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Great post on strong instructional strategies.

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Edutopia is a free source of information, inspiration, and practical strategies for learning and teaching in preK-12 education. We are published by the George Lucas Educational Foundation, a nonprofit, nonpartisan organization.

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This is a quick simple differentiation in summative and formative assessments.

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Formative vs Summative | Learning and teaching | University of Greenwich

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The purpose of formative assessment is to monitor student learning and provide ongoing feedback to staff and students. It is assessment for learning. If designed appropriately, it helps students identify their strengths and weaknesses, can enable students to improve their self-regulatory skills so that they manage their education in a less haphazard fashion than is commonly found. It also provides information to the faculty about the areas students are struggling with so that sufficient support can be put in place.

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Helpful tips in course and syllabus design.

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Although courses may vary in size, subject matter or level, a systematic process will help you plan and structure your course and syllabus to effectively reach desired instructional goals. This page provides information that will guide you from the initial design phases of your course to polishing and distributing your syllabus.

CTL is here to help! If you would like to schedule an individual appointment to talk about course or syllabus design please fill out our contact form.

Course design

Effective course design begins with understanding who your students are, deciding what you want them to learn; determining how you will measure student learning; and planning activities, assignments and materials that support student learning. For all interactions with students plan ahead by ask yourself:

1. Who are the students?

2. What do I want students to be able to do?

3. How will I measure students' abilities?

By asking yourself these questions at the onset of your course design process you will be able to focus more concretely on learning outcomes, which has proven to increase student learning substantially as opposed to merely shoehorning large quantities of content into a quarters worth of class meetings.

1. Who are the students?

Before the class begins, find out as much as you can about the students. Consider the level of your course and the type and level of student that typically enrolls in this course. If you are new to teaching the course you may want to consult with colleagues who have previously taught the course to gather some of this information. It is also helpful to review your class roster before the quarter starts. Additionally, the Office of the Registrar publishes a snap shot view of enrolled UW students for a given quarter ( click here).

Are your students new to the university? Are they new to the topic of the course or the department?

What are students' motivations for taking the course?

What might you expect students to know before the first class? Consider previous courses they may or may not have taken. Are the students majors in your department or are they fulfilling a distribution credit?

What range of backgrounds and previous experience is typically represented among students in this class?

What problems do students typically have with this material at this level?

2. What do I want students to be able to do?

Once you have considered who the students in your course are, ask yourself what they should be able to do at the end of the course. Try to answer this question as specifically as you can by using terms that emphasize student abilities you can measure or easily recognize. For example, it can be more challenging to measure students abilities based on what they may know or understand as opposed to measuring their abilities to preform tasks such as identify, differentiate, apply or produce. This process will help you solidify your course goals.

Tools that can help you design course objectives:

3. How will I measure students' abilities?

Designing your course around activities that are most likely to lead students towards the goals you have defined will help them acquire and retain skills longer. Some goals can be achieved through listening to lecture or reading assigned texts. Others may require more active experimentation, practice or discussion. For example, writing, discussions, field work, service learning, problem solving or small group collaboration. No matter what combination of activities you choose always keep in mind how the core activity, as opposed to subject content, will progress students' abilities. What will provide you with reliable evidence during the course that your students are learning and at the end of the course that they have obtained/mastered the abilities you envisioned at the beginning of the course? This is the part where you choose assignments, activities and other methods of assessment. For example, will you have weekly quizzes? objective tests? original research papers? presentations? performances? group or individual projects? Assessment is an important aspect of student learning. Make sure to think carefully when pairing assessments with learning objectives. For more on assessment design see our Assessing student learning page.

Syllabus design

The syllabus provides the instructor and students with a contract, a common reference point that sets the stage for learning throughout the course. Make sure that your students have easy access to the course syllabus by handing out hard copies on the first day of class and (if applicable) posting a digital copy on the course website.

Common components included in a syllabus

The form and content of a syllabus vary widely by discipline, department, course and instructor. However, there are common components that most successful syllabi contain. These components communicate to your students an accurate description of the course including the topics that will be cover, assignments and assessments students will be responsible for, as well as a clear source for policies and expectations.

Course description

Course content: What is the basic content of the course and what makes it important or interesting? How does the course fit into the context of the discipline?

Learning objectives: What should students be able to do by the end of the course? Objectives are most helpful when they are expressed in terms of knowledge and skills that can be readily identified and assessed. For example, the ability to recognize, differentiate, apply or produce is much more readily identifiable than the ability to appreciate or understand.

Characteristics of class meetings: What types of activities should students be prepared for? Discussion? Lecture? Small groups? Student presentations?

Logistics: What are the instructor's and TAs' names? How can they be contacted? How are course materials obtained? When and where does the class meet?

Course topics and assignments

Schedule of topics and readings: What will the main topics of the course be and when will they be addressed? What will students need to do to prepare for each class? Most instructors include a weekly or daily schedule of topics they intend to address, along with a list of assigned readings and other course materials.

Assignments, projects and exams: How will students demonstrate their learning? Include learning goals, estimated scope or length, assessment criteria and dates. Instructors typically include a breakdown, in point values or percentages, of how much each assignment or test contributes to a student's final grade.

Course policies and values

What values will shape your teaching in the course and what policies will guide you? Policies and values that you might want to communicate through your syllabus include:

Inclusiveness: How can your syllabus help you create an inclusive atmosphere that welcomes all students? Some instructors include statements inviting participation from all students, honoring student diversity and differing points of view, or inviting requests for disability accommodations.

Integrity: What are policies and procedures regarding academic integrity and misconduct in relation to materials and assignment for this course? For example, considering the types of work you are asking students to do, what do you want to communicate about working with data? representing original sources? accountability for contributions to group projects?

Responsibility: What do students need to know about your expectations regarding assignments, attendance, online participation or classroom interactions? Other possibilities include policies regarding late work, make-up exams and preparation for class participation.

Expectations for success: How can students learn most successfully in your course? In your syllabus, you can express confidence that all students are capable of doing well and you can suggest strategies for success. For example, what strategies for learning are particularly important for this material? What resources - such as study centers, web tutorials or writing centers - are available to help students succeed in your course?

Information for TAs: Syllabus design

As a TA your responsibilities regarding course design will vary. However, it is always a good idea whether you're planning a ten-week course, a 50 min section meeting, or a 20 min office hour, to think about your teaching and learning goals. Plan ahead by asking yourself:

What do I want students to learn?

What challenges to learning are students likely to face?

How can I help students meet those challenges?

How will I be able to tell what they have learned?

Have a syllabus

It is a good idea for TAs to provide students with a syllabus. Use the syllabus to answer questions about your expectations, your role in the course and students' responsibilities. If you are teaching a quiz section or lab, you may not be involved in the development of the course syllabus. However, your students will appreciate receiving a syllabus providing information regarding the section or lab policies and procedures (info. on participation, email policies, grading details etc...). Also make sure to include your office location and hours so students know where and when to find you.

Additional resources

Bibliography

Davis, B. G. (1993). Designing or revising a course. In Tools for teaching (pp. 3-20). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

O'Brien, J. G., Millis, B. J., & Cohen, M. G. (2008). The course syllabus: A learning-centered approach. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Prégent, R. (2000). Charting your course: How to prepare to teach more effectively. Madison, WI: Atwood Publishing.

Svinicki, M. D., & McKeachie, W. J. (2011). Countdown for course preparation. In McKeachie's teaching tips: Strategies, research, and theory for college and university teachers (pp. 10-20). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Wehlburg, C. M. (2006). Meaningful course revision: Enhancing academic engagement using student learning data. Bolton, MA: Anker Publishing Company, Inc.

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Although courses may vary in size, subject matter or level, a systematic process will help you plan and structure your course and syllabus to effectively reach desired instructional goals. This page provides information that will guide you from the initial design phases of your course to polishing and distributing your syllabus.

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Quick and simple explanation of the foundational learning theories.

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While studying to become a teacher, whether in a bachelor's degree or alternative certificate program, you will learn about learning theories. There are 5 overarching paradigms of educational learning theories; behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, design/brain-based, humanism and 21st Century skills.

Below, you will find a brief outline of each educational learning theory, along with links to resources that may be helpful.
1. Behaviorism is a view in which behavior can be explained by external factors and behavioral conditioning can be used as a universal learning process. In behaviorism, the ideas of positive and negative reinforcement are effective tools of learning and behavior modification, as well as a punishment and reward system.

2. Cognitivism is a learning theory developed by Jean Piaget in which a child develops cognitive pathways in understanding and physical response to experiences. In this theory, students learn most effectively through reading text and lecture instruction.

3. Constructivism is the idea that people are responsible in creating their own understanding of the world and using what they know based on previous experiences in the process of linking new information to these experiences. People use these experiences and new information to construct their own meaning.

4. Humanism focuses on the individual as the subject and asserts that learning is a natural process that helps a person reach self-actualization. Scenarios and role modeling are important factors in humanistic learning, as are experiences, exploring and observing others.

5. Connectivism is a relatively new learning theory, developed and based upon the idea that people process information by forming connections. This theory has developed with the digital and technology age, adapting to advances in these arenas. This new theory suggests that people no longer stop learning after formal education and continue to gain knowledge from other avenues such as job skills, networking, experience and access to information with new tools in technology.

As you progress through your educational career, we aim to provide you with the resources you need to succeed. Feel free to check out the full list of programs on our site to learn more about all of your options for becoming a teacher and expanding your education.

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While studying to become a teacher, whether in a bachelor's degree or alternative certificate program, you will learn about learning theories. There are 5 overarching paradigms of educational learning theories; behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, design/brain-based, humanism and 21st Century skills. Below, you will find a brief outline of each educational learning theory, along with links to resources that may be helpful.

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Blog post on transformative learning.

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In the past, transformative or transformational learning has often been associated with high school and college education (also known as transformative education). Given the growing recognition and importance of learning and development in professional environments, however, leading organizations are seeking to invest and nurture their employees through upskilling and training.

What's more, companies are adopting modern learning behaviors and digital habits by introducing innovative learning platforms that promote mobile-first microlearning. These modern learning experiences not only increase interaction and retention but also produce the best learning experiences and, importantly, the best results.

It's not that new, but thought leaders like Josh Bersin stress the importance of employee investment through L&D. Investing in employees has proven to increase not only satisfaction, but retention, and even company growth and success. Furthermore, employees expect to be more fulfilled in their roles and, in turn, have a deeper commitment and expectation to be challenged. And here's where transformative learning comes in.

What is transformative learning?

By definition, transformative learning is a type of experience that causes a shift in an individual's perspective or attitude. It's based on a learning theory propounded by Jack Mezirow (1978, 1991, 2000) and proposes that learning is "the process of making new interpretations based on the meaning derived out of experience." What this means is that, rather than focusing on surface experiences, transformative learning challenges the simplicity behind learning. This is done by acknowledging the process of deep, constructive, and meaningful learning. Transformative learning supports critical ways in which learners consciously make meaning of their lives, beyond just learning a concept and leaving it at that.
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Jack Mezirow

Before American sociologist Jack Mezirow became known as the founder of transformative learning, he was an international community development consultant for the United Nations Development Program in the area of adult literacy. Mezirow's background in literacy education undoubtedly influenced his subsequent research into the transformative learning capabilities of adults. Mezirow began formulating his transformative learning framework after being inspired by seeing his wife return to graduate school in middle age.

Influenced by the work of Paulo Freire (1970), who advocated the consciousness-raising power of education to elicit social change, Mezirow particularly focused on differentiating adult learning from the way children learn. His theory on 'perspective transformation' was first published in 1978, and was expanded in 2000 into a 10-step process through which learners undergo a gradual transformation of perspectives or 'habits of mind.'

Mezirow transformative learning

The transformational learning theory, originally developed by Mezirow (1991) describes transformative learning as, "constructivist, an orientation which holds that the way learners interpret and reinterpret their sense experience is, central to making meaning and hence learning."

Take EdApp 's learning ecosystem (pictured above) as a modern transformative learning system. The award-winning mobile training platform includes 4 main elements: Authoring Tool, Administration, Editable Course Library, and Learner App.

The learning experience platform makes the modern learning experience complete with gamification and real rewards built-in, making it an interactive, enjoyable, and effective learning experience for your learners. EdApp's Administration enables you to have full control and flexibility in how you deliver your content. Find everything from grouping learners to managing the learner's journey to analytics and reporting, and much more.

EdApp's completely free Editable Course Library (captured below) is an extremely unique, expansive collection of ready-made courseware for you to select, edit, and deploy to your teams. Contributed by world-class thought leaders and experts around the world, this library enables you to deliver a completely bespoke learning experience to your audience.

The Authoring Tool includes all the features you can imagine to create beautiful, engaging, and effective microlessons to your learners. Use EdApp's built-in features like an extensive template library, a Canva media library integration, PowerPoint converter, and more.

EdApp's all-in-one training tool reflects Mezirow's transformational learning theory to drive better learning results through a truly holistic learning experience. With an impressive amount of built-in features, the learning platform produces the best learning, resulting in deeper knowledge understanding and retention. And the best part? EdApp is completely free for you to train your teams - large and small. Click here to get started.

Transformative Learning Theory

In adult learners, this results in changes to viewpoint, expectations, and assumptions after life-changing situations or events. This is followed by a change in frames of reference for understanding and interpretation.

Simply put, people often develop the ability to reflect upon something that had been taken for granted or were unaware of and make conscious decisions about it. In the transformative learning theory, this is termed as a transformative experience.

Example: A transformative experience happens in the way an individual views life after being diagnosed with a life-threatening disease. It can also be less dramatic like older adults who transform into social activists after learning to use the Internet.

Fostering transformative learning theory

There are ways to ensure the learning experience brings in the required transformation among the learners. Here are some factors that need to be considered that can foster transformational learning.

Supportive relationships: Relationships can be built in a learning climate that encourages differing perspectives, opinions, and is non-hierarchical. A trusting and supportive relationship helps foster transformative learning. This type of trust can be built easily in virtual classrooms or workgroups when learners share a common goal and can view each other and hear the voice of the moderator.

Challenging assumptions: Transformative learning happens only when there is self-reflection. The self-reflection can result in challenging assumptions on their understanding of the world. Transformative learning can be fostered by asking open-ended questions to learners. This will promote critical-thinking skills that will help learners relate new knowledge to their own life experiences. Examples include the use of blogs and internal social tools for online discussions and responses to questions.

Meaningful experiences: The most effective way to foster transformative experiences is to provide direct experiences that are meaningful to learners. Example: Doctors studying palliative care were required to visit funeral homes and hospices.

Self-awareness and readiness: One of the most important factors for an individual to undergo a transformative experience is to be self-aware and be ready for the experience. Individuals who were in a dilemma or had limited understanding owing to the current level of knowledge are likely to experience the transformation. Learners must accept the initial level of discomfort for the transformation to happen.

Stages of transformative learning

Transformational learning occurs only when critical reflection and differing perspectives are encouraged in the learning environment. Here are the stages through which a learner goes through during a transformative learning experience:

Disorienting dilemma

Self-examination with feelings of anger, fear, shame, or guilt

A critical assessment of assumptions

Recognition of discontentment and the process of transformation is shared

Exploration of options for new roles, relationships, and actions

Planning a course of action

Acquiring knowledge and skills for implementing one's plans

Provisional trying of new roles

Building competence and self-confidence in new roles and relationships

Reintegrating into one's life based on conditions dictated by a new perspective

Transformative learning examples

Life-changing events such as becoming a parent or a career-change can radically alter an adult's perspective.

1. If combined with critical reflection, a disorientating dilemma or trauma can result in post-traumatic growth, and hence, transformational learning.

2. Exposure to different cultural experiences can facilitate the expansion of one's own worldview, as well as foster empathy and an appreciation of diversity.

3. Embrace personal questioning through journaling as a way of cultivating a critical awareness of assumptions and dispel unconscious biases.

4. Get comfortable with feeling uncomfortable! Purposefully expose yourself to ideas that challenge your own thought processes. So many of us now live within our own insular social media echo chambers, and removing some of these filters forces us to reassess and reframe previously held assumptions.

