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Compréhension écrite - La méthode - ANGLAIS - Terminale - Les Bons Profs

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Epreuve du baccalauréat 2017, à Paris. AFP / Martin BUREAU MARTIN BUREAU / AFP

Souvent boudées des candidats, les épreuves de langues vivantes (LV 1 et LV 2) peuvent pourtant se révéler essentielles pour gagner quelques précieux points au moment du comptage final. Coefficient 4 au bac L (série littéraire), ces épreuves sont dotées respectivement des coefficients 3 et 2 pour le bac S (scientifique), soit, pour la LV 1, autant que la philosophie ou l'histoire-géographie. Anna Lallmahomed, professeure d'anglais au lycée Pauline-Rolland à Chevilly-Larue (Val-de-Marne) revient sur les erreurs à ne pas commettre dans sa copie. Des conseils qui sont, pour la plupart, valables quelle que soit la langue vivante passée à l'examen.

Lire le sujet en diagonale

L'épreuve de langue vivante, quelle que soit votre filière, comporte deux textes et parfois un document iconographique. La première erreur serait de " ne lire qu'une seule fois le texte, puis de répondre aux questions les unes après les autres sans avoir regardé le sujet dans son ensemble ", explique Anna Lallmahomed. Il est indispensable de commencer par regarder la source et de lire les questions avant de lire le texte une première fois. Il faut ensuite le lire une seconde fois, avant de " revenir au texte avec les questions en tête ". Lire l'ensemble des questions avant de commencer permet de ne pas " se répéter dans les réponses ", par exemple en" répondant à la question trois dans la question deux ", et permet aussi d'avoir une première idée du contenu du texte.

Essentielle également, " la source ", qui donne de précieuses indications sur le contexte : date d'écriture, de parution, parfois le lieu de publication... autant d'indices qui permettent de situer les documents. " Dans l'épreuve d'anglais du bac 2016 par exemple, c'est notamment la légende de la photographie qui permettait de comprendre que celle-ci représentait New York, mais beaucoup d'élèves ne l'ont pas vue et sont passés à côté du sujet ", rappelle Anna Lallmahomed. Le sujet de l'épreuve, jugé trop difficile, avait d'ailleurs suscité une pétition de candidats mécontents.

Ne pas respecter les consignes

Une fois que vous avez pris le temps de lire et relire le texte et que vous avez en tête l'ensemble des questions, vérifiez bien les énoncés. " Si on demande de justifier, il faut le faire ", et attention aux consignes qui peuvent varier d'une question à l'autre : " Si on demande deux citations pour justifier la réponse, il en faut deux, sinon l'élève ne pourra pas bénéficier de tous les points ", insiste Anna Lallmahomed. Il en va de même pour les limites de mots, qui ne sont pas indicatives. La limite du nombre de mots a été fixée avec précision, en tenant compte des capacités des élèves à réussir l'exercice en un temps donné, et il est fortement déconseillé de la dépasser, sous peine de multiplier les erreurs. Dans l'expression écrite, il faut également respecter les " codes " de l'exercice : si c'est un dialogue qui est demandé, le correcteur va attendre " des guillemets mais pas de tirets ", ainsi qu'une " ponctuation anglophone ". Normalement c'est au programme, et vous l'aurez vu en classe avant l'examen.

Ne pas rédiger ses réponses

Il est préférable de faire des " phrases complètes ", quitte à " paraphraser la question " ; des phrases rédigées font toujours bonne impression. Il en va de même pour les citations. " Certains élèvent ne mettent que le premier et le dernier mot d'une longue phrase lorsqu'on leur demande de justifier. Mais cela ne nous permet pas de savoir s'ils ont clairement identifié les éléments du texte qui répondent à la question, donc ils ne bénéficient pas de tous les points. ", explique Anna Lallmahomed. Elleconseille donc d'indiquer clairement la ligne de la citation et de ne pas hésiter à " souligner les mots-clés " de la phrase citée.

