# data[].attributes.body
Hypothesis:

The amount of rainfall experienced in East Coast Park, Singapore, is greatest in the month of December, as compared to February.

Explanation:

Singapore experiences both the northeast and southwest monsoons, however, long-term climate records of rainfall in Singapore show that the wettest months are experienced in November and December. Conversely, the driest month occurs in February. This is due to the north-east monsoon (both dry and wet phases), with strong winds originating from China in the northern hemisphere during the early dry phase. Singapore lies near the equator, and is affected by the migration of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). In December, the ITCZ moves toward the southern hemisphere (experiencing summer). This creates an area of high pressure in the northern hemisphere (low temperatures in winter), and winds will blow across South Asia and the South China Sea, picking up moisture and bringing it to South-east Asia. However, in the month of February, there is little rain experienced in Singapore, but as it is still part of the monsoon season, it brings dry winds to Singapore.

Development of plan:
1. Primary data

Amount of rainfall: carried out using a rain gauge

Sampling method: I would carry out systematic sampling by placing a rain gauge on the berm of the shore (a fixed distance of 10m away from the shoreline). I would carry this out on the beaches of areas C, D and E of East Coast Park, on specified days of the week (thrice a week), throughout the months of December and February. This ensures that more accurate and reliable data can be collected.

The rain gauge also has to be placed in an open area, preferably one that isn’t covered by tall trees or pavilions. This is to ensure that no interception of rainfall can occur.

Wind speed & direction: carried out using an anemometer

Sampling method: I would also utilise systematic sampling (10m away from the shoreline) to prevent any bias from occurring.

The area in which the data is being collected should not be blocked

2. Secondary data

Previous long-term climatic records of Singapore (rainfall and wind)

Other relevant investigations and case studies on the effect of monsoons & rainfall in Singapore

Average amount of rainfall and wind speed experienced during monsoon periods

Information on how monsoons affect the Southeast Asian region in general

Risk assessment:

There may be sharp objects present in the sand, so footwear needs to be worn at all times to prevent injury.

During the data collection process, there might be a possibility of heavy rainfall, which can be associated with lightning and thunder. To mitigate this, one should check up on the weather forecast and seek shelter when it starts to rain, to prevent getting struck by lightning.

Strengths:

Comparison between the rainfall of 2 months, one representative of the dry phase and the other, the wet phase - both making up the monsoon season

Data is collected in different areas of the park

Limitations:

Depending on the width of the shoreline, accurate results may not be able to be gathered and a different sampling method would have to be adopted.

There are many external factors that may affect the collection of data, such as how the shoreline might not be a flat surface, and if the rain gauge were to be placed on it, it would topple.

Depending on the human activity of the area on that day, they might affect the readings of the rain gauge, such as toppling it over or tampering with it.

If data is collected on only 3 days a week, the data might be inaccurate and cannot account for the rainfall in the entire month.

Ethics:

The collection of data should not compromise on human activity on the beach, or raise any environmental concerns.

# data[].attributes.body
Research Question:
What is the impact of the Northeast monsoon on rainfall received in East Coast Park?

Hypothesis:
The amount of rainfall received in East Coast Park is higher in December than in June

Explanation for hypothesis:
The Northeast monsoon occurs from mid-November to March, with December being the month of the winter solstice in the Northern Hemisphere. Thus, making it likely that monsoon winds are the strongest during the December period. The winds also blow over the South China Sea and thus carry more moisture towards Singapore. However, in June, the month of the summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere, the monsoon winds blow from the Southwest direction, where it first meets the Sumatran islands, thus bringing less rain to Singapore.

Data Collection:
Primary Data:

Rain Gauge:
I would use a rain gauge to determine the amount of rainfall received at East Coast Park in December and in June.
Wind Vane:
I would also use a wind vane to determine the wind direction.

Method:
I would use systematic sampling (every 10m) along an identified line where the areas are very open. This is to ensure that data will not be interfered with. In addition, data collection points are spread across space as the rainfall could vary over space.  I will also measure the amount of rainfall for 7 days in December and in June, 3 days before the solstices, the day of the solstice itself as well as the 3 days following the solstice.