5. Corporate training facilitators can simulate cognitive dissonance or 'disorientating dilemmas' by getting students to link content to previously held beliefs and critically reflect upon any prior assumptions.

6. Learning and Development (L&D) leaders should serve as guides and facilitators rather than direct instructors in order to promote autonomous thinking and growth.

7. Rather than have students answer pre-set questions, get students to formulate their own questions after a learning activity.

8. Provide opportunities for students to reflect on their own 'aha moments' within learning experiences.

9. Enable learners to play an instrumental role in their own learning. This might be achieved in corporate training through the creation of professional learning teams, or ten per cent projects.

Transformative education

Transformative learning implies a profound, structural change of the basic premises of thought, feeling, and action. It is the education of the mind, but also the education of the heart. This points to a radical change towards interconnectedness and opens up opportunities for achieving a greater degree of equality, social justice, understanding, and cooperation among peoples.

The three main phases of transformative learning are:

Analysis of the current situation

Vision to look like an alternative to the prevailing model

The process of change towards responsible action

Transformative learning involves participatory decision-making processes in each of these phases. The goal of this form of learning is to improve mutual knowledge and collective self-awareness.

Transformative learning offers a way to bring about change at the local level that will impact the global level in terms of strengthening citizenship through strategies and methods of participation so that individuals learn to take responsibility.

Its goal is to enable students to understand problems and at the same time empower them with the knowledge, skills, values ​​, and attitudes that citizens of the world need when facing world problems.

In this regard, transformative education is a process of individual and collective growth that allows for transformation and self-transformation. Basically, it is a social activity. It also serves as a permanent "preparation" for life in which the acquisition of active and emotional abilities to analyze and critically reflect on circumstances helps students become active social actors.

If transformative education is teaching with the goal of change to establish education that does not reproduce the system, but imagines social transformation and opens the eyes.

Transformative learning environments

Activities that encourage self-examination and exchange differing perspectives can ensure transformative learning. Learners can be benefited if the environment has the following characteristics:

Learners are encouraged to reflect and share their perspectives openly.

Learners are considered holistically as part of the entire learning process.

Learners are encouraged to look at alternative methods of learning.

Learners are encouraged to explore new concepts in an atmosphere of trust and care.

Learners are encouraged to question reality in ways that promote change in perspectives.

Though much of the transformational learning experience is used in the field of education, this concept can be effectively used in the workplace environment. But for this to happen, the workplace must foster an open culture of conversation, learning, support, and self-reflection.

EdApp is a completely free microlearning platform, used to train teams - large and small - all over the world. Ready to get started? Discover the mobile-first platform yourself.
References
Mezirow, J. (1978). Perspective transformation. , 28 (2), 100 - 109. Adult Education
Mezirow, J. (2000). Learning as transformation: Critical perspectives on a theory in progress . San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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In the past, transformative or transformational learning has often been associated with high school and college education (also known as transformative education). Given the growing recognition and importance of learning and development in professional environments, however, leading organizations are seeking to invest and nurture their employees through upskilling and training.

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Interesting summary on how our brains form and learn.

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14 min read ⌚
Quick Summary: How We Learn by Benedict Carey uses the newest findings related to the nature and biology of our brains as a springboard for a fun-to-read exploration of our learning habits and a sort of operational manual on how to tweak them so that you can harness the full power of your innate memory mechanisms.

Who Should Read "How We Learn"? And Why?

How We Learn is one of those books - akin to Daniel Kahneman's Thinking, Fast and Slow or Charles Duhigg's The Power of Habit - which discover and explain things you've certainly felt before, but couldn't really understand the mechanism.

And these books are great because once you understand how something works, it's fairly easy to use it to your benefit.

Now, look back at the title of the book.

That's right: this is the book which can help you get better grades!

Did we pique your curiosity?

How We Learn Summary

Part One: Basic Theory

1. The Story Maker: The Biology of Memory

"The science of learning is, at bottom," writes Benedict Carey, "a study of the mental muscle doing the work - the living brain - and how it manages the streaming sights, sounds, and scents of daily life."

"That it does so at all," he adds, "is miracle enough. That it does so routinely is beyond extraordinary."

So, what will you be able to see if you're allowed a peek behind the curtains? Who are the protagonists, what are the relations between them, what helps them do a better job and what doesn't?

Unsurprisingly, the guys we're interested in when studying memory are the 100 billion neurons which make up the grey matter of your brain.

Now, these guys are stimulated constantly. Memories are nothing more but patterns of stimulations.

To understand this better, say that you have merely 10 neurons. If an event stimulates three of them in the order 1-5-8, these three neurons would form a pattern, a network of neurons which are called synapses.

Each time you'd try to recall that memory, these synapses will be stimulated yet again; that way, they grow thicker; and the thicker they are - the more you remember something.

There's a twist, though.

Most of the conscious here-and-now memories are stored by the neurons located in the hippocampus; however, after a while, if they are important enough, they are transferred to the neocortex.

That's why people whose hippocampus is destroyed are still able to remember old stuff, though unable to create new memories.

2. The Power of Forgetting: A New Theory of Learning

We've already introduced you to guys such as Kevin Horsley, an International Grandmaster of Memory and two-time Memory World Record holder, and Joshua Foer, the 2006 US Memory Champion.

There's an interesting thing science has discovered - and Benedict Carey wants you to know about them: the 'losers' in these memory competitions stumble not because they remember too little, but because they remember too much.

In other words, they are, in a way, much more incapable of forgetting the wrong things remembering the right ones.

What does that say about how we learn?

Well, writes Carey, "if recollecting is just that - a re-collection of perceptions, facts, and ideas scattered in intertwining neural networks in the dark storm of the brain - then forgetting acts to block the background noise, the static, so that the right signals stand out. The sharpness of the one depends on the strength of the other."

In other words, remembering, counterintuitively, doesn't work without forgetting.

Contrary to what your textbooks would have you believe, it's much easier to remember things than forget them.

The problem is your brain stores all kind of information, and the trick is how to teach it to store the right information, the one you're actually interested in.

"Using memory changes memory," writes Carey, "and for the better. Forgetting enables and deepens learning, by filtering out distracting information and by allowing some breakdown that, after reuse, drives retrieval and storage strength higher than they were originally."

"Those are the basic principles that emerge from brain biology and cognitive science," he concludes, "and they underlie - and will help us understand - the various learning techniques yet to come."

Part Two: Retention

3. Breaking Good Habits: The Effect of Context on Learning

You've probably heard this quite a few times, but it's worth pointing it out again: the surroundings during a study session affect your ability to remember things.

Possibly the most famous proof of this is the opening scene in Marcel Proust's In Search of the Lost Time when the main protagonist suddenly remembers the all-but-forgotten early days of his life after tasting a madeleine, the cookie which on Sunday mornings his aunt gave him when he was merely a child.

And a study by a psychologist named Steven M. Smith has proved this.

In 1985, Smith had a group of 54 Psych 101 students study a list of 40 words. The students were divided into three groups: one group studied in silence, another group was listening to Milt Jackson's 'People Make the World Go Around,' and a third one studied to Mozart.

The students spent ten minutes memorizing the words and two days later were asked to retrieve them without a prior warning.

You guess what happened!

If one studied to Mozart and was asked to recall words while Mozart was once again playing in the background - he did twice as good as one who studied to Mozart and was asked to recall words in silence or to the tune of "People Make the World Go Around."

Apparently, the music didn't matter: the same equation held true for the ones who studied while listening to Milt Jackson. But silence did: the ones who studied in silence remembered twice less than the others, regardless of which environment they were asked to remember the words.

However, what this research shows is not that we need to learn with music - but that we need to change the context if we want to remember the thing itself without outer cues.

4. Spacing Out: The Advantage of Breaking Up Study Time

Has your mother ever told you something along the lines of "Honey, don't you think it would be better to study for a little bit tonight and a little bit tomorrow, rather than trying to learn everything at once?"

Well, if she has - then (surprise! surprise!), she was right, and you (chances are) were wrong not to heed to her advice.

The technique your mother suggested is called, scientifically, distributed learning or, more commonly, the spacing effect.

It means that people learn at least as much - and retain it a lot longer - when they distribute (or "space") their study time as opposed to concentrating it.

In layman's terms: cramming the night before the exam will probably help you pass the exam as much as spacing out the study material over the week. However, by the time the second semester comes, you'll probably remember nothing.

"In terms of reliability," Carey uses a nice analogy, "nocturnal sprint is a little like overstuffing a cheap suitcase: the contents hold for a while, then everything falls out."

The lesson?

If you want to pass the exam, it doesn't make any difference whether you'll cram or space out; however, if you really want to learn and remember something than cramming is the very, very wrong way to go.

It will get you a degree, sure - but not knowledge.

5. The Hidden Value of Ignorance: The Many Dimensions of Testing

Have you ever found yourself in a situation such as this?

You've just finished reading an interesting book, and your colleagues start a conversation related to the topic this book examines.

You feel confident to interrupt them: "But no - that's not the way things are."

And then you start explaining the things you've just learned and, even though at home you felt like you've understood everything, suddenly you are unable to clarify even the basic premises.

Stage fright?

Could be - but it is not.

What it is - a misjudgment of the depth of your knowledge.

In other words, you had the right neurons fired up while reading, you did; but the synapses you just formed were too weak and gangling to help you remember the things afterward.

The solution?

If you want to remember something well, try explaining it to someone else, even if that someone is, well, you.

Test your knowledge in the silence of your room in any way possible - because that's not actually testing, but learning.

And it is not just regular studying - it is studying "the high-octane kind, 20 to 30 percent more powerful than if you continued sitting on your butt, staring at that outline. Better yet, those exercises will dispel the fluency illusion. They'll expose what you don't know, where you're confused, what you've forgotten-and fast. That's ignorance of the best kind."

Part Three: Problem Solving

6. The Upside of Distraction: The Role of Incubation in Problem Solving

True, we live in a distraction- full world and, as you probably already know, distractions are not helpful if you want to do some deep work.

Interestingly enough, they seem to be a shortcut to a better problem-solving ability.

Yup, we're talking about the nature of the Eureka factor yet again.

We still don't know why - but studies have confirmed it over and over again - taking a break from a project helps you finish that project not merely more successfully but also more efficiently.

For one reason or another, a period of incubation (a period during which you're not thinking about a project) makes you more capable of solving problems.

A decade ago, a pair of psychologists at Lancaster University in the United Kingdom - Ut Na Sio and Thomas C. Ormerod - tried to understand this phenomenon better and their final results are as thus.

First of all, they concluded that the incubation effect is real. However - and secondly - it doesn't always work as expected, because of the circumstances and the distractions included.

Sio and Ormerod divided incubation breaks into three categories:

* Relaxing (like listening to music);
* Mildly active (like surfing the Internet);
* Highly engaging (like writing a short essay).

Well, it seems that as far as math or spatial problems are concerned, you can benefit from either of these three. However, in the case of linguistic problems (such as anagrams), only the second category actually helps.

Also, incubation periods seem to work better if they are longer - i.e., about 20 minutes - and don't do the job if they are short (i.e., 5 minutes).

The most important thing?

"People don't benefit from an incubation break unless they have reached an impasse." Or, in layman's terms: "Knock off and play a videogame too soon and you get nothing."

7. Quitting Before You're Ahead: The Accumulating Gifts of Percolation

We guess percolation is not a word you've heard before - not unless you've read this book.

Because it is a word Carey introduces to describe something usually mixed up with incubation - namely, to describe longer-term, cumulative thinking processes similar to incubation.

"To solve messier, protracted problems," writes Carey, "we need more than a fast-acting dose, a short break here and there. We need an extended-release pill."

If you are an artist or a poet, you probably already know what we're talking about.

"I have to be alone," explained once Joseph Heller, "A bus is good. Or walking the dog. Brushing my teeth was marvelous - it was especially so for Catch-22. Often when I am very tired, just before going to bed, while washing my face and brushing my teeth, my mind gets very clear... and produces a line for the next day's work or some idea way ahead. I don't get my best ideas while actually writing."

This may have to do a lot with something called the Zeigarnik effect after Russian psychologist Bluma Zeigarnik.

She was a student of Gestalt psychologist Kurt Lewin who once noticed that a waiter remembers better the unpaid orders than the paid ones.

After she did a couple of experiments, she realized that this is a natural bias: we tend to remember better things that are not finished than finished ones.

Why?

Because finishing them is akin to crossing out something on your checklist: a cue for your brain to stop thinking about it anymore.

The reverse is true as well: constantly starting something "often gives that job the psychological weight of a goal, even if it's meaningless."

Consequently, interruption pushes the thing you're interrupting to the top of your mental to-do list.

And that's percolation at its best!

8. Being Mixed Up: Interleaving as an Aid to Comprehension

Have you ever heard the phrase: "it's not an adventure until something goes wrong"?

If so, you already know that it comes from the world of climbers and hikers, where wrong means wrong wrong: "a rope snaps; the food supply flies overboard; a bear crawls into the tent."

And you know what happens next: suddenly climbers and hikers start to think more clearly and understand things they wouldn't otherwise.

Why?

Well, because we're creatures of habit and we tend to adapt to just about everything. While that is good for your body and your brain in terms of conserving energy for later, it is not good for your learning capabilities.

Because adapting to something puts your brain on autopilot; and you don't want your brain to be on autopilot if you really want to comprehend something.

The solution?

Interleaving.

Interleaving is a cognitive science word, but it simply means "mixing related but distinct material during study."

Basically, it is the reason why your music teacher switches from scales to theory, to pieces all in one sitting; it's not a bad idea - but, actually, the best one.

Interleaving is "essentially, about preparing the brain for the unexpected," a "way of building into our daily practice not only a dose of review but also an element of surprise."

It is - to use an analogy - a sort of an alarm, a reminder, a cue to signal your brain that it shouldn't be on autopilot.

Part Four: Tapping the Subconscious

9. Learning Without Thinking: Harnessing Perceptual Discrimination

Perceptual discrimination is the reason why Tom Brady is such a great QB.

Namely, he's not able to see more than the other QBs in a shorter time; quite the opposite: he's able to see less, aka discern the right things in an instant.

When you're in the pocket, there are so many things happening around you that it is fairly difficult to realize what's happening even as an outsider watching it on TV.

The moment you find out what has actually happened is the slo-mo replay.

Well, in a way, Brady sees it in slow motion throughout: that's why, for many sports players, the phrase "the game has slowed down for me" is practically synonymous with "now, I make better decisions."

The mechanism underlying this is perceptual discrimination: the ability to see only what it matters. And if there's such thing as perceptual seeing, there's also a thing such as perceptual learning.

According to Eleanor Gibson, a pioneer in the field, perceptual learning has three traits:

* It is not a passive absorption, but an active process, "in the sense that exploring and searching for perception itself is active." In other words, "we do not just see, we look; we do not just hear, we listen."
* It is also self-regulated, "in the sense that modification occurs without the necessity of external reinforcement;"
* Finally, it is stimulus-oriented, "with the goal of extracting and reducing the information simulation."

To sum up, "the system works to find the most critical perceptual signatures and filter out the rest." Tom Brady doesn't need to see everything: he just needs to see the movements of the people who might stop him.

He filters out the rest.

And "discovery of distinctive features and structure in the world is fundamental in the achievement of this goal."

10. You Snooze, You Win: The Consolidating Role of Sleep

"If only I could sleep less than three hours - I would have learned much more!"

Now, how many times have you said that before an important exam?

If you're like most of the students - probably at least three or four times a year. Which is exactly the number of times you were wrong about it!

We don't know a lot about sleeping, but we do know this: it is so intricately related to memory, that it is virtually impossible to consolidate new memories if you remain awake for longer periods of time.

However, as you know full well, there are different phases of sleep, and some of them are more important to certain types of activities than others; even more importantly, sleeping during different periods of the day makes a difference as well.

For example, if you are interested in retaining facts and learning vocabulary words, then it's best to go to bed early in the night; however, if you are a creative person, then you better become a night owl: creative thinking requires REM sleep, and this happens mostly in the morning hours.

Now that you know this, it's time to start a sleep revolution in your life; which is essentially the same as a studying revolution.

