful; the entire class would benefit from hearing your ideas more often" (see Teaching with Discussions).

Organize each class session to include opportunities throughout to ask and answer questions; prepare initial and follow-up questions ahead of time. Use questions to assess student learning, to signal to students which material is the most important, and to help students advance their knowledge and thinking. (For a discussion of strategies for formulating questions, see Asking Questions to Improve Learning). Encourage students to ask questions throughout the class (approximately every 15 minutes), not just at the end.

If grading student participation, plan to give students a preliminary participation grade, as well as a brief written evaluation of their performance. If you will grade class participation, give students preliminary grades as early as 3-4 weeks into the semester and at midterm so that they will know where they stand. Your written evaluation can be designed to encourage the quiet students to talk more often and the verbose students to hold their comments to give others a chance to participate).

Use verbal and non-verbal cues to encourage participation. Do not rely on the same volunteers to answer every question. Respond to frequent volunteers in a way that indicates that you appreciate their responses, but want to hear from others as well. Move to a part of the room where quiet students are sitting; smile at and make eye contact with these students to encourage them to speak up. By the same token, when frequent volunteers speak, look around the room rather than only at them to encourage others to respond (see below).

Reduce students' anxieties by creating an atmosphere in which they feel comfortable "thinking out-loud," taking intellectual risks, asking questions, and admitting when they do not know something; one of the best ways to do this is to model these behaviors yourself.

Give students time to think before they respond to your questions. Do not be afraid of silence. Give students 5-10 seconds to think and formulate a response. If 10-15 seconds pass without anyone volunteering an answer and the students are giving you puzzled looks, rephrase your question. Do not give in to the temptation to answer your own questions, which will condition students to hesitate before answering to see if you will supply "the answer." Patience is key; do not be afraid of silence. The longer you wait for students to respond, the more thoughtful and complex those responses are likely to be.

Often, there is at least one student in every class who will quickly raise her or his hand to answer nearly every question. If you consistently call on this student, those who require more time to formulate answers will simply learn to wait for this student to answer. (See Asking Questions to Improve Learning.)

Listen fully to your students' questions and answers; avoid interrupting. Resist the urge to interrupt when you think you know what the student is going to say or ask. Often, well-meaning and enthusiastic instructors make incorrect assumptions and leave their students' actual questions unanswered or misrepresent what the students had planned to say.

Provide specific, encouraging, varied responses. Point out what is helpful or interesting about student contributions. Pick up on comments that were made but not discussed. Do not use the same, standard praise to respond to every comment. When students hear "good point" again and again, they start to lose motivation. Ask follow-up questions to prompt students to clarify, refine, and support their ideas. When a student gives an incorrect or ill-conceived answer, respond in way that challenges the student to think more deeply or to reconsider the evidence. The best way to shut down participation, and learning, is to embarrass a student.

Repeat student responses to summarize or clarify ideas. Use this strategy when a student's comments are vague or "all over the map," but do not over-use it, leading students to rely on you to "translate" or validate their ideas.

Redirect comments and questions to other students. Encourage students to respond to one another, rather than merely to you. When a student is speaking, look around the room, not just at the student who is speaking; making eye contact with other students lets them know that you expect them to be listening and formulating responses. Provide students with a model of civil discourse by demonstrating respect for, and interest in, the views of others. Learn to limit your own comments. Particularly when facilitating a discussion, hold back from responding to every comment; otherwise, students will learn to wait for you to respond rather than formulating their own responses.

Place the emphasis on student ideas. Encourage students to share their ideas and use those ideas (with attribution) whenever you can. Referring back to a comment made by a student in an earlier class demonstrates that you have thought about and appreciated what your students have to say.

Active student participation does not happen naturally in university courses; it must be carefully planned and encouraged. Set aside time throughout the semester to assess student participation in your course and to develop strategies for improvement; administer midterm student evaluations to help you with this process. Consider asking a colleague to observe your class; often, outside observers can discern patterns that hinder participation but that may not be apparent to participants. Take notes during and after a semester so that you have a record of what went well and what you would like to change the next time you teach the course in order to increase student participation.

Davis, Barbara Gross. Tools for Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1993.

"Questioning Strategies." Center for Teaching Excellence. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. http://cte.illinois.edu/resources/topics/methods/strateg.html.

"Encouraging Interaction in Science and Engineering Classes." The McGraw Center. Princeton University. https://mcgraw.princeton.edu/node/661.

"Facilitating Discussions in Humanities and Social Science." The McGraw Center. Princeton University. https://mcgraw.princeton.edu/node/656.

McKeachie, Wilbert, et al. McKeachie's Teaching Tips: Strategies, Research, and Theory for College and University Teachers. 12th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License. © 2009, Washington University.

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While increasing participation is an obvious goal in courses that include frequent discussions and small-group work, it is also important in a lecture course. In short, if only a few students participate by volunteering answers, asking questions, or contributing to discussions, class sessions become

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Motivating the students!!

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Making sure everyone is participating!!!

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Making sure everyone is participating!!!