Secondary Data:
I would also look online, at MSS' website for rainfall information as well as wind directions over the 7 days that I collect my primary data. The corroboration of this data with the primary data I collected would also prove the accuracy of my primary data.

Risks:
Rain gauges may be tipped over by people especially since the park will have its visitors. This can be managed by cordoning off the area where the rain gauge is placed. If rainfall is very heavy, the rain gauge could overflow. This could be managed by researching on the amount of rainfall received by ECP in previous years during these times and using a rain gauge that is sufficient. The weather on that day might not be suitable for the collection of data: lightning alerts. This cannot really be avoided but to prevent facing such risks, one could check the weather forecast.

Limitations: If it is too close to vegetation, the leaves on trees might direct water into the rain gauge. If the skies clear up immediately after it rains, the amount of time spent in the sun before data collection could result in some evaporation of water. If the rain falls hard enough, it could also bounce off the ground and into the rain gauge but this is rather unlikely to occur. These could all cause inaccuracies in data.

Strengths:
The data would cover a larger area than just one point. The identified line of sampling would also help to manage the limitations of the data collection as it tries to stay away from vegetation as far as possible (to prevent any redirection of rain). However, in the case of any miscalculations or inaccurate information, the rain gauge might not be big enough to collect all the water that falls into it, causing it to overflow and thus causing the data to be inaccurate as it was limited by the rain gauge.

Research ethics and limitations:
It would be best if the research area is a place less frequented so that it does not affect the people who visit the park. Permission will also have to be requested from the relevant authorities (NParks) to conduct research in the park.

# data[].attributes.body
Research Question

How does the Sumatra Squalls which occur during the SW monsoon affect diurnal rainfall?

Rationale

Singapore lies in the tropical region where it receives high annual rainfall due to high insolation received all year round. However, there are monthly variations in rainfall received as it experiences the Northeast (NE) and Southwest (SW) Monsoon with the shifting of the Inter-tropical convergence belt (ITCZ). There is also variation in average diurnal rainfal range during the Northeast and Southwest Monsoon as he change in direction of trade winds result in an increased frequency of squall formation during the SW Monsoon occurring between June to September. Winds blow from the southeasterly to the southerly direction with occasional strong gusts of winds known as the ‘Sumatra Squalls’. When these squalls blow across the South China Sea as part of the Southwest Monsoon, they pick up more moisture  and bring intense convectional rainfall to Singapore. These periods of rainfall are characterised by their short duration and thunder, mainly occurring during the afternoon when the overhead sun is directly above the Earth’s surface and Singapore experiences the highest insolation rates within the day.

Planning

1. Data required:

2. Primary Data:

Rainfall received per hour:

> Equipment: rain gauge, timer

> Sampling: Spatial and systematic sampling where rain gauge is placed along a line transect at intervals of 5m along the coast of Area C in East Coast Park; allows for a greater area to be covered and an average be taken so that a better representation of rainfall received is obtained

Wind Speed:

> Equipment: Anemometer

> Sampling: Spatial and systematic sampling; taken every hour at the middle of the line transect 2m away from the shoreline along the foreshore zone; allows for an hourly recording that corresponds to rainfall received per hour and allows for an average to be taken

1. Secondary Data:

Monsoon periods (when they occur):

Average wind speed during monsoon periods

Average monthly rainfall received during monsoon periods

Weather Forecasting of when squalls occur

Risks

1. Struck by lightning when measuring wind speed during thunderstorm

> measure wind speed just before the thunderstorm occurs; avoid standing under a tree while measuring; use weather forecasting

1. Injured when walking on foreshore zone to place rain gauge

> always wear covered shoes when walking along the foreshore zone; be wary of surroundings and objects around (e.g broken glass bottle)

1. Drowning when measuring wind speed

> avoid going within 1m of the shoreline; research on high tide levels and when they occur

Strengths & Limitations

assesses the effect of Sumatra squalls on diurnal rainfall variation as the Sumatra squalls are not well documented and their effects investigated

difficult to measure rainfall into the night

Sumatra squalls are largely unpredictable, form overnight and causes rainfall in predawn to midday —> difficult to measure rainfall during the Sumatra squalls in predawn + hard to pinpoint next Sumatra Squall and time of next rainfall