"I no longer think of naps or knocking off early as evidence of laziness, or a waste of time, or, worst of all, a failure of will," concludes Carey. "I think of sleep as learning with my eyes closed."

Key Lessons from "How We Learn"

1. Remembering Is Not the Opposite of Forgetting - But Its Corollary
2. Incubation, Percolation, and Interleaving: Three Concepts to Know If You Want to Solve Problems
3. Change the Studying Context and Test Yourself to Remember Better

Remembering Is Not the Opposite of Forgetting - But Its Corollary

We learn and remember things by creating networks of neurons called synapses; the thicker these synapses are, the more long-term the memory and the easier to recall it.

However, if you want to remember specific things, then the trick is to forget everything else

Forgetting acts as a sort of a background noise blocker, a static, which makes the right signal stand out.

As Carey says, the sharper your forgetting, the stronger your memory.

Incubation, Percolation, and Interleaving: Three Concepts to Know If You Want to Solve Problems

Incubation, percolation and interleaving are three interrelated concepts which can help you solve problems better.

Incubation is basically another word for the Eureka effect: we tend to see old problems better after a 20-minute break.

Percolation is the same, but over a longer period: if you want to write a better novel, then interrupt writing it daily with a long walk or something like it; this will stimulate to think of better ideas.

Finally, interleaving means mixing things up: don't learn just theory and then practice, but learn a chunk of theory, then practice it, then another chunk of it.

Change the Context and Test Yourself to Remember Better

If you sometimes forget somebody's name, go to the place where you met the person, and there's a good chance that you'll remember it.

The other side of this coin: if you really want to remember things regardless of the context, then study them in different situations and circumstances, so that they don't get too attached to a certain set of conditions.

Also, once you do learn them, test your knowledge by transforming your mental knowledge into a speech.

That is the only way for you to realize whether you know them fluently.

Like this summary? We'd like to invite you to download our free 12 min app for more amazing summaries and audiobooks.
Once a goal becomes activated, it trumps all others and begins to drive our perceptions, our thoughts, our attitudes. Some of what we've been taught to think of as our worst enemies - laziness, ignorance, distraction - can also work in our favor. Sticking to one learning ritual... slows us down. Memories evaporate entirely from the brain over time if they're not used. The collective findings of modern learning science provide much more than a recipe for how to learn more efficiently. They describe a way of life. Click To Tweet Click To Tweet Click To Tweet Click To Tweet Click To Tweet
How We Learn Quotes

Final Notes

How We Learn - to quote a review by Scientific American - "is more than a new approach to learning; it is a guide to making the most out of life. Who wouldn't be interested in that?"

That's a rhetorical question for a reason!

Revelatory and unputdownable, How We Learn is not merely a psychological study into the inner workings of a brain, but a set of hacks which can help you learn and remember better.

In other words, it is both an entertaining and a valuable tool for everybody.

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How We Learn Summary - Benedict Carey | 12min Blog

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14 min read ⌚ Quick Summary: How We Learn by Benedict Carey uses the newest findings related to the nature and biology of our brains as a springboard for a fun-to-read exploration of our learning habits and a sort of operational manual on how to tweak them so that you can harness the full power of your innate memory mechanisms. How We Learn is one of those books - akin to Daniel Kahneman's Thinking, Fast and Slow or Charles Duhigg's The Power of Habit - which discover and explain things you've certainly felt before, but couldn't really understand the mechanism.

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This article gives a straightforward bulleted list of tasked required to complete within course design.

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Many of the decisions affecting the success of a course take place well before the first day of class. Careful planning at the course design stage not only makes teaching easier and more enjoyable, it also facilitates student learning. Once your course is planned, teaching involves implementing your course design on a day-to-day level.

Design Your Course

To design an effective course, you need to:

Write a Syllabus

View syllabus specific information on how to:

Teach Your Course

Here you can find information on how to:

This site supplements our 1-on-1 teaching consultations.
CONTACT US to talk with an Eberly colleague in person!

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Design & Teach a Course - Eberly Center - Carnegie Mellon University

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Many of the decisions affecting the success of a course take place well before the first day of class. Careful planning at the course design stage not only makes teaching easier and more enjoyable, it also facilitates student learning. Once your course is planned, teaching involves implementing your course design on a day-to-day level.

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A collection of engaging ideas/activities for virtual learning.

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Active Learning Activities To Include In Your eLearning Course: 8 Creative Ideas For eLearning Professionals

Active learning involves real-world challenges, online group collaboration, and interactive problem-solving. Instead of just reading about the subject matter, online learners are able to actively explore it with their peers. From anywhere on the globe, they have the power to engage in lively online discussions, share experiences, and receive eLearning feedback. Here are 8 non-traditional ways that you can incorporate active learning activities into your Instructional Design strategy.

1. Virtual Brainstorming Sessions

Some of the most brilliant ideas come from group brainstorming sessions. Since your online learners don't have the option to meet up in a coffee shop or physical classroom, you have to bring the brainstorming to them. Social media groups, eLearning forums, and Project Management online tools are all ideal platforms for virtual brainstorming. Just give your online learners a list of suitable topics or challenges and leave them to their own devices. It's also wise to set some ground rules and define expectations. For example, appoint a leader to moderate the online discussion and ask each member to share at least one idea. That way the brainstorming stays on-topic and everyone gets the chance to participate.

2. Q&A eLearning Blogs

Questions in eLearning may seem perfectly mundane. But the right question has the power to alter cognitions and overcome learning obstacles. One inquiry leads to another. Before you know it, new mental pathways are being formed and online learners are engaging in lively online discussions. Create an eLearning blog where your online learners can meet online and share their expertise. To get the ball rolling, ask one thought-provoking question every day and invite online learners to leave a response. You can even encourage them to create their own eLearning blogs and share it with the group. This allows online learners to explore ideas, get eLearning feedback, and discuss topics that matter most to them.

3. Branching Scenarios

Branching scenarios give online learners the ability to apply their knowledge in realistic situations. For example, instead of reading about helping a customer, your employees can interact with a variety of virtual customer personas. This exposes them to common challenges they'll encounter in the real world so that they can gain practical experience. It's also an ideal eLearning activity for asynchronous or self-paced eLearning courses, as group participation is not necessary. When creating your branching scenarios, use realistic images, sounds, and settings to increase online learner immersion. In addition, give each of the eLearning characters unique personal traits to make the eLearning experience more dynamic.

4. Real-World Mysteries

Give online learners the opportunity to become amateur sleuths by incorporating real-world mysteries. This involves relevant case studies, stories, and examples that tie into the subject matter. Omit the ending of the story and let them draw their own conclusions. Better still, divide them into groups and allow them to discuss possible solutions with their peers. After they've explored all possible outcomes, reveal the ending of the story and ask them to compare or contrast it with their response.

5. Video Conferencing Debates

Thanks to modern technology, there is a variety of video conferencing tools to choose from. As such, online learners can participate in video conferencing debates where they explore their own perspectives and discover different viewpoints. For example, encourage online learners to form small groups, assign a topic, and then plan a Google Hangouts debate. Everyone has the opportunity to share their experiences and defend their position. If live debates aren't an option, ask your online learners to record their responses and upload them to video sharing platforms. Or allow them to embed the video into your eLearning blog or online forum to get valuable eLearning feedback. You can even turn it into an eLearning blog debate where online learners debate by writing prompts and leaving comments.

6. Thought-Provoking Stories

Stories are a powerful eLearning tool. They pull the online learner in and make them feel for the eLearning characters and their plight. A well-written eLearning story can even influence an online learner's beliefs or assumptions, prompting them to reevaluate their perspectives. This is the basis of active learning. It requires online learners to ask questions and challenge the status quo. To create thought-provoking stories, focus on a specific challenge or problem that online learners can relate to. Integrate eLearning characters that resonate with them and give them unique personality traits. The goal is to make online learners connect to the story on a deeper level so that they actually care about the outcome.

If you want to add a good dose of interactivity, turn your eLearning story into an online presentation or branching scenario. After your online learners complete the eLearning activity, ask them open-ended questions that allow them to reflect on the topic and how it relates to their lives.

7. Turn The Tables

Assign each online learner a topic and then ask them to create eLearning materials to share with their peers. You can also divide them into groups to turn this eLearning activity into a collaborative endeavor. Give them some guidelines so they know what's expected of them, how the eLearning project will be graded, and which tools they can use. Turning the tables gives them the chance to learn by doing. Instead of just reading the eLearning content, they must fully understand the concepts so that they can create their own.

8. Course Cliffhangers

This creative eLearning activity involves breaking your modules into two sections. The first is an exploration of the subject matter, such as presentations or diagrams that include the key takeaways. Conclude part one with a challenge, riddle, or eLearning story that puts questions in the online learner's mind. In other words, end it on a cliffhanger. The second section is an eLearning activity that answers their questions, but only if they actively participate. For example, complete a serious gameor eLearning simulation that reveals the facts and quells their curiosity.

Use these 8 creative ideas to get your audience involved and excited about the eLearning process. Make it active, collaborative, and problem-centered so that your online learners can expand their practical knowledge and put their skills into action.

Do you want to learn more details about active learning and how you can use it in online training? Read the article Active Learning In Online Training: What eLearning Professionals Should Know to find out how to integrate active learning into your online training course and increase your employees' engagement, motivation and performance.

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8 Creative Ideas For Active Learning Activities To Include In Your eLearning Course

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Active learning involves real-world challenges, online group collaboration, and interactive problem-solving. Instead of just reading about the subject matter, online learners are able to actively explore it with their peers. From anywhere on the globe, they have the power to engage in lively online discussions, share experiences, and receive eLearning feedback.

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An info graphic comparing types of foundational learning theories with the role of specific people (teacher, student, etc. )

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The Power Of Visuals In Online Learning

2019 Instructional Design Trends & Learning Trends

5 Instructional Design Mistakes You Can Avoid Infographic

Comparison of Learning Theories Infographic

The Comparison of Learning Theories Infographic is adapted from " Applying Learning Theory to Mobile,". In order to apply learning theory to mobile learning, you must first understand the three learning theories-behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism-and the techniques that are known to promote learning. This infographic will get you started!

Find out more about Learning Theories by reading the Instructional Design Models and Theories Series. Each of the 33 instructional design milestones described in this series of posts has been chosen not only for its importance in the field of learning, but also for its impact for future generations, research and various related disciplines, such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, demography, and even biology and physiology. Each instructional design model and theory presented in this chronology is analyzed thoroughly, yet concisely, and accompanied by the necessary real world examples. Enjoy this Instructional design journey in the history of instructional design, learn about the intriguing aspects of various instructional design theories, read about the dominant personalities that profoundly changed our sector and feel free to contribute your own thoughts and assessments about any of the subjects discussed in this section.

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Stay up to date on the latest eLearning news, articles, and free resources sent straight to your inbox!

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Comparison of Learning Theories Infographic - e-Learning Infographics

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The Power Of Visuals In Online Learning 2019 Instructional Design Trends & Learning Trends 5 Instructional Design Mistakes You Can Avoid Infographic The Comparison of Learning Theories Infographic is adapted from " Applying Learning Theory to Mobile,".

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This video has everything. A case study, comprehensive overview of foundational learning theories, a lit review and much more.

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"Foundational Learning Theories & Student Learning Motivation"

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This is a super short, info-packed video discussing the basic ways we learn; associative and non associative learning, as well as examples of each.

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This video covers the history and components of transformative learning. I really like their explanation because it’s to the point and uses simple animations and scenarios to explain transformative learning.

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A simple graphic representation of transformative learning.

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Please click here if you are not redirected within a few seconds.

Images
Transformative Training: How to Foster Learning for Service and ...

www.thinkhdi.com

Images may be subject to copyright.

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Please click here if you are not redirected within a few seconds. Images Transformative Training: How to Foster Learning for Service and ... www.thinkhdi.com Images may be subject to copyright.

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This article details the challenges specific to transformative learning. A quick and informative read.

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Teaching for Transformation: From Learning Theory to Teaching Strategies | Tomorrow's Professor Postings

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The posting below looks at the challenges of helping students to make critical paradigm shifts or perspective transformations in their learning. It is by Kelly McGonigal, Ph.D., academic research and program officer in the psychology department at Stanford University. It first appeared in the newsletter: Speaking of Teaching, Center for Teaching and Learning, Stanford University - Spring 2005, Vol.

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Author: Denicia Padgett
September 2, 2020

What are the four major learning theories, what is the role they play in education today, and how does it all connect with Leader in Me ? Let's dig in!

Behaviorist Learning Theory (or Behaviorism) utilizes key ideas from the work of B.F. Skinner, who theorized that learning occurs through a series of rewards or punishments. While Skinner believed that all learning could occur this way, Behaviorist Theory is most commonly utilized in classrooms today as a tool for behavior management. However, educators still utilize rote practice and repetition: two practices that are linked to Behaviorist Theory. According to Skinner, rewards increase the likelihood that behaviors will be repeated, while punishments decrease the likelihood of repetition. He also theorized that rewards and punishments could be either positive or negative in nature. This can confuse a lot of people! What he meant was that when we give or add something to the environment, the interaction is positive; when we take something away, the interaction is negative. So, for example, removing an undesirable activity from the agenda might be a negative reward, and adding an undesirable activity to it might be a positive punishment.

Scenes from a Classroom -

In Ms. X's first grade classroom, she is working with one of her students, Sam, to help him with some challenging attention-span issues. She gives him a sticker whenever she sees him on task. (Positive reward)

In Mr. X's third grade classroom, Mr. X quietly reminds a student to keep all four legs of his chair on the floor. (Positive punishment - yes, verbal praise & reminders qualify as adding something to the environment!)

To increase the number of students who turn in their homework each day, Mr. X announces that if the class has 100% completion on today's assignment, they won't have homework on Friday. (Negative reward)

Students in Mrs. X's art class are having trouble sharing the supplies. Mrs. X writes the word ART on the board, and each time students have a disagreement over supplies, she erases a letter. If the word is erased completely, students will have to use pencil to complete their project for the day. (Negative punishment)

What is the link to Leader in Me Teachers in Leader in Me schools know how important it is to engage students when crafting solutions to various behavior issues. They maintain the belief that every child has worth and potential, and see a behavior challenge as an opportunity to teach a skill and educate the whole child. When appropriate, they create Win-Win Agreements, which are solutions that are mutually created in such a way that everyone is happy with the result. Teachers and students might work together to answer the following questions:

What behavior are we noticing? Why is it happening? When is it happening?

Are we looking to increase or decrease the behavior?

Would we like to earn something, or have something taken away? What might that "something" be?

When students and teachers work together to answer these questions, they craft a solution that everyone is excited about. This level of involvement will lead to greater commitment and engagement in the solution.

Cognitive Learning Theory is largely based on the work of Jean Piaget, who rejected the idea that learners are passive and simply react to stimuli in the environment. Instead of focusing solely on observable behavior, Cognitive Theory seeks to explain how the mind works during the learning process. Like a computer, the mind takes in information, processes that information, then uses that informatio n to produce learning outcomes. Piaget's 4 Stages of Development indicate the learner's ability to understand abstract, complex concepts.

Scenes from a Classroom -

Ms. X, a kindergarten teacher, works with students to verbally communicate their feelings. She knows that at this age, they are naturally egocentric and struggle to see things from others' perspectives.

As Mr. X begins his unit on fractions, he incorporates manipulatives in order to provide a concrete learning experience.

To help students memorize the Periodic Table, Mrs. X co-creates various mnemonic devices with her class.

Ms. X uses a graphic organizer in order to help students write paragraphs with appropriate structure.

At the start of every lesson, Mr. X asks questions to activate the prior knowledge of his students. He knows this will help to link the new learning concepts to previously retained ideas, increasing the likelihood that the new learning will be remembered.

What is the link to Leader in Me Teachers in Leader in Me schools teach empathy and encourage students to develop their speaking and listening skills with Habit 5: Seek First To Understand, Then To Be Understood . They also provide structure and organize learning by using Quality Tools, and students may be taught to make their thinking visible by using hand signals during class discussions. Teachers empower students to learn through the Empowered Learning model, which ignites curiosity and background knowledge, then encourages hands-on investigations with specific learning targets, and ends the lesson by inviting connections.