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Dr. Ken Shore's
Classroom Problem Solver

Class participation is an important aspect of student learning. When students speak up in class, they learn to express their ideas in a way that others can understand. When they ask questions, they learn how to obtain information to enhance their own understanding of a topic.

Class participation also is a valuable learning tool for teachers. Through students' questions, you learn what they don't understand, and can adjust your instruction accordingly.

Just as speaking in front of a group doesn't come easily to many adults, however, speaking up in class is a struggle for many students. That struggle might manifest itself in the classroom in a variety of ways -- not volunteering to answer questions, not asking for help, not speaking up in small-group activities, even not talking in class at all.

As a teacher, you will have greater success spurring a student to speak up if you can figure out why he is reluctant to participate. Whatever the reason for his reticence, your role is not to force him to speak; doing so will more likely make him clam up than open up. Your role is to provide a supportive, encouraging climate that helps him feel more comfortable, more confident, and less fearful of speaking up.

WHAT YOU CAN DO

Create a climate in which students are encouraged to ask questions. Make it clear to students that you want them to ask questions. Point out that their questions help you by indicating where you might not have been clear. Emphasize that there is no such thing as a dumb question, and make sure to not allow students to ridicule a classmate's questions.

Take the student's questions and comments seriously. The student's reluctance to ask a question or volunteer an answer might be due to a lack of confidence. Help him gain the courage to participate by showing respect for his contributions and giving thoughtful answers to his questions. Listen attentively while he is talking; do not interrupt him. Try to find something positive to say about his comments, such as "That's an interesting point. I never thought about it that way" or "That's a really creative idea."

Orchestrate his speaking experiences to ensure success. Consider the following strategies:

Ask questions you are confident he can answer.

Let him know before class that you will be calling on him for a specific question so he can prepare an answer. If you arrange to call on him, do it early to lessen anxiety.

When he does respond, reinforce his comments with positive statements and an encouraging smile.

If you ask a question and he blanks out or says nothing, restate the question (perhaps in a yes or no format), or lead him toward the right answer by providing a clue. Or you might let him off the hook by giving the answer, while saying something like "That was a tough one," and then moving on.

Be patient when waiting for a response. The student might need more time than normal to organize his ideas and formulate a response. As a result, he might be slow about answering a question. If so, give him extra time by waiting for an answer a little longer than you usually do. If other students are clamoring to answer, ask for their patience as well.

Monitor class participation. Monitoring will help you determine who is and who is not participating, and learn whether a particular student is improving. A simple way to keep track of student participation is to keep a seating chart on your desk and place check marks next to the names of those students who do contribute.

Provide opportunities for the student to practice his communication skills by taking the time to talk with him privately. The idea is to help the student feel more comfortable talking with one person so, in time, he will feel more confident speaking up in front of a group. Find a few minutes every so often to talk with him about his favorite activities and interests. Or speak with him when he is doing an art project or a writing assignment. Ask questions, so he can explain what he is doing, but be sure the questions are non-threatening.

Give the student responsibilities that require communication. You might have to nudge the student to assume those responsibilities, but don't hesitate to push a little if you are confident he can do them successfully. For example, you might encourage him to be a class messenger, a teacher assistant, a peer tutor, or the leader of a small group working on a topic he is familiar with. Make sure to praise his performance even if he struggles with the task.

Observe the student for evidence of a speech or language problem. A student might be reluctant to speak up in class because he has a speech defect or difficulty putting his thoughts into words. Articulation problems usually are readily evident to teachers, however, difficulties in language usage can be more difficult to identify. If your observations suggest a communication problem, bring that to the attention of your school's speech-language specialist, who might want to do an evaluation.

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Class participation is an important aspect of student learning. When students speak up in class, they learn to express their ideas in a way that others can understand. When they ask questions, they learn how to obtain information to enhance their own understanding of a topic.

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Teamwork Theory: Tuckman's Stages of Group Development
Probably the most famous teamwork theory is Bruce Tuckman's "team stages model".
First developed in 1965, Tuckman's model is widely known as a basis for effective team building. Yet how many people really know how to use it?

Below we explain Tuckman's model and offer some fresh insights on how to take it further.

But before reading on why not take the chance to "team-up" with our great range of e-guides . The complete set is now available at half price!

You'll find advice, tips, tools and new models which you won't find anywhere else. You can read about the real benefits of our teams bundle in our article on team building activities. Or why not download your half price offer right now! You're in good company with satisfied customers from over 30 countries around the world. Click the image below to view some of our most popular e-guides:

Tuckman's model is significant because it recognizes the fact that groups do not start off fully-formed and functioning. He suggests that teams grow through clearly defined stages, from their creation as groups of individuals, to cohesive, task-focused teams.

Our e-guide: Build a Better Team, has been specifically designed to help you understand and use a team stages model. It contains a tool for each stage to help you build a high-performing team - as quickly as possible.