Faire de la traduction littérale, voire pas de traduction du tout

Il existe une " erreur grossière " qui agace plus que tout les correcteurs : " Quand les candidats ne connaissent pas un mot dans la langue de l'épreuve, ils le notent en français, entre parenthèses ou entre guillemets ", témoigne Anna Lallmahomed. Le conseil de l'enseignante, si vous ne connaissez pas un mot qui vous paraît essentiel pour votre rédaction, est de le " remplacer par une périphrase ", ou tout simplement de" trouver un autre mot, synonyme ".

Attention également aux " faux amis ", des mots et expressions qui semblent " transparents " mais ne le sont pas. En anglais, l'exemple " typique " est , auquel on attribue souvent, à tort, le sens d'" actuellement ", alors qu'il signifie " en fait ".

Pour Anna Lallmahomed, la meilleure technique pour rédiger en langue étrangère reste " d'éviter à tout prix de traduire ". " Autant se cantonner à des phrases simples - sujet, verbe, complément -, avec un vocabulaire que l'on maîtrise ", conseille l'enseignante. " Dans l'épreuve d'expression écrite, il peut être judicieux d'utiliser à bon escient quelques mots de vocabulaire des textes proposés, en prenant garde de les prendre isolément, et de ne pas recopier des phrases entières ou même des bouts de phrases ", ajoute-t-elle.

Passer par le français et tenter de le traduire " mot à mot " ne paye pas : " en corrigeant on se retrouve avec des copies où il est parfois difficile de comprendre ce que l'élève a voulu dire ", déplore Anna Lallmahomed.

Utiliser des abréviations donnant l'illusion d'une bonne maîtrise de la langue

C'est souvent le " défaut des bons élèves " en anglais : si vous regardez films et séries en V.O., vous avez probablement déjà entendu plusieurs fois des expressions du typeou des abréviations commeet . Si elles sont " tout à fait correctes " et idiomatiques à l'oral, elles doivent être proscrites à l'écrit (sauf dans le cas particulier de rédaction d'un dialogue, d'une page de journal intime ou tout écrit personnel). Il faut prendre le temps de rédiger en toutes lettres. De la même façon qu'en français, vous ne vous permettriez pas d'écrire " c'est pas " ou " c'est rien ", ne contractez pas les négations dans votre copie d'anglais.

Écrire des généralités

Après la partie compréhension écrite, vous aurez nécessairement une partie rédaction. Prenez votre temps pour " formuler vos idées et vos arguments sur un brouillon et surtout évitez de "rester vague" ". " On attend des élèves une vision personnelle et argumentée ", souligne Anna Lallmahomed. Il faut donc toujours accompagner ses arguments d'exemples précis : tirés des cours, de l'actualité du monde anglophone, de vos lectures ou des films que vous avez vus. Évitez, par contre, de donner des exemples tirés de votre vie personnelle, sauf dans les cas précis où ils apportent réellement une plus-value à votre démonstration. Vous pouvez donner votre avis, mais

Dans la partie expression écrite de l'épreuve, vous aurez le choix entre une rédaction de type " argumentatif " et un dialogue, une lettre, une page de journal intime, ou un exercice du même ordre. Anna Lallmahomed conseille de " choisir le sujet qui vous est le plus facile, celui où vous avez le plus de choses à dire ". Dans une argumentation, le correcteur attendra un registre de langue " plus formel ", avec " une introduction, une conclusion et un plan en deux parties, repérables par des paragraphes distincts ", à ne choisir donc que si on maîtrise les mots de liaison et que l'on a des arguments solides.

Lire aussi Quiz : avez-vous le niveau bac en anglais ?

Lire aussi Cinq applications pour améliorer son anglais

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Bac : les erreurs à éviter dans sa copie d'anglais (LV 1 et LV 2)

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Souvent boudées des candidats, les épreuves de langues vivantes (LV 1 et LV 2) peuvent pourtant se révéler essentielles pour gagner quelques précieux points au moment du comptage final. Coefficient 4 au bac L (série littéraire), ces épreuves sont dotées respectivement des coefficients 3 et 2 pour le bac S (scientifique), soit, pour la LV 1, autant que la philosophie ou l'histoire-géographie.