Constructivist Theory

Constructivists see the learner as a constructor of knowledge. New learning is shaped by schemas, which the learner brings to the learning process. Lev Vygotsky is an important founder of Constructivist Learning Theory. Vygotsky believed that learning is a collaborative process, and that social interaction is fundamental for cognitive development. According to Vygotsky, students learn best when working collaboratively with those whose proficiency level is higher than their own, allowing them to complete tasks they are not yet able to do independently. Vygotsky identified these concepts as the More Knowledgeable Other and the Zone of Proximal Development. Constructivist classrooms are student-centered, with the teacher acting as the facilitator.
Scenes from a Classroom -

Mr. X intentionally pairs students performing on or above grade level with students performing below grade level, inviting them to turn and talk about their learning throughout a lesson.

Mrs. X uses collaborative learning to facilitate engagement with specific learning targets, ensuring heterogeneous student groupings.

Ms. X uses Problem-Based Learning to engage her students in solving real world problems, meeting several learning targets while giving students autonomy to make decisions. She encourages students to work with peers who have different strengths than their own.

What is the link to Leader in Me Teachers in leadership schools begin the year by building high-trust relationships and dedicate time throughout the year to maintaining the social-emotional environment of their classrooms. They aim to incorporate student voice throughout their day, allowing students to take great ownership over their environment and learning. Teachers believe that everyone has genius, and teach their students to acknowledge and utilize the strengths of their classmates, creating synergy. Leadership classrooms buzz with excitement, signaling purposeful student interaction. As teachers aim to empower students, they use teaching strategies that require collaboration and higher order thinking, acting as a guide on the side rather than a sage on the stage.

Humanist Learning Theory approaches learning as a way to fulfill an individual's potential rather than meeting specific learning targets. Maslow's research on the Hierarchy of Needs is a major concept within this theory, as it focuses on the whole person, specifically the cognitive and affective needs of the learner. The theory holds that self-actualization is the ultimate goal of each individual. Learners are trusted to determine their own goals, set standards, and evaluate their own work. Thus, students are at the center of the Humanist classroom. Teachers are facilitators and coaches, recognizing the unique needs of each student and supporting their academic and social development.
Scenes from a Classroom -

Ms. X begins each day with a morning meeting to check in on her students' emotional well-being and proactively teach them specific coping skills & strategies.

Mr. X, an 8th grade science teacher, provides his students a menu of assessment options to illustrate their mastery of learning targets for the unit.

Mrs. X, a 2nd grade teacher, invites each student to set their reading goal for the quarter.

Mr. X, the school's counselor, partners with local organizations to fill backpacks with food that students can take home to ensure they have food to eat over the weekend.

Mrs. X, a 5th grade teacher, sets aside an hour of time each week for students to learn about and create anything they want, utilizing the framework she provides.

What is the link to Leader in Me Teachers at Leader in Me schools utilize The 7 Habits to address the social and emotional needs of their students, and actively partner with families to develop the whole child. They recognize that each student has needs within their heart, mind, body, and spirit, and teach students how to take care of themselves in all four dimensions. They empower students to set their own goals and determine their own action steps. At the highest levels, teachers in leadership schools may co-create rubrics with their students and encourage students to evaluate their own work throughout each unit.

As you can see, today's classrooms do not solely utilize one learning theory over another, but instead incorporate multiple theories throughout the learning experience. Each theory has strengths and limitations, especially considering the realities of education in the 21st century. Educators must walk the narrow line between creating a student-centered classroom and meeting rigorous learning standards. Through our world-class workshops and coaching, teachers at Leader in Me schools are well equipped to succeed and utilize the best of each learning theory. Want to learn more?

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Learning Theories: Understanding the 4 Major Ones for the Classroom

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Learning theories and Learning-theory research provide important insights into what makes students effective and efficient learners. While expanding our knowledge of broad theories as a central focus continues to diminish, present-day researchers typically embrace one or more of four foundational learning-theory domains.

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We know that students learn best when they are truly engaged in what they are learning, when they have the opportunity to explore, debate, discuss, examine, defend, and experiment with the concepts and skills they are ready to learn.

Students learn best when instruction is:

Appropriately Challenging

Kids (and adults!) learn best when they start at their current level of understanding and are challenged - with support (teacher, peers, materials, etc.) - just beyond what they are comfortable doing on their own. (See Zone of Proximal Development)

The student's background knowledge and current skill level are more important than their age/grade level in determining what they are ready to learn.

Use a variety of data (assessment scores, classroom performance, etc.) to identify what each student is ready to work on and plan instruction accordingly, modifying content or activities as needed. Use daily informal formative assessment strategies to monitor student progress and verify that students are demonstrating a gain in understanding of the skills and concepts.

Based on Real-World Problems and Situations

Students need to understand how the skills and concepts they are learning fit into their lives. When will they need to use decimals? How does democracy affect them? How will they benefit from being able to better understand what they read? Connect the skills and concepts to things that already know. Make them relevant.

Purposeful

You (and your students) should be able to explain the purpose of each activity or assignments. Why is it worth spending time on? What are they expected to learn?

Meaningful and Interesting

We shouldn't be waiting until spring before we begin the "fun" activities. We know that these activities are the ones that students love, that they remember.

Use engaging activities all year:

Use science experiments to practice math skills

Use interesting current events or social studies projects to work on reading and language

Use art projects to practice math concepts such as ratio, proportion and patterns

Get kids moving!

Working on measurement? Go outside and measure how far kids can jump, how fast they can run. Measure shadows, the diameter of a light post, the distance around the building.

Talking about point of view? Have students stand on their chairs.

Reading out loud? Have students stand up and walk around the classroom in a circle as they read along.

Practice vocabulary or math facts as students walk, one per sidewalk square or stair step.

Kids will learn the basic skills better when they have the chance to practice them in a meaningful, interesting context... And these types of activities make teaching more fun and fulfilling, and make school a more pleasant place to be.

Remember: No one instructional method will work for all students, for all teachers, or in all subject areas. Think of these ideas as places to start in figuring out what works most effectively for you and your students.

Strategy Ideas:

Alternative Assessments:

"Assessment" can refer to end-of-unit tests or projects, quizzes and graded class assignments as well as informal progress checks throughout each day

Wide variety of possibilities, including:

Use of different checklists or rubrics, or similar rubrics with adapted scales

Use of different tests/assessments

Adapt existing test/assessment so that specific parts of the test only have to be completed by specific groups of students

Allow a student to respond to test questions orally instead of in writing, or typing on a computer instead of writing by hand

Allow a student to respond by demonstrating the skill (For example, a student may use a light bulb, battery and some wire to build an electric circuit rather than drawing a diagram or writing a paragraph about it.)
Assess what is most important for the student to know. Is is more important that he know what a circuit is or more important that he can write a description?

Minimal Prep Time Version: Include as part of the assessment several questions of varying complexity or focused on different aspects of the concept, and then allow students to make some choices about which ones they answer. (Example: Students are required to answer question 1 but can choose from questions 2-4 for their second response.)

Anchor Activities (or Sponge Activities):

Prep Time Varies; Monitor Progress, Work Together, Share Ideas & Opinions, Take Notes

Designed for students to work on either immediately at the beginning of class time or after their class work has been completed, so that their instructional time is maximized

Possibilities include:

Have students respond in writing or out-loud with a partner to a question on the board about the previous day's lesson

Have students draw a graphic organizer to be used for notetaking later in class

Provide students with notes or vocabulary to copy for use as a reference during the day's lesson

Beneficial for classroom management as well as instruction

Intended to extend or deepen understanding of a concept or skill, not just to be busy work

Resources, Examples and More Information

Appointment Clocks:

Requires Some Prep Time; Form Groups, Get Moving!, Work Together

Used to quickly put students in pairs or small groups

Make a copy of the clock for each student. The names of other students go at each hour mark around the clock so that asking students to find their "1 o'clock" partner puts the students in pairs, for example.

Allow students to choose partners for some times on the clock, but decide some of the partners ahead of time so that you know, for example, that the 2 o'clock partners are students with similar skills in reading or that the 5 o'clock partners have similar interests.

Centers (or Stations):
More Prep Time Required; Work Together, Adapt Content, Share Ideas & Opinions

Centers can be used to arrange various activities and assignments by level of difficulty or by interest.

By Academic Skill Level: Set up 3-4 experiments that deal with the same concept, but that vary in complexity. Lower-level students may work on the experiment with fewer steps while higher-level students work on a more complicated task.

By Learning Style: Set up stations focused on the same concept but designed for different modalities. Auditory learners may listen to a recording of text while visual learners examine maps and posters and kinesthetic learners use manipulatives.

By Interest: Set up stations focusing that provide additional information about and enrichment of specific components of the concepts being studied. Allow students to choose which component they spend their time working on.

Choice Boards:

Options posted for students to choice from after they have completed their classwork. Choices can be individualized based on student need or interest.

Helps with classroom management because students know what their choices are; less time wasted.

Print choices on cards and glue magnets on the back so the choices can easily be put up or taken down based on what's appropriate for the time available (ie., if student works requires a quiet room, choices may be limited to "silent reading" or "work on homework," etc.

Six commands or questions, written on the sides of a cube. Students roll the cube and respond. Cubes may be used to differentiate by readiness or interest.

Ideas:

Describe, Compare, Contrast, Apply, Predict, Imagine - Use with any two or three things/concepts/ideas (people from history, current events, mathematical formulas, elements from the periodic table, geometric shapes, countries, chocolate bars - the possibilities are endless!

Who, What, When, Where, Why, How - Have students come up with questions about a current topic of study. Students can exchange questions with others to answer.

Sample Cubing Lesson: Primary Reading - Concepts of Print

Create two or three different cubes, each with questions at different levels of complexity. Assign students to work in small groups and respond (on paper or out loud) to the questions on their assigned cube.

Use to determine where each student will start when rotating through multiple activities, to randomly create student groups for an assignment

Minimal Prep Time Version:Write the six commands/questions on the board, numbered 1-6. Have the students roll a dice to determine which one to respond to.

Curriculum Compacting:

Used for individual or small groups of students with advanced knowledge of the concepts or skills to be studied

Identify the skills or aspects of the concepts with which the students are already proficient. Spend less time on those parts of the curriculum, allowing the students to focus on what the really need to learn and understand.

Exit Ticket/Ticket Out the Door:

At the end of a class period ask students to take out a piece of scrap paper, or hand out blank index cards (keep a stack readily available) and ask students a question related to that day's lesson. Students write their responses on the paper or index card which they then hand to the teacher at the door as they leave the classroom.

See "Reflection and Response" for question ideas

Use the student responses to determine if they need additional practice on the skill/concept

Student responses may be used to create small groups for the next day's lesson - grouping students with similar levels of understanding of the skill/concept or with similar (or differing) opinions or views on the topic

On each wall of the classroom, post signs that say: "Strongly Agree," "Agree," "Disagree," "Strongly Disagree"

Present students with a statement related to a concept or topic currently being studied

Have students respond to the statement by moving and standing under the sign that represents their opinion

Give the students 1-2 minutes to discuss with in their groups why they chose that place to stand

Optional: Have students partner with someone from another side and try to persuade them to change their opinion

Small groups for an activity can be formed by having the students work with the others who chose the same side or by taking one person from each side to create groups of four with differing viewpoints.

Grade as You Go:

Use with classwork involving repetitive practice, such as a math or language worksheet

As students work (alone or with a partner), circulate around the classroom checking answers on the students' work. Mark correct answers on their papers with the tip of a colored marker (Crayola "Stampers" work particularly well).

Benefits:

Students get immediate feedback on what they are doing correctly.

Students can go back to the answers that weren't correct and try again. (This works well when the students are in partners; they can talk through what they've done and help each other.) Identifying their mistakes now will help reduce the chance of repeating the same mistakes again later.

If students are struggling, they will know that their answers aren't correct sooner rather than later and can work to identify the mistakes they're making instead of spending the class period repeatedly getting the problems wrong (and potentially reinforcing the incorrect way to solve the problem).

If a student is working quickly and getting all of the problems correct (demonstrating a good understanding of the skill), you may choose not to require him to complete the assignment, but to move on to something else instead.

You will know right away if the class as a whole is ready to move on to the next skill.

When the assignments are turned in, they're already graded!

Heads Together:

Works especially well for students already working in small groups, especially if they are sitting at a table or cluster of desks together

How It Works:

1. Present a question to the class. Announce "Heads Together!"

2. Students stand up and lean in toward the others in the small group - literally heads together!

3. In their group, students discuss answers to the question

4. After a minute or two, announce "Heads Apart!"

5. Students end their discussion and sit back down.

6. Follow up with whole group discussion and continue with the lesson.

Benefits:

Every student participates

Standing up - that little bit of physical activity - can be enough to increase student engagement and get their focus back on the work at hand

Leaning together helps keep the noise level down while so many student groups are having conversations at once

Can be used as needed with no prior planning - If a lesson is dragging, if students are distracted, tired, or not paying attention, use this strategy to get them back on track and refocused.

Homework Options:

Prep Time Varies; Monitor Progress, Adapt Content

Assign homework based on a student's level of readiness. All students may be working on the same concept or skill, but are assigned homework of varying level of difficulty.

Another option: Students may be given assignments focusing on different skills, based on their individual needs, to give them a chance to practice the skills each student needs most.

Works well with small groups needing to cover large amounts of material

Divide the material to be covered in 3-5 parts. Put the same number of students in each small group. One student is each group is assigned to cover one of the parts of the materials. The student's job is to become the "expert" on their portion of the material so that they can then share what they've learned with the rest of their group.

1. Students read their assigned material independently

2. Students meet with those from other groups that read the same material to discuss what was most important and what needs to be taught to their groups. (optional)

3. Students meet with their small groups and to share what they've learned with each other. Follow with whole group discussion of the most important points.

Columns: "What I Know," "What I Want to Know," and "What I Learned"

Can be used at the beginning of a unit to assess students' background knowledge and interest in the topic, or it can be used at various points throughout the unit to assess student progress. Students can track their own progress and help determine what they most need to work on next.

Learning Contracts:

Works well with individual students or small groups in need of a challenge

Detailed list of directions and assignments for the student to complete within a set period of time. Teacher and student work together to establish contract requirements and due dates. Can be effectively used to develop goal-setting.

Can be used to practice time-management as well. Provide students with a blank calendar have students schedule days/class periods when they will work on each part of the contract in order to meet the final due date. Students working on the same part of the contract during the same class perdiod may have the option of working togther.

Literature Circles:

Requires Some Prep Time; Compare & Contrast, Form Groups, Get Moving!, Work Together, Adapt Content, Share Ideas & Opinions

Small groups of students, arranged by readiness level or interest, reading and responding to a novel together

Idea: The whole class may be reading novels by the same author or that have similar themes, but each literature circle group has a novel that is specifically appropriate for them. This allows for whole group discussion as well as small group work.
A few times a year, allow students to choose their own groups. Present them with the novels to be studied for a particular unit (basic plot summary, reading level, book length, etc.) and let students choose which book they are each most interested in. They'll then work with others who chose the same book.

Encourage groups to move their desks into a circle, to sit together on the floor or to otherwise move out of their normal seating to encourage discussion and an emphasis on actively working as a learning team instead of more passively listening to a teacher

Menus (or Agendas):

List of assignments, activities, or projects a student will work on during a set amount of time (ie. one class period, one week, one unit). Students may choose the order which they complete the work.

"Main Course" Items: Assignments that the student is required to complete

"Side Dish" Items: Students choose 2-3 assignments from a list of options

"Dessert" Items: Optional items that students may choose for additional enrichment or practice

Agenda format may be structured more loosely, such as the low-prep example below

Like Learning Contracts, Menus/Agendas can be used to practice time-management as well. Provide students with a blank calendar have students schedule days/class periods when they will work on each part of the contract in order to meet the final due date. Students working on the same part of the contract during the same class period may have the option of working together.

Materials/Resources: Reading Agenda - Novel Study (Word)

Mini White Boards:

Provide each student with a small white board (10-12 inches square), a dry erase marker and a tissue (to wipe the board clean between questions). Ask a question or write a problem on the board. Ask students to respond on their white boards, which they hold up once they have an answer written.