Tuckman's Teamwork Theory

Tuckman describes working with a team of social psychologists, on behalf of the U.S. navy. The team studied small group behaviour, from several perspectives. In doing so, Tuckman reviewed 50 articles on group development and noticed that there were two features common to these small groups: the interpersonal or group structure, and the task activity. From this he identified that groups evolved into teams via four common stages.

Firstly an orientation, testing phase which often led to a period characterized by a degree of conflict. This then generally resolved itself, leading to a more socially cohesive phase. Finally, groups settled to a functional phase, during which they focused on role-relatedness. To summarize these four phases, Tuckman coined the oft-quoted terms: "forming", "storming", "norming" and "performing".

Tuckman's teamwork theory is best illustrated on a graph which shows the link between group relationships (the horizontal axis) and task focus (the vertical axis). The optimal or "performing" position is reached when relationships have developed within the group and it has started delivering with a clear focus on the task.

However, Tuckman's ideas clearly indicate that it takes time to reach the "performing" stage, and it's normal for these teams to go through ups and downs as they develop relationships. Particularly in the early period, which is perhaps why Tuckman called it the "storming" phase!

The 4 Phases of Tuckman's Teamwork Theory

Forming:
The initial stage of team development during which individuals have not yet gelled together. Everybody is busy finding their place in the team, sizing each other up, and asking themselves why they are here! Find out more in our articles: Team Building Techniques and Teamwork Tips. The first offers advice on starting a new team while the second will help you take over an existing team (perhaps a far more common situation).

Storming:
People begin to see themselves as part of a team. However at this stage they may challenge each other, and the team leader, about such things as what the team is doing, and how things should be done. As the stage title suggests, conflict and confrontation typify this stage, as differences surface. This may result in some loss of performance or focus on the task, as the diagram illustrates.

Norming:
This is the phase where team members start to come together, developing processes, establishing ground rules, clarifying who does what, and how things will be done. This phase is characterized by a growing sense of "togetherness". Find out more about both the Storming and Norming phases in our article: Team Building Concepts.

Performing:
This is the final stage where increased focus on both the task, and on team relationships, combine to provide synergy. Performance is delivered through people working effectively together. We have written two articles to further develop this stage. Team Building in the Workplace will help you build a performing team. Characteristics of Effective Teamwork will help you and your team sustain that performance.

The value of Tuckman's model is that it helps us understand that teams evolve. It also helps us to consider how they may encounter different problems at different stages of their development.

One limitation of the model may be that it makes team building appear too linear and sequential. Although it's a useful analytical tool, we must remember that some teams may "loop" around in their development.

For example, not all teams evolve smoothly through Tuckman's stages but may yo-yo between norming and storming until they either begin to function, or are disbanded! Regardless of limitations, all well-conceived models can be useful in helping us to understand and better manage our circumstances.

Beyond Tuckman

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Tuckman's famous phases are part of a teamwork theory based on stages of team development. His theory may have gained popularity partly due to the catchy labels for each of his stages.

However, it also provides a useful and simple way to think about how we humans interact in team situations. Firstly by illustrating that it's normal for teams go through stages as they develop. Secondly, by highlighting the need to manage different aspects of team behaviour at each stage of that development. The beauty and usefulness of Tuckman's model is perhaps in its simplicity.

Team development theories such, as Tuckman's group development stages, recognise that teams develop through different stages, from forming through to performing.

Whilst these theories give a useful understanding of different team requirements at different times, there are a number of questions that aren't particularly well answered by the models. For example:

How should you lead at the different stages of a team's development?

How do you identify when you are progressing through a stage?

How does the team develop in the organisational setting?

How is it affected by other outside influences?

The theory of group stages alone doesn't answer these questions. To do so, and thus to build a more robust teamwork concept, ideas about team leadership and outside factors need to be introduced. We've done just this in our STAR team performance model. You can see how this model applies to group stages in: Stages of Team Development.

This is the first of ten articles in our teamwork series. But for some practical tips on using teamwork theory, look at our great-value guides (below), or at our Team Building Exercises for all team stages.

Team Building Exercises and Team Stages

The exercises in this guide are grouped according to our team stages model. Remember, each team is unique and needs to be led through several developmental stages. These include:
Creating a new team or taking over an existing team

Exercise 1: Being a TEAM together

Exercise 2: True or false

Exercise 3: Who does what in a team?

Exercise 4: Getting the mix right

Exercise 5: Doing something for the first time

Exercise 6: Two years from now

Developing a team

Exercise 7: A clearer vision

Exercise 8: Mad, sad or glad

Exercise 9: Seeing the bigger picture

Exercise 10: Positive feedback

Exercise 11: Conflicting views

Performing and achieving results with a team

Exercise 12: Did you notice?

Exercise 13: Limiting beliefs

Sustaining team performance

Exercise 14: Scarce resources

Exercise 15: Keeping going

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Probably the most famous teamwork theory is Bruce Tuckman's "team stages model". First developed in 1965, Tuckman's model is widely known as a basis for effective team building. Yet how many people really know how to use it? Below we explain Tuckman's model and offer some fresh insights on how to take it further.