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Le 17 juin, les candidats au bac plancheront sur la première épreuve écrite de la session 2019 : la philosophie. Quant aux oraux, ils ont déjà commencé. Cette semaine, avec notre partenaire Studyrama, on vous propose donc une vidéo intitulée " Les cinq erreurs à éviter à l'oral ". Une vidéo qui s'ajoute aux fiches de révision (maths, anglais, physique, français...) qu'on vous propose tous les jours à 11 h.

Tous les conseils pour réussir son bac sur Studyrama.com

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Bac 2019. Les erreurs à éviter à l'oral [Vidéo]

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Le 17 juin, les candidats au bac plancheront sur la première épreuve écrite de la session 2019 : la philosophie. Quant aux oraux, ils ont déjà commencé. Cette semaine, avec notre partenaire Studyrama, on vous propose donc une vidéo intitulée " Les cinq erreurs à éviter à l'oral ".

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Pour les lycéens des classes de première de filières générale et technologique, l'épreuve de l'oral de français aura lieu le 18 juin, premier jour du bac. MARTIN BUREAU / AFP

Comme leur nom l'indique, les épreuves anticipées du bac se passent en classe de première. De nombreux lycéens passeront l'oral de français après l'épreuve écrite, qui s'est déroulée lundi 18 juin après-midi (les dates de l'oral sont fixées par chaque académie et s'étalent jusqu'à début juillet). Pour bien s'y préparer, Le Monde Campus a demandé à Stéphanie Martel, enseignante au lycée Evariste-Galois de Sartrouville (Yvelines) et membre de l'Association française des enseignants de français (AFEF) quelles étaient les erreurs à éviter lors de l'oral.

Pour mémoire, l'épreuve orale de français du bac général (séries S, ES et L) et du bac technologique (séries STMG, ST2L, etc.) consiste en un exposé (10 points) sur un texte vu pendant l'année à partir d'une question posée par l'examinateur, suivi d'un entretien (10 points) qui suppose une interaction. Cette épreuve dure au total environ 50 minutes : 30 minutes de préparation, 10 minutes pour l'exposé et 10 minutes pour l'entretien.

Lire aussi Bac français S et ES 2018 : les vidéos de cours incontournables pour réviser

Voici les cinq erreurs à éviter :

Faire l'impasse sur l'un ou des textes

Les enseignants ne cessent de le répéter : il est dangereux durant les révisions de " faire l'impasse sur des textes ", d'autant plus sur ceux des grands auteurs comme " Baudelaire, Voltaire, Rousseau, Montaigne, Camus, etc. ", donne comme exemples l'enseignante. " L'examinateur qui pose une question sur un texte doit l'avoir travaillé au préalable. Il arrive donc souvent qu'il choisisse en priorité les grands auteurs, les textes patronymiques, qui sont aussi ceux qu'il connaît déjà. "

Ne pas répondre à la question de l'examinateur

Une des erreurs récurrentes des candidats durant l'épreuve orale de français consiste à ressortir tel quel le plan de l'analyse de texte qu'on a appris en cours : " Il faut bien répondre à la question que vous pose l'examinateur, et pas à celle que vous avez travaillée, ou que vous auriez aimé qu'on vous pose. " S'il a ciblé sa question sur une partie du texte seulement, l'exposé devra porter sur celle-ci. Sauf en conclusion où le candidat pourra, s'il le souhaite, " ouvrir " sur le reste du texte.