# data[].attributes.body
Hypothesis:
East Coast Park receives more rainfall in December than in June
Explanation:
-December is the time when the ITCZ (an area of intense low pressure) is positioned near to Singapore (Southern hemisphere) and also the time the Northeast monsoon passes Singapore.
-Winds from regions of higher pressure pick up moisture from the oceans and deposit them at the ITCZ, sending showers to Singapore, which is in the path of the winds.
Equipment:
-wind vane to determine wind direction
-rain gauge to collect and measure amount of rainfall
Sampling:
Systematic sampling
Justification:
-Data will be collected at regular intervals and the average will be taken
-Rain gauges will be placed at open areas in the park. Wind vanes will be used to determine direction of wind
-Rain gauges will be checked on once a week weekly for 4 weeks
-The average amount of rainwater collected will be found
Risks:
-Rain gauges can be tripped over by members of the public. They can be placed at areas away from where park-goers frequent.
-There is a risk of bad weather eg lightning. Students can download the sg lightning app to monitor weather conditions first before going down to the site
Strengths:
Rain gauges are placed throughout the park
Limitations:
-Rain gauges might overflow hence affecting the results
-The day the rain gauges are placed may happen to not rain

# data[].attributes.body
a) Write down your Research Question or Hypothesis

Hypothesis: Rainfall in East Coast Park is highest from December to early January

b) Explain how you have come up with your research question or hypothesis

The Northeast monsoon occurs from December to early March. The early Northeast monsoon (wet phase) occurs from December to early January. This period of time is characterized by monsoon surges, or strong wind episodes that cause major rainfall events.  This occurs when the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is positioned near to Singapore.

Data collection

Primary Data:

Rain Gauge (measure amount of rainfall)

Wind Vane (determine wind direction)

I would use systematic sampling. I would mark out an area of East Coast Park and focus my investigation on that area. I would measure the amount of rainfall and the wind direction every 2 weeks.

Secondary Data:

I would use the Internet to conduct online research to find out more about Singapore’s climate as well as the effects of the Northeast monsoon on rainfall. I would check to see if the expected results corroborate with my actual results.

Risks: Rain gauges may overflow or be tipped over. Hence, making the volume of collected rainfall inaccurate. There is also the possibility of lightning during the collection of data.

Limitations: The amount of rainfall in the rain gauges must be collected over a consistent period of time in order for the data collected to be accurate. However, external forces like people accidentally tipping over the rain gauges can still make the data inaccurate.

# data[].attributes.body
Hypothesis: There is a greater amount of rainfall receive in West Coast Park in December than June in 2017.

Explanation:
In June, the sun is overhead the Tropic of Cancer, thus the ITCZ would also shift Northwards to the point of most intense heating. As Singapore lies North of the Equator, due to a higher angle of incidence and a decreased distance travelled by the sun's rays due to a decreased thickness of atmosphere, a great amount of heat would be brought about to this region, heating up the land masses. As these land masses heat up, the air above it will also subsequently warm, thus expanding and rising, creating an area of intense low pressure. Conversely, there would be a higher pressure in the Southern hemisphere, and thus winds would blow from a higher pressure in the Southern hemisphere, picking up moisture from the Indian Ocean, bring rain as the Southeast monsoon. As the winds cross the Equator, they are deflected to the right due to the Coriolis force, bring the monsoon rains as the Southwest monsoon. However, as these rains cross Indonesia first, most of the rain would have been deposited in this region, resulting i less rain over Singapore.

In December, the ITCZ would shift Southwards, bringing more intense heating to the Southern hemisphere. Conversely from what was aforementioned, now the air above the land in the Southern hemisphere head up and rise and expand creating an area of low pressure. Thus winds from a higher pressure in the Northern hemisphere blow to a lower pressure in the Southern hemisphere, picking up moisture from the Western side of the Pacific Ocean. As the winds are deflected to the right in the Northern hemisphere, there rains, without the presence of any other landmasses or orographic barriers would be deposited on Singapore.