Can also be used for questions based on opinion or that potentially have multiple right answers. After students hold up their answers, have them find a partner with a different answer. Give them each one minute to explain to their new parters why their own answer is the right one. Have the students come back together and discuss any changes in opinion.

Or, have students form small groups with others who gave the same or similar answers. Use these student groups for the day's lesson.

Benefits:

You will get immediate feedback about which students understand the concept or skill and which students may need some additional support.

All students participate. Holding up the answers increases the accountability and engagement for everyone.

Materials/Resources:

Cheaper White Boards: At your local home improvement store, buy a large, plain white piece of the material used for shower walls. Ask to have it cut into 10-12 inch squares (enough to have a class set). Cheap, but they can last for years.

Another Option: Instead of a white board, use a heavy-duty, clear page protector with white cardstock inside. As a bonus, you can layer the plain white cardstock with graph paper, a black-line master of a map, or a copy of whatever students need for the skill they're practicing.

Orbitals (Independent Study Projects):

3-4 week independent study projects intended to provide enrichment

Effective for use with individual students who have already mastered the concepts the class will be working on. Provides an opportunity for them to focus on a part of the concept or separate topic of particular interest to the student (possibility something he or she is passionate about). Allow the student to share with the class what he or she has learned at the conclusion of the project. For example, while the class studies the Civil War, a student who is already very knowledgeable about that war might focus on specific details related to a particular battle or person involved.

Question Choices:

Requires Minimal Prep Time; Monitor Progress, Form Groups, Adapt Content

During whole group discussions, include questions that everyone in the class is able to answer, as well as more complex questions that only a few students may be able to answer. Adjust the difficulty of the questions depending on which student will be called on to respond.

Also see Alternative Assessment Minimal Prep Time Version

Reading Buddies:

Pair each student with another of a different reading level (low with medium, medium with high) for partner reading and discussion

Also, pairing upper grade students with lower grade students, such as having a fourth grade class buddy up with a first grade class, provides reading practice for all students and can be fun and motivating for both groups.

Reflection and Response:

Provide opportunity for students to respond and reflect on day's learning. Helps you to know where they stand for planning next lessons. Increases memory retention for students.

Keep a stack of blank index cards on hand to give to students at the end of class. Have students respond on the card to something from the day's lesson.

Ideas:

Draw a sketch that demonstrates _______________ (a key concept from that day's lesson)

What one thing from today's lesson would you like to know more about?

What one thing from today's lesson did you find most interesting?

Ask a question from the day's lesson content.

Ask a question that requires higher-level thinking or connections to "real-life":

Which of the generals leading this battle showed the most bravery? Why?

How would this math skill would be used in science? in cooking? in construction?

Which of these people/ideas/concepts/events is the most important/useful/worth remembering? Why?

Scaffolding:

Works well with individuals and small groups when working on instruction of specific skills

Identify specific levels of complexity within the development of a particular skill/concepts. Match students, by ability, with the appropriate level of skill; students at the same level may work in flexible groups. The goal is to have each student move up at least one level.

Sticky Note Graphs:

Give each student a small stack of sticky notes (5-10 notes, depending on how many responses you anticipate)

Present students with a question related to the content. Questions with multiple correct answers or that ask for opinions or votes work well.

Students write one answer or response on each sticky note

Question Ideas:

Which animal is most important to sustaining the jungle ecosystem?

What are your three favorite books that you read last year?

What activities should we plan for our class picnic?

The Process:

After students finish writing their answers, have them place all of their sticky notes in a designated spot on a wall or white board.

Students work together to find and group sticky notes with the same or similar answers (stick the notes in clusters or in lines to create a bar graph)

Discuss which responses where most common and why

Optional: Leave the sticky notes on the wall during additional lessons on the concept/topic. After students have learned more, have give them the opportunity to change their response (and have them explain their reason for wanting to change their answer).

Think-Tac-Toe:

Requires More Prep Time; Compare & Contrast, Form Groups, Work Together, Adapt Content, Share Ideas & Opinions, Take Notes

Nine commands or questions, arranged like a tic-tac-toe board. Students choose three to complete, creating a row vertically, horizontally, or diagonally.

Student choice allows for differentiation by interest and/or learning style. Think-tac-toe boards for different levels of readiness can also be created and given to different groups of students.

Students may also be given choices as to which assignment square they complete during a particular class period. Students who choose the same assignment may form a small group for that day.

Materials/Resources: Think-Tac-Toe for middle grade novel study - 2 Levels (Word)

Think-Pair-Share:

Requires Minimal Prep Time; Monitor Progress, Compare & Contrast, Work Together, Share Ideas & Opinions

Provides opportunities for all students to respond and be involved during whole group discussion

1. Ask a question or propose a problem

2. Students first think of an answer or idea on their own (2-3 minutes)

3. Next, students share, and possibly revise, their responses by sharing with a partner

4. Then open discussion to the whole group to share and compare answers and ideas

Tiered Activities:

3-4 different activities of different levels of complexity and difficulty, but with a common goal or end result. For example, different groups of students may be working on science experiments of different levels of difficulty, but all with the purpose of learning about the food chain.

1. Begin by planning the mid-level activity, what you might normally plan for your whole class.

2. Then add a level of difficulty or complexity to make the same lesson more challenging for higher-level students.

3. Simplify or add resources to the original activity to better meet the needs and fill in any learning gaps for lower-level students.

Students may work in small groups with others at the same level for a particular lesson or throughout a particular unit.

Tiered activities can lead to effective whole group discussion and comparison of results.

Minimal Prep Time Version: Some curriculum come with leveled workbooks. There may be a "Reteaching" workshop that explains a skill step-by-step, a "Practice" workbook that provides problems to solve related to the skill, and an "Enrichment" workbook that extends the skill in some way. Assign students to the appropriate workbook page so that every student can practice the same skill at his or her own level of readiness. Or, briefly describe the assignments and then let the students choose which level they'd like to complete; their choices may provide some insight into their comfort level with the skill.

Tiered Rubrics:

2-3 rubrics are developed for one project, and given to students based on readiness. This provides all students with appropriate skills to focus on and a chance to be successful.

Ideas:

Include the same categories, but adjust the point value and/or required elements, or

Add additional categories or requirements to increase the challenge and take off or reduce the requirements (leaving only on what's most important for them to learn) for kids needing assistance

Use rubrics with increasing difficulty or requirements over successive projects as a means of identifying areas of student growth

Varied Organizers:

Provide 2-3 organizers of differing complexity

Example:

Students needing more guidance may be given a ready-to-use organizer with blanks for them to fill in.

Students ready for more independence may be given an incomplete organizer that requires them to fill in blanks as well as adding detail.

More advanced students may be given only a basic framework for the organizer (or a blank piece of paper) which they complete on their own.

Varied Products:

Possibly the easiest way to differentiate

Allow students to make choices about how they demonstrate what they've learned, whether they write an essay, make a poster, or act out a scene.

Be clear about your expectations, possibly using a rubric; then allow students to meet the requirements in their own way.

This also works well when you have limited resources because not all students need to same materials and equipment at the same time.

Varied Texts:

Provide resources at a variety of reading levels that provide students with information about the skill or concept being studied

Assign reading material to students based on skill level, or allow them to choose the text they are most interested in. Put students in small groups with other students reading the same material.

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We know that students learn best when they are truly engaged in what they are learning, when they have the opportunity to explore, debate, discuss, examine, defend, and experiment with the concepts and skills they are ready to learn. Students learn best when instruction is: Appropriately Challenging Kids (and adults!)

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I. Techniques for Assessing Course-Related Knowledge & Skills

A. Assessing Prior Knowledge, Recall, and Understanding

The CATs in this group focus on assessing declarative learning - the content of a particular subject.

Background Knowledge Probe: Short, simple questionnaires prepared by instructors for use at the beginning of a course or at the start of new units or topics; can serve as a pretest

Focused Listing: Focuses students' attention on a single important term, name, or concept from a lesson or class session and directs students to list ideas related to the "focus"

Misconception/Preconception Check: Intended to uncover prior knowledge or beliefs that may hinder or block new learning; can be designed to uncover incorrect or incomplete knowledge, attitudes, or values

Empty Outlines: In a limited amount of time students complete an empty or partially completed outline of an in-class presentation or homework assignment

Memory Matrix: Students complete a table about course content in which row and column headings are complete but cells are empty

Minute Paper: The most frequently used CAT; students answer 2 questions (What was the most important thing you learned during this class? What important question remains unanswered?)

Muddiest Point: Considered by many as the simplest CAT; students respond to the question "What was the most unclear or confusing point in (lecture, homework, discussion)?"

B. Assessing Skill in Analysis and Critical Thinking
The CATs in this group focus on analysis-the breaking down of information, questions, or problems to facilitate understanding and problem solving.

Categorizing Grid: Student complete a grid containing 2 or 3 overarching concepts and a variety of related subordinate elements associated with the larger concepts

Defining Features Matrix: Students categorize concepts according to the presence or absence of important defining features

Pro and Con Grid: Students list pros/cons, costs/benefits, advantages/disadvantages of an issue, question, or value of competing claims

Content, Form, and Function Outlines: In an outline form, students analyze the "what" (content), "how" (form), and "why" (function) of a particular message (e.g. poem, newspaper story, critical essay); also called "What, How, & Why Outlines

Analytic Memos: Students write a one- or two-page analysis of a specific problem or issue to help inform a decision-maker

C. Assessing Skill in Synthesis and Creative Thinking
The CATs in this group focus on synthesis - stimulating the student to create and allowing the faculty to assess original intellectual products that result from a synthesis of course content and the students' intelligence, judgment, knowledge, and skills.

One-Sentence Summary: Students answer the questions "Who does what to whom, when, where, how, and why?" (WDWWWWHW) about a given topic and then create a single informative, grammatical, and long summary sentence

Word Journal: Involves a 2 part response; 1st the student summarizes a short text in a single word and 2nd the student writes 1-2 paragraphs explaining the word choice

Approximate Analogies: Students simply complete the 2nd half of an analogy-a is to b as
? is to ?; described as approximate because the rigor of formal logic is not required

Concept Maps: Students draw or diagram the mental connections they make between a major concept and other concepts they have learned

Invented Dialogues: Students synthesize their knowledge of issues, personalities, and historical periods into the form of a carefully structured illustrative conversation; students can select and weave quotes from primary sources or invent reasonable quotes that fit characters and context

Annotated Portfolios: Students assemble a very limited number of examples of creative work and supplement them with their own commentary on the significance of examples

D. Assessing Skill in Problem Solving
The CATs in this group focus on problem solving skills - recognizing different types of problems, determining the principles and techniques to solve them, perceiving similarities of problem features, and being able to reflect and then alter solution strategies.

Problem Recognition Tasks: Students recognize and identify particular problem types

What's the Principle?: Students identify the principle or principles to solve problems of various types

Documented Problem Solutions: Students track in a written format the steps they take to solve problems as if for a "show & tell"

Audio- and Videotaped Protocols: Students work through a problem solving process and it is captured to allow instructors to assess metacognition (learner's awareness of and control of thinking)

E. Assessing Skill in Application and Performance
The CATs in this group focus on students' application of conditional knowledge - knowing when and where to apply what they know and can do.

Directed Paraphrasing: Students paraphrase part of a lesson for a specific audience demonstrating ability to translate highly specialized information into language the clients or customers can understand

Application Cards: Students generate examples of real-world applications for important principles, generalizations, theories, or procedures

Student-Generated Test Questions: Students generate test questions and model answers for critical areas of learning

Human Tableau or Class Modeling: Students transform and apply their learning into doing by physically modeling a process or representing an image.

Paper or Project Prospectus: Students create a brief plan for a paper or project based on your guiding questions

II. Techniques for Assessing Learner Attitudes, Values, and Self-Awareness
A. Assessing Students' Awareness of Their Attitudes and Values
The CATs in this group are designed to assist instructors in developing students' attitudes, opinions, values, and self-awareness within the course curriculum.

28. Classroom Opinion Polls: Students indicate degree of agreement or disagreement with a statement or prompt
29. Double-entry Journals: Students record and respond to significant passages of text
30. Profiles of Admiral Individuals: Students write a brief description of the characteristics of a person they admire in a field related to the course
31. Everyday Ethical Dilemma: Students respond to a case study that poses a discipline-related ethical dilemma
32. Course-related Self-Confidence Surveys: Students complete an anonymous survey indicating their level of confidence in mastering the course material

B. Assessing Students' Self-Awareness as Learners
The CATs in this group help students articulate their goals and self-concepts in order to make connections between their goals and those of the course.

33. Focused Autobiographical Sketches: Students write a brief description of a successful learning experience they had relevant to the course material
34. Interest/Knowledge/Skills Checklists: Students complete a checklist survey to indicate their knowledge, skills and interest in various course topics
35. Goal Ranking and Matching: Students list and prioritize 3 to 5 goals they have for their own learning in the course
36. Self-Assessment Ways of Learning: Students compare themselves with several different "learning styles" profiles to find the most likely match

C. Assessing Course-Related Learning and Study Skills, Strategies, and Behaviors
The CATs in this group assist students in focusing attention on the behaviors they engage in when trying to learn.

37. Productive Study-Time Logs: Students complete a study log to record the quantity and quality of time spent studying for a specific course
38. Punctuated Lectures: Students briefly reflect then create a written record of their listening level of a lecture. Repeat twice in the same lecture and 2- 3 times over 2 to 3 weeks
39. Process Analysis: Students outline the process they take in completing a specified assignment
40. Diagnostic Learning Logs: Students write to learn by identifying, diagnosing, and prescribing solutions to their own learning problems

III. Techniques for Assessing Learner Reactions to Instruction
A. Assessing Learner Reactions to Teachers and Teaching
The CATS in this group are designed to provide context-specific feedback that can improve teaching within a course.

41. Chain Notes: On an index card that is distributed in advance, each student responds to an open-ended prompt about his or her mental activity that is answered in less than a minute
42. Electronic Survey Feedback: Students respond to a question or short series of questions about the effectiveness of the course.
43. Teacher-designed Feedback Forms: Students respond to specific questions through a focused feedback form about the effectiveness of a particular class session
44. Group Instructional Feedback Technique: Students respond to three questions related to their learning in the course (basically, what works, what doesn't, and how can it be improved)
45. Classroom Assessment Quality Circles: A group or groups of students provide the instructor with ongoing assessment of the course through structured interactions

B. Assessing Learner Reactions to Class Activities, Assignments, and Materials
The CATS in this group are designed to provide instructors with information that will help them improve their course materials and assignments.

46. RSQC2 (Recall, Summarize, Question, Connect and Comment): Students write brief statements that recall, summarize, question, connect and comment on meaningful points from previous class
47. Group-Work Evaluation: Students complete a brief survey about how their group is functioning and make suggestions for improving the group process
48. Reading Rating Sheets: Students complete a form that rates the effectiveness of the assigned readings
49. Assignment Assessments: Students respond to 2 or 3 open-ended questions about the value of an assignment to their learning
50. Exam Evaluations: Students provide feedback about an exam's learning value and/or format

Source: Angelo, T. & Cross, K.P. (1993). Classroom assessment techniques: A handbook for college teachers (2nd Edition). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. (Available in the CELT library, room 518, King Building)

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50 Classroom Assessment Techniques (CATs)

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I. Techniques for Assessing Course-Related Knowledge & Skills A. Assessing Prior Knowledge, Recall, and Understanding The CATs in this group focus on assessing declarative learning - the content of a particular subject.

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What is Formative Assessment?

Formative assessment is the process of monitoring student learning and providing ongoing feedback and adjustments throughout the duration of a course. Formative assessments are generally simple, non-graded (low stakes), in-class activities that include observations, reflection journals, and question sessions. Formative assessment techniques are also known as Classroom Assessment Techniques (CATs.)

What are some examples of Formative Assessment?

The Background Knowledge Probe

A short and simple questionnaire designed to reveal student's preconceptions. It is administered at the start of the course, or before the introduction of a new unit or lesson.