Oublier de parler des procédés stylistiques... ou ne parler que de cela

" Il ne faut absolument pas oublier de parler des procédés stylistiques, de la manière particulière d'écrire d'un auteur lorsqu'on évoque un texte ", tels qu'une métaphore filée, un système de comparaison qu'on retrouve dans tout le texte, ou un travail de la phrase spécifique, etc. " Mais chaque procédé relevé et identifié, appuyé par une citation, doit également être expliqué et interprété. "

En conclusion de l'exposé, ouvrir sur quelque chose qu'on ne maîtrise pas

Attention à ne pas se mettre en mauvaise posture au moment de la conclusion de l'exposé en " citant un auteur dont vous ne maîtrisez pas la vie ni l'œuvre ou une sortie au théâtre que vous n'avez pas faite ", prévient Stéphanie Martel. Car l'examinateur va probablement rebondir et poser des questions dessus...

Ne pas entrer dans l'échange au moment de l'entretien

Comme son nom l'indique, l'entretien doit être un échange. " Plus vous entrez dans l'échange et dans la discussion, meilleur sera l'entretien ", commente Stéphanie Martel. Il faut à tout prix éviter " de n'avoir tellement rien à dire qu'on vous posera des questions de cours ", ce qui est mauvais signe.

Un dernier conseil : plusieurs académies (Créteil, Paris, Versailles, Orléans-Tours, etc.) ont mis en place une charte des correcteurs de l'épreuve anticipée de français. Elle résume les compétences attendues aux épreuves écrite et orale et donne sur la fin (page 10) de nombreux conseils, et constitue une aide précieuse pour les candidats.
Cet article a fait l'objet d'une première publication à l'occasion du bac 2017.
Lire aussi Bac français L 2018 : les vidéos de cours incontournables pour réviser

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Oral du bac de français 2018 : les erreurs à ne pas commettre

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Comme leur nom l'indique, les épreuves anticipées du bac se passent en classe de première. De nombreux lycéens passeront l'oral de français après l'épreuve écrite, qui s'est déroulée lundi 18 juin après-midi (les dates de l'oral sont fixées par chaque académie et s'étalent jusqu'à début juillet).

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L' oral de français, en fin d'année de Première L, fait trembler les futurs bacheliers. Vous maîtrisez la méthode, vous maîtrisez vos cours, mais vous craignez encore de ne pas réussir ?

Voici une liste des erreurs à éviter à tout prix, pour ne pas perdre de points inutilement, et pour briller lors de votre épreuve !

Trop exploiter son brouillon, ou au contraire pas assez

Le brouillon doit avoir pour but de vous aider dans votre oral : il vous aide à être pertinent et organisé, et à développer votre exposé lorsque vous êtes face à l'examinateur.

Si vous écrivez trop, vous allez lire vos notes et non pas parler, au contraire, si vous ne faites que lister votre plan, et que vous ne rédigez pas un peu, vous allez enchaîner les blancs.

Comment éviter cette erreur ?

Quelques conseils qui pourront vous aider à vous servir correctement de votre brouillon :

- Ecrire sur le recto des feuilles,

- Rédiger l' introduction et la conclusion au brouillon,

- Rédiger le développement sous forme de tirets,

- Mettre de la couleur sur le texte et sur votre brouillon, pour vous repérer,

- Préparer un brouillon organisé, clair et lisible.

Faire l'impasse sur un des textes - Oral de Français Bac L

Au vue d'un grand nombre de texte à reviser, certains élèves décident de ne pas tous les réviser. Le choix se fait parce qu'ils estiment qu'ils n'ont pas grand chose à apprendre à propos d'un texte, ou simplement parce qu'ils ne l'apprécient pas.

Le jour-J, l'examinateur ne vous donnera pas le choix entre plusieurs textes ou sur le choix du sujet, vous devez donc être capable de répondre à n'importe quel texte de votre corpus. Votre note de Bac L en dépend.

Faites l'impasse sur l'impasse !

Travailler donc votre corpus entièrement et de manière régulière, tout au long de l'année.

Ne pas relire le texte - Oral de Français

Certains s'installent pour la préparation, et foncent tête baissée pour rédiger leur plan, sans même prendre le temps de relire le texte, puisqu'ils croient le connaitre par coeur.

