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Credits - Cells of the Immune System - Click and Learn - HHMI BioInteractive

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An overview of the immune system, concentrating on the roles played by B and T lymphocytes, and the antigen-presentation system.

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What are autoimmune diseases? This video educates the public on autoimmune diseases, who they affect, and what the public and patients need to know.

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The National Institutes of Health estimate that as many as 22 million individuals in the United States have an autoimmune disease; over two-thirds of them are women. Autoimmune diseases are a diverse group of illnesses that share one key feature--the body views part of itself as a foreign substance and launches an attack on this tissue or organ. Cells within the body's immune system, which are designed to protect the body from bacteria and viruses, carry out the attack. Researchers are still determining why women are more likely to have an autoimmune disease, but one explanation may have to do with sex differences in how the immune system responds to threats, as well as the different effects of hormones like estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone.

The nature of the autoimmune attacks varies across the autoimmune diseases. For example, in an autoimmune disease like multiple sclerosis (MS), the immune system attacks a specific substance--the protective coating (myelin) of nerve cells in the brain, spinal cord and optic nerve. In contrast, multiple cells and tissues (skin, joints, heart, and kidneys) can be attacked in the body of a woman with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). If a woman has one autoimmune illness, she has a higher risk of developing another over time (some women with SLE also develop rheumatoid arthritis [RA]).

What are the Symptoms of Autoimmune Diseases?

An extremely wide range of symptoms are associated with the autoimmune diseases. The symptoms vary by disease, within the same disease, and even over time in the same person. The list is too long to include in this brochure, but some are minor and annoying (skin rash; fleeting facial numbness), while others are more serious and debilitating (painful, swollen joints; paralysis in a limb), and others ultimately fatal (kidney failure, heart disease). Many symptoms are not seen, and thus are "invisible" to those not close to the woman with the illness, such as fatigue or difficulty concentrating. Women with an autoimmune disease may report that people are unaware of the impact of the illness upon them, sometimes telling her, "but you look so good."

In addition to the numerous physical symptoms, many women with autoimmune illnesses like MS, RA or SLE are likely to experience symptoms of anxiety and depression at some point during their illness. These symptoms may be a result of (a) the changes to their bodies caused by their illness; (b) the side effects of medicines they are taking for their illness; and/or (c) the challenge of living with a chronic illness, such as the unpredictability of disease symptoms.

What is the Effect of Autoimmune Disease on Families?

The autoimmune disorders can be burdensome from the onset of the first symptoms. For many women, the initial symptoms come and go and do not cluster together in a way that leads healthcare providers to know with certainty what a woman has. In fact, it make take anywhere from months to years for the woman to receive a definitive diagnosis. During that time she may have consulted with several physicians or specialists, as well as mental health professionals. At times she may have felt that she was going crazy or have felt that physicians were suspicious that the symptoms were "in her head." Initially then, it is a challenge for families to know what is wrong with their family member and the expense and frustration of seeing multiple physicians and being misdiagnosed or not receiving a clear diagnosis is stressful and discouraging.

Once a woman is diagnosed with an autoimmune disease, families can experience a mixture of relief and fear. There may be relief that her condition is finally known, that there's a name for what she has, and that treatments are available. At the same time, there can be fear and distress if the symptoms of and prognosis for her disease are bleak. At this point, families are faced with the task of marshalling their resources and supporting their family member as she learns about her illness and considers the treatments available. Most autoimmune diseases are currently not curable, so treatment involves managing symptoms and slowing the progression of the illness.

Receiving the diagnosis and beginning treatment initiates women and their families into the extended phase of learning to live with and manage a lifelong illness. The course and prognosis for women with an autoimmune disease varies tremendously, both across women and over time, so it can be difficult for families to know how much their lives will change and what will happen to their family member in the future.

Depending on the nature and severity of symptoms, families may have to deal with financial burdens, serious medication side effects, communication difficulties, sexual problems, challenges associated with pregnancy and breastfeeding, and role changes as a result of the care required by the woman with the autoimmune illness.

How Do You Know When to Seek Help? How Can a Family Therapist Help?

Living with a chronic illness can be isolating. You are encouraged to seek support for you and your family at all stages of the illness experience. While your physician can help you manage the medical complications of your illness, a family therapist can help you and your family members cope with the day-to-day aspects of living with an autoimmune illness. Because living with an illness like MS, RA, or SLE can be very challenging, you and your family are certain to experience ups and downs as you manage the illness. Talking to a therapist may help the whole family make sense of the new life course that now includes illness. A family therapist can also help you manage stress, anxiety, depression, family conflict, communication problems, and caregiving issues associated with the illness.

If you decide to seek support in dealing with your illness, national disease-related organizations, like the National Multiple Sclerosis Society, the Arthritis Foundation, or the Lupus Foundation can often provide names and contact information of local therapists. As you select a therapist, you might interview potential therapists to determine their familiarity with your particular autoimmune disease. Helpful questions to ask a therapist might be, "Have you ever treated a woman living with SLE and her family?" "How familiar are you with the symptoms of MS and their impact on an individual and her family?" or "Are you familiar with the challenges of living with a chronic illness, especially a chronic illness with invisible symptoms?"

This text was written by Mark B. White, PhD, and Carmel Parker White, PhD.