The Minute Paper

A brief, written response at the end of a class period, asking students: "What was the most important thing you learned during this class?" and "What important question remains unanswered?"

The Muddiest Point

Students are asked to jot down a quick response to one question: "What was the muddiest (most unclear or confusing) point in the lecture/discussion/assignment?"

What's the Principle?

Students are given a few problems and asked to state the principle that best applies to each problem. Especially useful in courses requiring problem-solving.

Defining Features Matrix

Instructor creates a matrix of three columns and several rows. At the top of the first two columns, two distinct concepts that have potentially confusing similarities are listed (e.g. mitosis vs meiosis, Classical vs Operant Conditioning.) In the third column, important characteristics of both concepts are listed in no particular order. Students are asked to identify which characteristics belong to each of the two concepts.

Why use Formative Assessment?

Formative Assessment:

Can improve both student learning and teaching effectiveness.

Provides just-in-time feedback.

Requires less work than traditional assignments.

Helps students learn to monitor their own learning.

Encourages a view of teaching as an ongoing process of inquiry, experimentation, and reflection.

Helps students feel less anonymous.

Shows that instructors have a deep interest in student learning.

How Should I use Formative Assessment?

A good strategy is the following:

1. Decide what you want to assess about your student's learning.

2. Choose a technique that provides this feedback, can be easily implented in class, and is consistent with your teaching style.

3. Before you conduct the chosen activity, make sure to explain its purpose to your students.

4. After class, review the results and determine what they tell you about student learning.

5. Decide to make changes, if any.

6. Discuss with your students the outcome of the assessment and how you will use this information going forward.

Where can I find more examples of Formative Assessment Techniques?
From Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching: Classroom Assessment Techniques From George Washington University Teaching and Learning Center: Classroom Assessment Techniques

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Formative assessment is the process of monitoring student learning and providing ongoing feedback and adjustments throughout the duration of a course. Formative assessments are generally simple, non-graded (low stakes), in-class activities that include observations, reflection journals, and question sessions. Formative assessment techniques are also known as Classroom Assessment Techniques (CATs.)

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What eLearning Professionals Should Know About The Transformative Learning Theory

The Transformative Learning Theory, which was first introduced by Jack Mezirow [1], is based on the principle that personal experience is an integral part of the learning process. It suggests that a learner's interpretation of the experience creates meaning, which leads to a change in the behavior, mindset, and beliefs. When transformational learning occurs, a learner may undergo a "paradigm shift" that directly impacts future experiences. For example, they might discover that they have a hidden talent or that a long-held assumption is inaccurate. This article explores the core principles, dimensions and components of the Transformative Learning Theory, as well as how to apply it in eLearning course design.

Principles Of The Transformative Learning Theory

There are 4 primary principles that eLearning professionals can use to ensure that their eLearning courses provide a transformative eLearning experience:

1. There are two distinct forms of learning that an individual experiences:

Instrumental
Involvestask or problem-based learning. Online learners must identify the cause and effect, as well as the relationship between the concepts.

Communicative
Online learners communicate their wants, needs, and emotions.

2. In order for learning to occur, there must be a change in the learner's perspective. The Transformative Learning Theory also states that a change in the meaning structures must take place.

3. Online learners undergo a change in their meaning structure by reflecting on the eLearning process, content, or underlying ideas.

4. The eLearning process may consist of refining or elaborating on meaning schemes, discovering new schemes, transforming existing schemes, or modifying personal perspective.

Dimensions Of The Transformative Learning Theory

According to the Transformative Learning Theory, there are 3 dimensions involved in "perspective transformation":

1. Psychological

Learners change their perspective or understanding of themselves. Based on the Transformative Learning Theory, for real learning to take place individuals must be able to think autonomously. Rather than allowing society or culture dictate what we think and feel or who we are, we should create our own meanings and interpretations.

2. Convictional

Transformation of the belief system, such as personal values and assumptions. Instead of going along with the status quo, learners shift their cognitions based on their personal experience.

3. Behavioral

Learners alter their lifestyle. For example, they might change some habits based on the information they received. The learning experience transforms their behavior and influences their actions.

Basic Components of The Transformative Learning Theory:

There are 2 essential components to the Transformative Learning Theory that must be present in order for learning to occur:

1. Meaning Structures

According to Mezirow [1], learners assign their own meaning to information, based on their personal cognitions. For example, two people might have completely different interpretations of the same information. Mezirow suggests that there are three codes which form meaning structures:

Sociolinguistic Codes
The effect that society has on our schemes and structures. Examples of this are societal norms, cultural expectations, and how language is used.

Psychological Codes
Pertains to an individual's emotional and mental state. In other words, their thoughts and feelings directly impact their meaning structures.

Epistemic Codes
Focuses on how knowledge is obtained, its validity, and the conditions surrounding the learning experience. If knowledge does not come from a reliable source, learners are less likely to attach meaning to it.

2. Critical Reflection

Mezirow states that individuals must "engage in critical reflection on their experiences, which in turn leads to a perspective transformation." Learners are only able to create meaning structures if they have the opportunity to reflect on their learning experience. This process of reflection allows them to become more self-aware and understand themselves on a deeper level. As a result, they can understand the information more effectively and get more out of the learning experience.

On the other hand, according to Mezirow "reflection involves a critique of assumptions to determine whether the belief, often acquired through cultural assimilation in childhood, remains functional for us as adults." Individuals must be able to challenge their current assumptions and carefully examine their validity. In some instances, they may discover that these cognitions are rooted in societal or cultural beliefs, rather than their own personal belief system. By critically reflecting, they have the power to critique and alter their assumptions in order to make meaningful change.

How To Apply The Transformative Learning Theory In eLearning

To create transformative eLearning experiences you must facilitate a change in their meaning structures. By offering online learners new problem-solving approaches and ideas, as well as challenging their assumptions, you are enacting a positive change in their mental schemes. The ultimate goal is to trigger a "perspective transformation", which involves transforming an online learner's perception of the world, themselves, or the topic. Give your online learners time to reflect, ask thought-provoking questions, and encourage them to analyze their beliefs in order to gauge their validity. Also, keep in mind that transformations can often occur gradually, especially those that involve a change in perspective.

Use this article to apply the Transformative Learning Theory in your eLearning course design. Though some strategies may involve changes that are more subtle, others may be on a grander scale. Whatever the case may be, it's important to remember that even the smallest change can bring your online learners closer to achieving their goals.

Creating a supportive and motivational eLearning environment is essential for transformational learning? Read the article 7 Tips To Create The Perfect eLearning Conditions to discover how to develop the ideal setting for your eLearning course.
References
Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative Dimensions of Adult Learning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

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The Transformative Learning Theory: What eLearning Professionals Should Know - eLearning Industry

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The Transformative Learning Theory, which was first introduced by Jack Mezirow [1], is based on the principle that personal experience is an integral part of the learning process. It suggests that a learner's interpretation of the experience creates meaning, which leads to a change in the behavior, mindset, and beliefs.

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Instructional strategies refer to the techniques instructors use to deliver their lessons. Effective instructional strategies-also known as teaching strategies-help students become actively involved in the learning process. When done right, instructional strategies also support students in reaching their learning objectives.

By reading the guide below ( our downloading this free list of instructional strategies), you'll gain a solid understanding of the various types of teaching strategies, why they're important and how they can be applied to the learning process to benefit both professors and students.

In this guide, you'll:

Learn what instructional strategies are, and the various strategies educators can use to teach more effectively

Gain a deeper understanding of how instructional strategies for teachers-including formal and informal assessments, case studies, debates, flipped classrooms and more-play into the overall student learning experience

Get equipped to implement instructional strategies that are appropriate for your course in order to become more effective at teaching and engaging students

Get access to a free instructional strategies list, packed with 25 easy-to-implement exercises for your next course

With this collection of teaching strategies, you'll be ready to guide students towards success in any classroom setting. Plus, putting a few of these techniques into practice will ensure students come to class prepared to engage with the material, with their peers and with you.

1. What are instructional strategies?

Instructional strategies encompass any type of learning technique a teacher uses to help students learn or gain a better understanding of the course material. They allow teachers to make the learning experience more fun and practical and can also encourage students to take more of an active role in their education. The objective of using instructional strategies beyond subject comprehension is to create students who are independent, strategic learners. The hope is, with time and practice, students will be able to select the right strategies on their own and use them effectively to complete tasks.

There are various instructional strategy examples that can be used effectively at all levels and subject areas, with a wide range of learning styles. These learning strategies motivate students by improving their engagement, capturing their attention and encouraging them to focus on not only remembering course material, but truly understanding it.

Educators who use instructional strategies allow students to make meaningful connections between concepts learned in class and real-life situations. They offer an opportunity for students to demonstrate their knowledge and course correct on their own when needed. Teachers also benefit from using instructional strategies because they're able to better monitor and assess student performance through different methods of evaluation.

2. What's the difference between instructional strategies, teaching strategies, teaching techniques and teaching practices?

In the dynamic landscape of higher education, understanding the nuances between instructional strategies, teaching strategies, teaching techniques, and teaching practices is crucial for educators aiming to enhance their pedagogical approach. Instructional strategies encompass a broader framework, outlining the overarching plans and methods employed to facilitate learning. These strategies guide the selection of teaching methods and techniques, serving as the foundation for effective educational practices. On the other hand, teaching strategies delve into the specific approaches instructors use to convey information and engage students. These strategies act as the vehicles through which instructional goals are achieved, embracing diverse methodologies such as collaborative learning, active participation, and technology integration.

Zooming in further, teaching techniques are the tactical tools and methods employed within a specific teaching strategy. These are the hands-on practices educators implement to deliver content, foster understanding, and promote critical thinking. Examples include case studies, role-playing, and interactive discussions. Finally, teaching practices encompass the comprehensive application of instructional, teaching, and technical strategies in the classroom. It reflects the amalgamation of various methods tailored to the unique needs of learners and the subject matter. By dissecting these components, higher education professors can refine their pedagogical repertoire, fostering a rich and dynamic learning environment for their students.

3. Types of instructional or teaching strategies

There are far too many types of instructional or teaching strategies to catalog in one place. And there's no single, specific way to group them together. While the categories below are by no means exhaustive, instructional strategies often fall under general groupings. These include: active learning, assessment-based, group-based, advanced strategies, organizational (or classroom management) and tiered.

4. Active learning instructional strategies and teaching strategy examples

4.1. Exit tickets

Before students leave your learning environment, ask them to answer a question related to a key concept discussed in the lesson that day. They can write it down on a piece of paper or index card. Questions can be simple, like asking students what they found most interesting about the lesson. Or, they can be more complex, such as having them draw a sketch that demonstrates what they learned, or asking them to connect the key concept they learned to a real-life situation. Have students hand the 'tickets' to you as they exit (or have them submit a response to your discussion board), then review the responses.

The feedback can help educators determine which students need additional teaching in specific areas. Using this approach, teachers gain a quick understanding of how the whole class is grasping and reacting to the material.

Use the information from the exit tickets to form groups in the class that follows. Place students at similar levels of understanding, or who have similar views on a topic, together. Conversely, group students with opposing views together in order to foster debate and conversation. Learn more about the types of exit tickets you can use in your next course-download an exit ticket template here.

4.2. Flipped classrooms

Regardless of where you teach, flipping your classroom is one of the most popular forms of active learning and among the most well-known instructional strategies. Instead of using classroom time for lecturing, educators provide students with a pre-recorded lecture to watch prior to class. They're often concise, posted to sites like YouTube, or presented in the form of a podcast that students can listen to at home or during their commute. Educators can then use classroom time to engage students in learning activities related to the lecture they've already seen or heard.

Flipped classrooms are an effective teaching technique because they allow students to review and learn concepts on their own time. Students are then free to complete more interactive and collaborative work in class, including discussions and tasks with their peers and teacher. They can also collaborate and discuss material online, via forum discussions with peers and subject matter experts. In class, students can actively apply concepts via peer learning, group work, and presentations.

Flipped learning helps keep students continuously engaged in class instead of just passively listening. And it makes good use of downtime by allowing students to combine a workout or commute time with further learning, when it's most convenient for them. Built to enable this strategy, Top Hat makes it simple to adopt a flipped classroom -simply run quizzes prior to your lecture and create interactive discussions for students to collaborate during class time.
Looking for more? Get 25 additional instructional strategies in this free guide.
4.3. Journals and learning logs

This instructional strategy lets students record their thoughts, feelings and reflections on a variety of topics. Journal entries could refer to something discussed in your lecture, or they can allow students to reflect on a relevant newspaper article or piece of media they came across. Journals can also be used for getting students to think critically about the course material and how it can be applied to the real world. This activity lets students make predictions, brainstorm ideas, connect ideas and even identify solutions to problems presented in class.

You might consider using the following prompts in advance of a journaling assignment to promote higher-level thinking. At the start of a lesson, you might ask, "What questions do you have from yesterday?" During the middle of a lesson, ask, "What do you want to know more about?" At the end of your lesson, ask, "How could you use these findings outside of class?" Encourage students to note any thoughts that come to mind at these three points. At the end of the semester, their journal can form the foundation of a more comprehensive study guide.

4.4. Minute papers

Pose a question about the day's teaching, and give students a moment to reflect before writing down their answer on their own or in pairs. The responses can provide valuable insight into student comprehension of the material.

Minute papers can be presented in a number of ways, but the easiest is a "ticket out," whereby educators wrap up class a few minutes early. (We saw this earlier in our instructional strategies list, under 'exit ticket'). They then ask students to answer what the most important thing they learned today was and what questions they still have. The first question requires students to think quickly, recall class material, decide on the main points, and put it into their own words. For the second, they must think further about what they've understood thus far.

Teachers can use the responses to determine how well students understand the material. Minute papers can also help students understand where their own learning gaps are. Once this is realized, both students and teachers can identify and address weaknesses.

4.5. Muddiest point

The 'muddiest point' is another active learning instructional strategy. This activity asks students to use index cards (or an app), to anonymously submit what part(s) of the course material they're having the most difficulty with. Educators can then use the responses to determine where extra instruction is needed and adjust lessons accordingly.

Alternatively, these topics can be addressed during student review sessions. Ask students to identify topics they feel they need clarification on and consolidate these into a list. Then get each student to select a term from the list they feel they can explain to the rest of the class.

Cross it off the list, and move on to the next. By the end, it will be easy to see which concepts students are having the most issues with by process of elimination. And if terms haven't been selected, they are being avoided for a reason. Naturally, students will pick the terms they are most comfortable with.

Use that information to devise more instructor-led sessions on the concepts that most students are confused about, or that require more clarification, to eventually complete the entire list.

4.6. Reflection

Hand out blank index cards or a pre-designed worksheet at the end of a class session and ask students to use them to submit a response to a question about the day's lesson. Alternatively, ask students to submit a discussion board response. The reflection prompt could be simple, like asking what they learned, or what they found the most interesting. Or, you can make your prompt more application-based, like asking them to connect what they learned to a real-life situation, or telling them to explain why what they learned is important.

The purpose of reflection is to encourage students to consider what they have learned. Like a number of other instructional strategies in this list, it also gives the teacher an idea of where students stand on a topic or issue so they can use this information to help better prepare for the next lesson. The added benefit is that having students express these thoughts on paper can result in better memory retention.

To drive this strategy in higher education, Top Hat's interactive discussions make it easy for students to reflect on what was covered in class. Allow students to discuss concepts with their peers, with the ability to grade discussions as desired.

4.7. Think-pair-share

This active learning technique is another of the best-known instructional strategies. After presenting a lesson, pause the lecture for a moment to ask students to pair up with a partner. Have them discuss the material they just learned. Prepare questions, and, once they've had some time to discuss with their partner(s), get students to take turns presenting their observations to the rest of the class.

Make the question challenging, such that it could spark debate between the grouped or paired students. Give them just a few minutes to talk amongst themselves and come to a collective conclusion.

Think-pair-share can work especially well for the first few lessons of a class, keeping students on their toes and interested in the material that is to come. But it can also help recapture student enthusiasm near the middle of a term, reminding students that they aren't alone in their learning and that others share their views or concerns, and that there are different perspectives to support an issue that are worth considering beyond their own.