Therefore, I think there would be more rainfall in December than June in West Coast Park.

Primary data:
- A rain gauge is needed to collect the rainfall in the area.
- A wind vane is needed to check on the direction of the wind.

Secondary data:
- Research using online or hardcopy medium can be done on the amounts of rainfall received in the various months. Additionally, research can also be conducted about how much rainfall the different monsoon bring to the region per month.

Method:
To carry out the investigation, I would conduct spatial sampling - in particular line sampling, by placing the rain gauge and wind vane in an open area, such as the big field, in West Coast Park. An open area is required as there would not be trees to intercept the rainfall during these months, as well as the wind, to result in an inaccurate reading and data collected.
Line sampling is used as this would provide a greater set of data collected as there would be a few rain gauges present. Additionally, due to the linear fashion of the rain gauges, this would also provide a comparison per rain gauge among the 2 months, and hence, an ever greater analysis can be carried out.

The amount of rainfall and wind direction can be collected every day within the month, and then an average can be taken to find the month rainfall received as well as the general direction of the wind.

After both sets of data are collected, you can then compare the sets of data on whether the Easterly or Westerly winds would bring more rainfall, and then proceed to accept or reject the hypothesis.

Risks:
- Should the rain gauge not be embedded deep enough into the soil, it may be tipped over, and affect the accuracy of the total rainfall reading.
- If the rainfall is placed below high objects such as trees, rainfall would be intercepted, leading to inaccurate readings as well.
- As the investigation has to do a lot with rainfall, a consideration to take note of is the lightning alert during these periods of time. This can be done be checking the weather forecast a day before, to ensure safety of the investigators.

Successes:
- West Coast Park is an area with relatively open space that is located along the coast of Singapore.

Limitations:
- In order to carry out such an investigation over a prolonged period of time, investigators may require permission from those in charge of running the park, and this may take a long time to approve or reject.

# data[].attributes.body
Hypothesis:
Rainfall is consistent in East Coast Park all year round as wind direction remains the same.
Data Collection Method:
Primary Data:
-Rain gauge (to measure amount of rainfall)
-Wind vane (to measure wind direction)
-Place rain gauges in an open space where the collection of rain will not be affected by any landforms or plants. Place them at intervals of 100m apart (spatial/point sampling so that data over a bigger area of ECP can be obtained). Wind direction should also be measured where the gauges are placed.
Secondary Data:
-Online research (e.g. check SG's weather websites) on rainfall patterns in the East, wind patterns that Singapore experiences (e.g. onshore/offshore wind direction in the east) and rainfall climographs (analyse them to find out the consistency of rainfall in the east)
Considerations:
Limitations:
-Secondary data about rainfall in the East, specifically ECP, may be hard to obtain
-Data needs to be measured long term (ie rain gauges may need to be left there over a year) and thus, human factors like disturbing of the rain gauges may occur hence reducing accuracy of results
Risks:
-bad weather (lightning) during collection of data; dangerous

# data[].attributes.body
Piaa Ong 17-U1

STAGE 1

a) Write down your Research Question or Hypothesis

More rainfall is received at West Coast Park in January than in August.

b) Explain how you have come up with your research question or hypothesis.

January is the wet phase of the Northeast Monsoon, where the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone(ITCZ) is located closest to Singapore compared to the rest of the year. As the ITCZ is a band of low air pressure, onshore winds blowing from the North-east arrive from subtropical areas of high pressure, such as from the South China Sea to the low pressure zone of the ITCZ. These winds collect moisture evaporated from oceans as they blow towards the ITCZ, bringing about heavy precipitation as these moist, unstable winds pass over Singapore near the ITCZ as monsoon surges.

September is the period where the southwest monsoon is underway. During this period, the ITCZ lies over India, directly south of the Himalayas. Hence, a low pressure zone develops over India, and onshore winds blow from the southwest direction towards India, bringing rainfall. In Singapore, there are also Sumatra squalls, which are thunderstorms formed in Sumatra and Java that travel eastwards to Singapore during the southwest monsoon, resulting in rainfall.