Use the AAMFT Consumer Update "Women and Autoimmune Diseases" pamphlets to market your practice.
Search for a qualified Marriage and Family Therapist in your area using AAMFT's TherapistLocator service.

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The National Institutes of Health estimate that as many as 22 million individuals in the United States have an autoimmune disease; over two-thirds of them are women. Autoimmune diseases are a diverse group of illnesses that share one key feature--the body views part of itself as a foreign substance and launches an attack on this tissue or organ.

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Choose four to briefly describe

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Explore symptoms, causes, risk factors, and treatment options

With over 100 autoimmune diseases and many occurring in clusters, familiarizing yourself with the various autoimmune diseases is a great way to increase your autoimmune understanding.

Looking for more information?

Wherever you are on your journey, the Autoimmune Association has resources to guide you. Visit our Resource Center to learn more.

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Disease Information - Autoimmune Association

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Skip to content With over 100 autoimmune diseases and many occurring in clusters, familiarizing yourself with the various autoimmune diseases is a great way to increase your autoimmune understanding. Wherever you are on your journey, the Autoimmune Association has resources to guide you. Visit our Resource Center to learn more.

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excellent animation

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animation

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web site article

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When the specific antibodies (agglutinins) bind to surface antigens of bacteria/virus or any antigens immobilized in particulate matter (such as latex particle) and cause the formation of a visible clumps, such test is called agglutination test.
Agglutination test can be performed in:

Surface of glass slides: Rapid reading/evaporation

Test tubes: More sensitive because of longer incubation

Reagents available commercially
Types of Agglutination..

Identification of an organism with known antibodies

Identification of serum antibodies with known antigens.

Bacterial agglutination test

1. Measure the antibody produced by the host against bacterial agglutinins

2. Best performance when used in sterile physiologic saline

Uses:
Disease diagnosis: bacterial agent is difficult to cultivate in vitro. Some examples of such diseases are:

1. Tetanus: Clostridium tetani

2. Yersiniosis: Yersinia pestis

3. Leptospirosis: Leptospira spp.

4. Brucellosis: Brucella spp

5. Tularemia: Francisella tularensis

Slide Agglutination test

Use of Antisera (Ab)
to identify Salmonella and Shigella by causing agglutination of the organisms

Diagnostic purpose (Hospital laboratories): Antisera directed against the cell wall O antigens of Salmonella and Shigella

Epidemiologic purpose (Public health laboratories): Antisera against flagellar H antigen and capsular Vi antigen of salmonella.

Particle agglutination test

1. Agglutination of an artificial carrier particle with specific antigen bound to its surface
Size of the carrier enhances the visibility of agglutination.

2. Examples include

1. Latex particles: Latex agglutination test

2. Treated Red blood cells i.e. Hemagglutination

3. Whole bacterial cells.

3. Reaction is dependent on

1. Amount and avidity of antigen bound to carrier

2. Time of the incubation with specimen

3. Environment of interaction (pH, Protein concentration etc)

Hemagglutination

1. Treated animal RBC is used as a carrier of antigen

2. Passive hemagglutination: Ag that are being bound by Ab are not the Ag of RBC but are passively bound Ag.

3. Examples

1. Microhemagglutination test for Syphilis (MHA-TP)

2. Hemagglutination treponemal test for Syphilis (HATTS)

3. Passive hemagglutination tests for antibody to extracellular antigen of Streptococci

4. Rubella indirect hemagglutination test

5. Hemagglutination Inhibition Test (HAI) for Avian Influenza

6. Quantitative Micro Hemagglutination Test (HA)

Latex agglutination test for Ag detection

1. Latex beads coated with specific antibody are agglutinated in the presence of homologous antigen (bacteria).

2. Used to determine the presence of capsular antigen of

1. H. influenzae

2. N. meningitidis: rapid detection of meningococcal capsular polysaccharides in CSF.

3. Streptococcus spp.

4. C. neoformans

Latex agglutination test for Ab detection

1. Latex particles coated with specific antigen

2. Commercially available for the accurate and sensitive detection of antibody to

1. Cytomegalovirus

2. Rubella virus

3. Varicella-zoster virus

4. Heterophile antibody of infectious mononucleosis

5. Teichoic acid antibodies of Staphylococci

6. Antistreptcoccal antibodies

7. Mycoplasma antibodies

8. And others..

Coagglutination (COAG)

Specific antibody is bound to the surface protein A of staphylococci (Cowan type 1 strain of Staphylococcus aureus). Soluble microbial antigen in the specimen is mixed with the COAG reagent, resulting in the agglutination of the staphylococcal cells.

Antibody COAG Reagent + Antigen in specimen = Staphylococcal cells (Agglutinated)

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Agglutination Tests: Types, principle and uses - microbeonline

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When the specific antibodies (agglutinins) bind to surface antigens of bacteria/virus or any antigens immobilized in particulate matter (such as latex particle) and cause the formation of a visible clumps, such test is called agglutination test. Agglutination test can be performed in: Surface of glass slides: Rapid reading/evaporation Test tubes: More sensitive because of longer incubation Reagents available commercially Types of Agglutination..

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Video

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Article

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ELISA Principles, Formats, and Optimization

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ELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, principles, formats and optimizations discussed in this GenScript technical note.

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Good outline with links

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Immunological tolerance is not simply a failure to recognize an antigen; it is an active response to a particular epitope and is just as specific as an immune response.