5. Assessment-based instructional strategies

5.1. Assessment

One of the most used instructional strategies, assessments are considered any graded test, quiz, project, or exam. Informal checks of student progress throughout the year, such as discussions or presentations, can be included too. There are many different assessment-based instructional strategies (and a few follow in this group).

In general, there are various ways to run assessments and different ways to adapt them to class time. These include: asking certain groups of students to only complete specific parts of a test, allowing students to respond orally versus in writing, or asking students to demonstrate what they've learned in a more hands-on way, like building something or drawing a diagram.

The most critical thing to remember with assessments is to try and stay focused on evaluating the concept that's most important for the student to grasp. This might mean your assessments have to be more practical. Asking a student to put the learning to work and actually do something can be a far better indicator of what they know than simple written or oral answers.

One tip is to include test or quiz questions that vary in complexity, and focus on different aspects of a concept. You could include one question mandatory for responding, but allow students to choose which ones they want to answer among the remaining ones.
→ Download Now: 25 Free Instructional Strategies
5.2. Cubing

"Cubing" is a version of the above. It involves writing a command or question on each of the six sides of a cube, then having students roll the cube like a die and respond to the question or command accordingly.

The questions can relate to describing, comparing, contrasting, applying, predicting or imagining concepts. Get students even more involved in this cooperative learning activity by having them come up with their own questions that they then exchange with classmates, taking turns to answer.

Take it to another level by creating multiple cubes with questions of varying levels of complexity. Assign students to work in groups-have each group of students write or dictate their answers to the questions on their cube. Use the data to determine which students should work on which concepts come assignment time.

5.3. Grade as you go

This instructional strategy is ideal for subjects that involve repetitive practices and rote memorization, such as mathematics and language. Have students work on assignments either alone or in pairs, checking and marking their work.

This teaching technique is motivational because students instantly know if they're on the right track, allowing them to gauge their achievement level. But it also helps students immediately correct something they're doing wrong. Once they identify the mistakes, they can translate that learning to subsequent questions, instead of completing the entire assignment incorrectly.

Instructional strategies such as 'Grade As You Go' also help educators pinpoint students who have a superior grasp of the material, allowing them to move on to a more challenging assignment.

By the time the assignment is completed, it's far more likely that the entire class will be ready to move on to the next concept or skill. And since grades have already been given, it reduces after-class grading time for teachers. Put this strategy into practice this fall by relying on the Top Hat Gradebook. This comprehensive tool lets you view attendance, participation and completion data in one place and makes it easy to retroactively adjust grade weights as needed.

5.4. Homework practice

The purpose of homework, as one of the numerous assessment-based instructional strategies, is to extend learning beyond the classroom setting. Homework gives students extra time to master concepts studied in class and further refine their learning. To use this effectively, assign homework based on the student's skill level, ensuring it aligns with the areas they need more practice in.

The amount and complexity of homework varies depending on subject and level. Students should be able to complete homework independently, with minimal involvement from tutors or peers. If they can't, it should serve as a red flag to both the student and educator.

Built to enable this strategy, Top Hat makes it easy to create, personalize and assign interactive homework assignments. Choose from a variety of question types including fill-in-the-blank or multiple choice and embed discussion questions throughout your assessments.

5.5. Questions and quizzes

Question-asking is among the simplest of the instructional strategies, but it can still be strategically complex. The simplest way to gauge student understanding of course material is to ask them questions about it. During group discussions, pose several questions of varying complexity so that everyone has a chance to respond, including both those who are experiencing difficulties with the class, as well as those who are mastering the concepts. Strategically adjust the questions you ask based on who you plan to call upon. This helps build student confidence and ensures the class runs smoothly.

Timing is important, too. When the class starts, or there's a pause between concepts or topics, you can administer a quick quiz or poll to get an understanding of how far along students are in their learning. In order to effectively assess comprehension, it's best to not attach a grade to this activity. Students will inevitably worry if the quiz is going to impact their overall grade for the class. Platforms like can be used to facilitate informal games or trivia sessions at the start of class, setting the stage for what's to follow in your lecture.

Use technology like clickers to administer things like multiple choice quizzes that can be tabulated immediately for large classes, with questions that challenge or check an assumption before a lecture begins. Then, administer the same or a similar quiz at the end of class, and compare the results.

Educators can determine how effective the lesson was and see if they need to revisit the subject matter again, or can confidently move on to the next topic.

6. Group teaching techniques

6.1. Case studies

Case studies, as instructional strategies or teaching techniques, are more spontaneous than structured group projects. But this is a good thing. It helps prepare students for when they enter the workforce, where problem solving on the fly is an essential skill. In a practical work environment, students can't just do what they're told and expect to succeed. Case studies can help prepare them for life after college or university.

To use case studies, put students into groups and task them with finding a way to apply the knowledge they've acquired from reading course materials and listening to lectures into real-world scenarios that match your assigned content area(s).

In a classroom setting, working on case studies encourages students to think critically about what they've learned, not just recite points back to the class.

6.2. Debates

Instructional strategies like these work as a structured form of argumentation. Debates require students to research concepts and think critically in order to present their positions in a convincing and justifiable way.

Most fitting for concepts with opposing points of view, debates help students develop listening and presentation skills. Once presented in class, having a debate can also introduce new perspectives on topics, and convince students to conduct further research in order to build stronger arguments, or intelligently counter those of the opposing side.

6.3. Peer instruction

With the teacher's guidance, students can prepare and present course material in class, encouraging interaction with peers. Try to do this without the use of slides as an aid, so students have to communicate more with classmates and discover more creative ways to present the material.

It's best to do these kinds of student-led instructional strategies at the beginning of a class, so students can teach one another about what they know, sharing their knowledge and experiences that relate to course material.

6.4. Role play

The use of simulations and games in your instructional toolkit can give you a deeper look at the impact of learning, as well as demonstrate how students can invent and experiment with learned concepts. Role playing also offers students a chance to practice their interpersonal skills in an environment in which they are comfortable and familiar.

Having the opportunity to visualize, model or role play in dynamic situations promotes curiosity, exploration and problem solving. It can aid students in working towards a greater understanding of the material. The more ways that students have of representing the knowledge they've acquired beyond writing and oral explanation, the better their comprehension and recall of the information will be.

In math and science fields, for example, students can experiment with simulated projects that would otherwise be difficult or cost-prohibitive to do in real settings. Examples include: designing a model of a roller coaster to understand slopes, angles and speed; using a hard-boiled egg to demonstrate Newton's Law of Motion; or building a model volcano to understand what makes them erupt.

7. Teaching strategies examples for advanced students

7.1. Curriculum compacting

These instructional strategies encourage educators to identify students who already have advanced knowledge of a subject, skill or concept so they can spend less time on these areas. Curriculum compacting frees students up to focus more on the areas where they need to develop a greater understanding, versus concepts with which they're already proficient. It's ideal when working with individual students or small groups.

7.2. Independent study project

If students appear to be ahead of the class, assign them independent study projects. These projects should allow them to focus on a single concept around material discussed in class. They can also work on a separate but related topic for which they've expressed an interest or passion, making this an inquiry-based learning exercise.

Once the project is completed, the student can share what he or she learned with the class, demonstrating their mastery of the concept, and further educating the rest of the class on a specific area or example.

Independent study projects usually run anywhere from three to four weeks.

8. Organizational instructional strategies

8.1. Agendas

An agenda sets out a comprehensive list of the assignments, activities, projects and tests students are responsible for working on and completing throughout the year, along with a timeline for each. Students can decide how they want to complete the work and in what order. Do they want to focus on one area of learning for an entire week? Do they want to tackle the subject matter they're most comfortable with first, or start with more difficult concepts? In addition to encouraging students to come up with a structure they can follow, agendas help them practice time management skills.

To get going, provide each student with a blank calendar to fill in with their own schedule, ensuring they've organized work in order to meet assignment and project due dates. If different students are working on the same part of an assignment at the same time, consider allowing them to work together during class. Take on the role of a facilitator here, helping students set reasonable deadlines according to their needs.

8.2. Anchor activities

Also referred to as 'sponge' activities, anchor activities are assignments that students must work on immediately in order to maximize instruction time. They can complete these activities at the beginning of every class or right after, but the idea is to keep the learning and educational process going.

Anchor activities might include the student revisiting a question posed in the previous day's class and composing a response to it, or presenting and discussing an answer out loud to a partner. Another option could be drawing a picture to represent a concept they just learned, or writing down an opinion about a key issue. This instructional strategy for teachers can also be used to provide students with notes as a reference when they're studying for exams.

Be mindful of anchor activities that are simply 'busy work' to pass the time. Just as a sponge soaks up water, the goal of anchor activities is to help students soak up a better understanding of a concept or skill.

8.3. Knowledge charts

Before delving into a new topic or concept, have students submit what they already know, what they want to know and what they've learned already. Then, assess their prior knowledge on the subject, and get a feel for how interested they are in a topic.

Knowledge charts, as instructional tools, can also be used at various times to see how students are progressing, and if their interest in the topic is waning or growing. In filling out these graphic organizers, teachers can get an idea of where students are at academically. Students themselves can gauge their own progress and see where more work is needed.

8.4. Learning contracts

Another one of the several instructional strategies aimed at more advanced students is the learning contract. Use it to help students who need to be challenged by providing a specific assignment and list of directives that they must complete within a set period of time. Work with the student to set out the requirements of the contract, and provide a blank calendar they can use to devise a doable timeline, determining what dates and times they need in order to complete different parts of the assignment.

This is an effective instructional strategy to help students set their own learning goals and practice time management skills-both of which are useful in the working world. Once the contract and timeline are set, encourage students who are working on the same parts of the assignment at the same time to work together.

8.5. Portfolio development

Portfolios allow students to gather, organize and illustrate examples of their learning and academic achievements. Portfolio development is the process of creating, collecting, reflecting on and selecting work samples that best showcase students' understanding of a given concept. Once students select their top pieces that best represent their learning outcomes, they can then use a binder or scrapbook to organize their work.

Work samples kept in a portfolio might include notes from an interview, a diagram, storyboards, essays, infographics and more. Portfolio development is a necessary and effective process for most humanities and STEM majors. Art students can use a portfolio to curate their top pieces-whether paintings, drawings or photographs-at the end of the semester. Alternatively, students in architecture or engineering courses can use a portfolio to house mockups and wireframes of a new building or the parts of an engine. No two students' portfolios will include the same work since these differ based on discipline and course.

9. Tiered instructional strategies

9.1. Tiered activities

Set up three or four activities of varying complexity for students to participate in. Each should have the same common goal of helping students understand a specific element of the subject material. For example, it might be different experiments that all explain the basic concept of physics.

Start with a mid-level activity that would apply to most students in the class, then include one that's a step-up in difficulty to challenge students with a better understanding of the material. Alternatively, offer a simplified version for students who are still working to gain a full understanding of the concept.

Place students in groups based on their perceived level, or give a brief description of each of the assignments and let them choose which level they feel most comfortable working in. Once completed, discuss and compare the results.

By the end of this collaborative exercise, each group will have a greater understanding of the material. If students are able to choose which group they join, the teacher will also get a feel for the comfort level of each student.

9.2. Tiered rubrics

Present a couple of rubrics (scoring guides) to students, based on their current level, so they have the skills needed in order to better focus and be successful in class.

The rubrics should all contain the same basic categories, but the point value or required elements should be adjusted based on the student's readiness. For students equipped to take on greater challenges, add more categories or requirements. Conversely, remove some requirements and/or categories for students who need more assistance, or haven't quite grasped the material just yet.

10. Conclusion

In exploring various types of instructional strategies, you'll find that there's something to suit every type of student level, subject and lecture format. When applied effectively, instructional strategies for teaching can help students gain a deeper understanding of course material and encourage critical thinking, beyond basic retention and surface understanding. Educators, too, can benefit by using different teaching methods throughout the semester to determine the efficacy of lesson plans, and how every student is progressing through each concept.

instructional strategies guide , filled with 25 effective activities and best practices to use in any college course.

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Instructional Strategies: The Ultimate Guide for Professors

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Engage, assess and motivate students with these 25 easy-to-use teaching strategies for any discipline. Get started today!

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Student assessment has changed in the new millennium. Though there's something to be said for old-fashioned paper and pencil methods, new technologies are evolving daily to assist teachers with this task.

In this article, we'll look at different ways to assess student learning using technology. Here are nine methods of online assessment that are sure to support training, engage your audience, and provide teachers with insight into their students' learning process. But first, let's understand the assessment process.

What Is Assessment?

Simply put, assessment is the process of gathering information on what students know based on their educational experience. The results are typically used to identify areas where improvement is needed and ensure that the course content meets learning needs.

What is the purpose of assessment?

As per the definition, the common goal of assessment is to evaluate and improve student learning, but the objectives can vary slightly, depending on the type of assessment that's used.

There are two basic types:

Formative assessments occur within an online course or lesson and are used to determine how well a student is learning the material. They're best when they are ongoing, consistent, and provide critical feedback to learners.

Summative assessments are sometimes referred to as a final exam and measure what the student has learned after completing a course. They can validate how well your content supports the course's overall learning goals.

Obviously, assessments are about more than just grades. When meaningful and well-constructed, they help students gear up for success by challenging them to reflect, interact, and apply their knowledge to answer questions, solve problems, and communicate information.

How Do You Evaluate Students Online?

There are several approaches for evaluating students:

The best method to use will vary, based on the learning needs and objectives. For example, an online quiz will be appropriate if your goal is to measure knowledge gains quickly. But if you want to test your students' interviewing skills, you're better off using a dialogue simulation.

9 Ways to Assess Student Learning Online

Let's see how we can use nine of the most common assessment methods to support student learning. Сheck out this infographic for an overview.

1. Online Quizzes

Quizzes are a traditional assessment tool. Plus, when paired with technology, they are an excellent way to engage student learning. Quiz questions can take a number of forms, such as multiple-choice, fill-in-the-blanks, and hotspots. One benefit of quizzes is that they are short and easy to assess. Another is that question order and options can be randomized, so each student's quiz is unique.

Online quizzes are ideal for measuring learning results across a wide audience. Since each student takes the same test, you can compare and contrast results across different classes, schools, or communities.

A non-graded online quiz can be given prior to the start of a lesson to gain a baseline measurement of a student's existing knowledge. You can also embed a knowledge check test into a module to reinforce concepts taught in the lesson, or make a final graded test at the end of the course to evaluate students' overall performance.

How can I create an online quiz?

Online quizzes can be easily created using an eLearning authoring toolkit such as iSpring Suite. iSpring Suite includes a quiz maker tool that offers 14 question types. You simply need to choose the appropriate templates to put together a quiz for your students quickly and easily. You can enhance your test by providing detailed answer feedback, adding info slides, and creating individual learning paths, depending on how well each employee is performing on the quiz.

2. Open-Ended/Essay Questions

Open-ended or essay-type questions are one of the most popular qualitative assessment methods. They prompt learners to explore their thoughts, feelings, and opinions, while testing their overall comprehension of a topic. This type of question encourages critical thinking and is best suited for evaluating higher-level learning. Essay questions require a longer time for students to think, organize, and compose their answers.

How can I create an open-ended assessment?

Open-ended assessments are one of the question types available in iSpring Suite. Unlike many other questions types, they cannot be auto-scored in online courses, so instructors will have to take the time to review them one by one.

3. Drag-And-Drop Activities

Drag-and-drops are a type of assessment that show a learner's ability to link information and apply knowledge to solve a practical problem. You can incorporate both images and text in a drag-and-drop activity, giving it a real-world feel that is both challenging and engaging.

It's essential to use this assessment type when you want learners to be able to apply knowledge in a real-life situation.

How can I create a drag-and-drop activity?

iSpring Suite provides a drag-and-drop template that allows you to move text boxes, images, and shapes to a specific place on the page. To create an assessment, you need to upload the images into a question template and then simply identify the drop target.

4. Online Interviews

You can incorporate a video conference within your online teaching to give learning a more personal touch. During brief online interviews, students can demonstrate their proficiency in language, music, nursing, and other courses, for example, where mastery of specific skills is an important requirement. Sometimes it may be beneficial to conduct group interviews - for team project reports, for example.