However, rainfall in January is higher than in September, due to Singapore being in the direct path of monsoon wind movement in January as the ITCZ lies very close to Singapore, meaning Singapore takes the brunt of the rain. In September, Singapore is on the peripheral of monsoon wind activity, and most of the rainfall is mostly from neighbouring countries, whereas India receives the most rainfall.

STAGE 2

a)     Write down your methods for collection of primary/secondary data (including sampling)

-        What instruments/equipment do you need?

·        Rain gauge

·        Should a rain gauge be unavailable, an empty cylinder of equal diameter throughout its length can be used(eg a soup can) along with a 30cm ruler.

·        Wind vane

-        What types of data will you collect?

·        (Primary) Average amount of rainfall collected in the rain gauges over two weeks.

·        (Secondary) Research done on rainfall patterns/trends in Singapore during monsoon seasons, as well as statistical data on amount of rainfall in Singapore.

-        Which sampling method will you use?

·        Systematic sampling

-        Justify the sampling method you have chosen.

·        One rain gauge each is to be placed in the North, South, East and West regions of West Coast Park.

·        Rain gauges need to be placed in areas that meet specific criteria, hence the position of the gauges must be deliberated and cannot be random.

·        Rain gauges must be placed in open spaces that do not have buildings or trees over it, as runoff moisture from these structures can flow into the rain gauges, causing the amount of rainfall collected to be more than actual amount of rainfall over two weeks.

·        Rain gauges must also be placed on flat ground to prevent spilling of rainwater especially if rainwater collected reaches near the brim of the container, in particular when a cylinder is used as a makeshift rain gauge.

b) Address these questions in your plan (refer to useful readings)

•        What risks are present in your proposed GI? How can they be managed?

One risk is that the rain gauges can be tipped or knocked over by people passing through the park. This can be managed by placing the rain gauges such that they are not in the way of the common foot paths of park-goers. Another risk is that rain gauges are prone to malfunction. For example, the funnel of the gauge may be clogged with debris, hindering the flow of rainfall into the gauge. This can be managed by conducting routine checks on the rain gauges every 3 days to ensure that they are functioning as they should to enable collection of data that is as accurate as possible.

•        What are the strengths and limitations of your research?

One strength is that the research accounts for the entire area of West Coast Park, enabling one to get an accurate picture of the amount of rainfall in West Coast Park as the rain gauges are strategically spread out over the entirety of the park. However, this research is not representative of rainfall collected in the whole of Singapore. Despite Singapore being a very small country, there are bound to be variations in rainfall across the island. This research only accounts for rainfall in the area of West Coast Park, and is hence limited in terms of space. Also, the research is limited in terms of how much rain can be collected. In the event that the rainfall overfills the rain gauges, the exact amount of rainfall collected can no longer be accurately measured. The maximum amount of rainfall that can be measured is the capacity the rain gauges are able to hold.

•        Are there any ethical considerations in your investigation?

In order to place rain gauges in a public area such as East Coast Park, permission may be needed from authorities. Hence, before commencing with the investigation, permission should be granted from authorities. Also, the rain gauges should not become an obstruction to the path of park-goers and bring inconvenience. Thus, they should be placed at areas that do not obstruct paths whereby people normally travel through in the park.

# data[].attributes.body
Hypothesis: The highest amount of rainfall in East Coast Park is received in December
Data collection methods:
Primary- Wind Vane (wind direction), Rain Gauge (rainfall amt)
-  limit to a stretch of coast along East Coast Park
- Systematic sampling: take measurements of rainfall levels and wind direction twice MONTHLY (Twice increases reliability and monthly due to ease for comparison of monthly rainfall)
Secondary- Online research on rainfall levels in Singapore, on the effect of Monsoons on Singapore's climate, (through climographs of SG's climatic patterns)
Considerations:
- Area studied is only in ECP, may have variations of rainfall levels in Singapore (onshore offshore winds?) (further improvement for future investigations: expand the scope of the investigation)
- limitations: time period (only maximum over a period of 1 year), there is little basis for comparison when concluding. (future improvement for future investigations: extend the length of investigation)
-risks: weather conditions (lightning etc)