Interviews can also include a mentoring component enabling students to get immediate feedback from instructors and help them feel more responsible about their studies.

How can I create an online interview?

You can share online interviews with the help of web conferencing tools like Zoom. For best results, take the time to plan out your interview before it begins. Prepare your questions in advance and schedule a time for the meeting to occur. Allow your online learners a way to provide feedback or interact with the interviews.
Zoom Boom: How to Bring Training to "Live" →
5. Dialogue Simulations

A dialogue simulation is a way to train learners for real-life conversations with customers, colleagues, and others. When creating a conversation activity based on a situation that a student may face on the job, let them know what to expect and provide a safe place to practice their reactions and responses.

For example, with dialogue simulations, you can help your students master sales and customer service skills or test how well they are prepared for a job interview. These activities can also be a good learning support tool for experienced workers who want to refresh skills they haven't used in a while.

How can I create a dialogue simulation?

You can create activities similar to dialogue simulations manually, using simple slides, but it will take you a lot of time and effort to create this kind of branching scenario in PowerPoint. But with iSpring Suite, you can design a conversation sim quickly and easily.

Start by mapping out the scenario you want to create. Think over the scenario and script, choose a suitable character and location from the built-in library or upload your own, and create a dialogue with iSpring by offering learners a choice of responses and giving feedback. As with a typical quiz, learners will get points for correct answers and lose points for inaccurate ones.

6. Online Polls

Polls allow you to capture feedback directly from your audience about their learning experience. They can be used to measure anything from learning satisfaction (Kirkpatrick Level One feedback) to why a student made a particular choice during a lesson. Online surveys are highly engaging for learners because they allow them to share their opinions, make themselves heard, and are quick to complete.

You can also use poll questions when you want to quickly grab and focus your learners' attention on something important or break the ice during an online group interview session. For the latter, you can simply carry out a mood survey.

How can I create an online poll question?

If you host webinars via web conferencing solutions, you can use built-in tools for conducting polls. There are also some specialized online platforms like SurveyMonkey that allow you to create, send, and analyze surveys.

You can also build a survey with eLearning authoring tools like iSpring Suite. All you have to do is to choose a ready-made question template supported by the iSpring QuizMaker tool, write the question and answer choices, or a text field for open-ended responses.

7. Game-Type Activities

Game-type activities turn a series of test questions into a game. For example, a trivia game might ask learners to answer a certain number of questions within a period of time and award points based on the number of correct answers.

Game-based assessments are considered fun, and not "tests", so they are generally a good indicator of true skills and knowledge. Besides, they have been shown to enhance learning by promoting the development of non-cognitive skills, such as discipline, risk-taking, collaboration, and problem solving.

Add game-type activities when you want to engage and challenge your students in a non-traditional way. Organizations have found that game-type activities work well in employee training, while schools have found that high-achieving students enjoy competing with their peers in learning games.

How can I create game-type activities?

Quizlet and Kahoot are two popular applications that teachers can use to create fast-paced interactive learning games. Quizlet allows you to create a study set of online flashcards for learning terms and definitions, while with Kahoot, you can build engaging quizzes and let your students score points by answering quickly and correctly.

There are also many other apps, such as GimKit, Formative, and Plickers, that can add a game-show experience to the classroom.

8. Peer Evaluation and Review

Peer evaluation turns the tables to put learners into the instructor's seat and allow students to review and edit each other's work. Such activities give each participant a chance to reflect on their knowledge and then communicate their feedback in a consistent and structured way.

How can I create a peer evaluation assessment?

Third-party platforms, such as TurnItIn's Feedback Studio, enable students to read, review, and evaluate one or more papers submitted by their classmates using rubrics or prescribed assessment questions. Teachers are able to log in and track individual participation in the activity and monitor comments or peer evaluation feedback.

As a best practice, the instructor should map out and clearly explain the steps of a peer review and evaluation process prior to launch. Be sure to provide a rubric or set of guidelines for each participant to follow to ensure that evaluations are conducted in a consistent manner.

9. Forum Posts

A forum is an online discussion board organized around a topic. Asking students to contribute to a forum post is an excellent way to gauge their understanding, pique their interest, and support their learning. In this activity, students are given a critical thinking question based on a lesson or a reading, and are asked to reflect on both. Their answers are posted to a forum and their peers are given the chance to respond.

Use this method when you want learners to interact, communicate, and collaborate as part of the learning process, while checking their comprehension of the topic.

How can I create a forum post assessment activity?

Start by creating an online message board exclusively for your class in your LMS or some external platform like ActiveBoard. Identify common topics or themes that you can align messages to. Set participation goals and guidelines that explain acceptable standards for posting (be respectful of others, avoid foul language or personal criticism, etc.).

The facilitator should review postings on a regular basis and provide constructive feedback or guidance to participants.

10 Online Assessment Tools for Distance Learning

We've already mentioned some assessment tools that are perfect for online evaluation. Let's sum up what software instructors might need for which purposes, and consider some other tools.

1. iSpring Suite

iSpring Suite is a comprehensive eLearning authoring toolkit that teachers and instructors love. It allows you to create interactive quizzes, surveys, and dialogue simulations for student assessment, as well as PowerPoint-based courses, video tutorials, interactions, and flipbooks. Despite having so many options, the toolkit is extremely easy to use and is perfectly suited for those who have no experience in eLearning content development.

2. Socrative

Socrative is a quiz making tool that enables you to create tests with multiple-choice, true/false, and short answer questions. It also has some interesting features like exit tickets for the students to gather feedback on the lesson and a fun Space Race game where students "race" to the finish line.

3. Spiral

Spiral is a set of 5 apps for formative assessment. You can provide assessment in real time and hear from all of your students, turn slides into a discussion thread, let students create and share collaborative presentations, and turn videos into a live chat with questions and quizzes.

4. Peergrade

Peergrade is an online platform for hosting peer feedback sessions with students. Once you set up your assignment, learners start working on and then submit their work - text, files, videos, links, and even Google docs. Students can review each other's works and act on the feedback. There's also a teacher overview where they can see everything that is happening in the assignment.

5. EdPuzzle

EdPuzzle is a tool designed specifically for working with videos. It allows both teachers and students to add voice-overs, resources, comments, and quizzes to videos. Instructors can also check if learners are watching videos, how many times they're watching each section, and if they comprehend the content.

6. Mentimeter

Mentimeter lets you build interactive presentations with 13 interactive question types, including word clouds and quiz, and see how the students vote on/respond to questions and engage with the presentation in real time. With this tool, you can export results in a PDF or Excel file, and analyze learners' results.

Also read: → Best Interactive Presentation Tools for Teachers

7. Google Forms

Google Forms is a simple widely used tool for building surveys and graded quizzes. You can create multiple-choice or short answer questions for students to complete, specify correct answers and points, and provide feedback for correct and incorrect responses.

8. Quizalize

Quizalize is very similar to Kahoot. It lets you choose from over 12,000 official released tests to teacher-created resources or allows you to build your own. You can get instant data on each student's progress and automatically assign various resources to students depending on their quiz score.

9. Nearpod

Nearpod is a web-based tool for making interactive classes with engaging activities like virtual reality, simulations, and gamified quizzes. It allows you to remain abreast of how far along your students are with formative assessments, including polls, open-ended questions, draw its, and more. You can get student insights in real time and in post-session reports.

10. Fluency Tutor

Fluency Tutor is designed to track and assess students' oral reading progress. You can share reading passages with your class and receive recordings of the assigned passages. The tool comes with a library of over 500 ready-made reading fluency passages.

Final Thoughts

Online assessments are a critical part of eLearning and should be undertaken with the same level of care and rigor that you put into creating your learning content. The good news is that you don't have to be a programming genius to build them. There are many online assessment tools that allow you to generate engaging tasks for online evaluation. Choose your way to assess student learning and related software to align your needs and the results you want to achieve.

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9 Assessment Methods for Using Online Learning [Infographics]

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Check out these nine online assessment strategies that will support both classroom and distance learning, and provide insight into your students' results.

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No two students are alike, and the way every person learns will vary. Our brains are all unique, and our experiences all contribute to the different ways we learn. Psychologists have spent countless hours performing tests to better understand how students learn.

Current and aspiring teachers need tobe educated to be prepared for teaching students every day, and an important part of teacher education is understanding different ways of learning. There are many solidified learning theories that teachers can learn from as they prepare to help students in the classroom. Teachers who understand learning theories can use different techniques in their classrooms to cater to different kinds of learning. This can help all students find success in learning.

There are five main educational learning theories that educators can utilize to help them enhance their classrooms and make them better learning environments for all students.

What are the Five Main Educational Learning Theories?

Cognitive Learning Theory

Cognitive learning theory looks at the way people think. Mental processes are an important part in understanding how we learn. The cognitive theory understands that learners can be influenced by both internal and external elements.

Plato and Descartes are two of the first philosophers that focused on cognition and how we as human beings think. Many other researchers looked deeper into the idea of how we think, spurring more research. Jean Piaget is a highly important figure in the field of cognitive psychology, and his work focuses on environments and internal structures and how they impact learning.

Cognitive theory has developed over time, breaking off into sub-theories that focus on unique elements of learning and understanding. At the most basic level, the cognitive theory suggests that internal thoughts and external forces are both an important part of the cognitive process. And as students understand how their thinking impacts their learning and behavior, they are able to have more control over it.

Cognitive learning theory impacts students because their understanding of their thought process can help them learn. Teachers can give students opportunities to ask questions, to fail, and think out loud. These strategies can help students understand how their thought process works, and utilize this knowledge to construct better learning opportunities.

Behaviorism Learning Theory

Behaviorism learning theory is the idea that how a student behaves is based on their interaction with their environment. It suggests that behaviors are influenced and learned from external forces rather than internal forces.

Psychologists have been developing the idea of behaviorism since the 19th century. Behavioral learning theory is the basis for psychology that can be observed and quantified. Positive reinforcement is a popular element of behaviorism-classical conditioning observed in Pavlov's dog experiments suggests that behaviors are directly motivated by the reward that can be obtained.

Teachers in a classroom can utilize positive reinforcement to help students better learn a concept. Students who receive positive reinforcement are more likely to retain information moving forward, a direct result of the behaviorism theory.

Constructivism Learning Theory

Constructivism learning theory is based on the idea that students actually create their own learning based on their previous experiences. Students take what they're being taught and add it to their previous knowledge and experiences, creating a reality that's unique to them. This learning theory focuses on learning as an active process, which is personal and individual for each student.

Teachers can utilize constructivism to help understand that each student will bring their own past to the classroom every day. Teachers in constructivist classrooms act as more of a guide to helping students create their own learning and understanding. They help them create their own process and reality based on their own past. This is crucial to helping many kinds of students take their own experiences and include them in their learning.

Humanism is very closely related to constructivism. Humanism directly focuses on the idea of self-actualization. Everyone functions under a hierarchy of needs. Self-actualization is at the top of the hierarchy of needs-it's the brief moments where a person feels all of their needs are met and that they're the best possible version of themselves. Everyone is striving for this, and learning environments can either move toward meeting needs or away from meeting needs.

Teachers can create classroom environments that help students get closer to their self-actualization. Educators can help fulfill students' emotional and physical needs, giving them a safe and comfortable place to learn, plenty of food, and the support they need to succeed. This kind of environment is the most conducive to helping students learn.

Connectivism Learning Theory

Connectivism is one of the newest educational learning theories. It focuses on the idea that people learn and grow when they form connections. This can be connections with each other or connections with their roles and obligations in their lives. Hobbies, goals, and people can all be connections that influence learning.

Teachers can utilize connectivism in their classrooms to help students make connections to things that excite them, helping them learn. Teachers can use digital media to make good, positive connections to learning. They can help create connections and relationships with their students and with their peer groups to help students feel motivated about learning.

What are Additional Learning Theories?

While these five learning theories are the main educational learning theories for teachers who want to support their students' learning, there are additional theories they may want to understand. Some may work as good supplemental theories for teachers to bolster their educational support with a new approach.

Transformative Learning Theory

Transformative learning theory is a great approach for adult education and young adult learning. Also referred to as transformation learning, transformative learning theory focuses on the idea that learners can adjust their thinking based on new information.

This learning theory was founded by Jack Mezirow, who discovered it after doing studies on adult women who went back to school. His initial research found that adults don't apply their old understanding to new situations and that having a new perspective helped them gain a new understanding of things as they change. Mezirow also believed that students had important teaching and learning opportunities connected to their past experiences and that critical reflection and review could lead to a transformation of their understanding.

This approach works well for adult students, as children don't have the same kind of transformation with their learning experiences-and with life experience. Adult students could draw on childhood experiences and transforming those beliefs and understandings using critical reflection, leading them to an understanding of what they should believe and understand as adults.

Overall, the theory states that our worldview is changed the more we learn, which helps us grasp new concepts and ideas. By getting new information that helps evaluate past ideas, students are able to make a dramatic educational shift beyond standard learning. Teachers can employ this learning theory by encouraging their students to learn new perspectives while questioning their assumptions and open the floor for discourse to cement their new train of thought.

Using social learning theory can be a valuable tool for dealing with difficult students who like to disrupt the classroom and cause trouble. This theory focuses on the concept of children learning from observing others by acting on or not acting on what they see exhibited by their classmates. For example, they may see a classmate politely asking for a treat and getting one, or maybe they hear another classmate talking about something new they've learned, which teaches the student something new even if it's not something they try themselves.

This learning theory was founded by Albert Bandura. He conducted an experiment called the Bobo doll experiment in the early '60s, during which he studied children's behavior after they watched an adult act aggressively with a doll-like toy. He noted how the children reacted when the adult got rewarded, punished, or suffered no consequences after they attacked the doll. Bandura wrote about his findings in 1977, detailing social learning theory and how it affected the behavioral development of students.

There are four elements to social learning theory:

Attention, which calls upon different or unique lessons or activities to help children focus.

Retention, focusing on how the student will internalize information and recall it later on.

Reproduction, drawing on previously learned behavior and when it's appropriate to use it.

Motivation, which can extend from seeing other classmates being rewarded or punished for their actions.

By using social modeling based on these elements, teachers have a very powerful tool in their arsenal that can effectively guide their students to be more active in their learning, pay more attention, and channel their energy into their schooling.

Experiential Learning Theory

Experiential learning theory focuses on learning by doing. Using this theory, students are encouraged to learn through experiences that can help them retain information and recall facts.

Experiential learning theory, or ELT, was identified by David Kolb in 1984. Though his influence came from other theorists such as John Dewey, Kurt Lewin, and Jean Piaget, Kolb was able to identify four stages of ELT. The first two stages, concrete learning and reflective observation, focus on grasping an experience. The latter two, abstract conceptualization and active experimentation are about transforming an experience. To Kolb, effective learning is seen as the learner goes through the cycle of experiential learning theory. Students can enter the cycle in any way and at any point.

Some examples of this form of learning include taking students to the zoo to learn about animals instead of just reading about them or growing a garden to learn about photosynthesis instead of watching a video about it. By creating environments where students can learn and experience at the same time, teachers offer students the opportunity to immediately apply their knowledge and get real-world experiences. This approach also encourages teamwork and is shown to improve motivation.

How to Apply Learning Theories in Teaching

Teachers can create specific strategies and techniques to apply these learning theories in their classrooms. Teachers need to first focus on getting a well-rounded education to learn about all kinds of techniques for teaching and classroom management. Teachers need to understand learning theories to be prepared to utilize them in their classrooms.

An understanding of learning theories helps teachers connect to all different kinds of students. Teachers can focus on different learning styles to reach different students, creating teaching that focuses directly on student needs and aptitudes.

Take a look at other articles from WGU. Our articles feature information on a wide variety of subjects, written with the help of subject matter experts and researchers who are well-versed in their industries. This allows us to provide articles with interesting, relevant, and accurate information.

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When considering the best approach to helping students learn, teachers may call upon learning theories to support their educational pursuits. Read on to discover the five main educational theories and three supplemental theories that can make a big difference in how students learn.

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Liz Alliss
John Hunter
Molly Lyle