Vous devez le relire avec en tête, la problématique qui vous a été posée, pour relever rapidement les éléments les plus pertinent. Cela ne vous prendra qu'une minute.

Trop lire ses notes durant l'exposé au Bac L

Lors du passage à l' oral de Français, de nombreux candidats gardent le nez collé à leurs notes et certains vont même jusqu'à lever leur feuille devant leur visage !

Il s'agit en effet d'un exposé, vous énoncez vos idées, votre développement, vous voulez convaincre et captez l'attention de l'examinateur.

Contester les remarques de l'examinateur lors de l'entretien

L'entretien fait encore partie de l' examen, oui, vous êtes notés sur cette partie de l' épreuve orale de Français. Elle permet de revenir sur vos erreurs, de les admettre, de montrer que votre compréhension du texte peut évoluer.

Cependant, si vous contestez une erreur que votre examinateur montre du doigt, cela lui enverra des signaux fort négatifs.

Reprendre directement le plan fait en cours

Lorsque votre professeur vous a proposé le plan d'un texte, il l'a fait en rapport avec sa propre problématique. Or, la problématique que vous donne votre examinateur est différente de celle abordée par votre professeur. Le plan n'est donc pas toujours approprié.

Travaillez donc la méthodologie pour créer un plan, et entrainez-vous pour le Bac de Français série L, avec des exercices.

Mal gérer son temps - Bac Français L

Il faut savoir gérer son temps entre les dix minutes de préparation, et les dix minutes d'exposé et d'échange avec votre examinateur.

Parfois, les candidats parlent peu lors de leur exposé, car ils n'ont pas assez développé leur raisonnement - ou au contraire, d'autres parlent trop et ne peuvent pas terminer d'exposer leur raisonnement.

Pour apprendre à gérer son temps, il faut avant tout... s'entraîner à l'oral. Profitez de l'opportunité des bacs blancs, ou entraînez-vous devant votre miroir !

Pour finir

Evitez donc ces erreurs pour ne pas perdre de points bêtement, en travaillant régulièrement et en apprenant la méthodologie de l'épreuve orale de Français.

Bon courage !

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Oral de Français - Erreurs à éviter pour le Bac L

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L' oral de français, en fin d'année de Première L, fait trembler les futurs bacheliers. Vous maîtrisez la méthode, vous maîtrisez vos cours, mais vous craignez encore de ne pas réussir ? Voici une liste des erreurs à éviter à tout prix, pour ne pas perdre de points inutilement, et pour briller lors de votre épreuve !

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Même si tu n'es pas hyper à l'aise en anglais, l'épreuve de compréhension écrite en anglais au Bac peut te réserver de bonnes surprises si tu maîtrises bien la méthode. Comptant pour 25% de la note finale, mieux vaut réussir l'épreuve et mettre des points de côté !

Ça tombe bien... je te donne aujourd'hui tous les tips qui m'ont permis d'obtenir 19 à mon épreuve d'anglais au Bac 🥳

Good luck 🍀🧧

Comment se passe l'épreuve d'anglais le jour du Bac ? 🏂

Si tu es en LV1 anglais, l'épreuve dure 3h. La compréhension écrite en anglais au bac est notée sur 10 points et l'expression écrite sur 10 points également. Chacune de ces épreuves va donc compter pour 25% de ta note finale.
Si tu es en LV2 anglais, l'épreuve dure 2h. Même principe.

Timing de la compréhension écrite ⏰

Si tu es en anglais LV1, on te conseille de partir sur 1H15 de compréhension écrite et 15 minutes de relecture. Cela te permettra d'analyser sereinement ce texte (texte littéraire ou doc de presse la plupart du temps) d'une soixantaine de lignes sans terminer dans le rush.

Eh oui, terminer la compréhension écrite à l'arrache, c'est le meilleur moyen de se planter... 🚨

Comment réussir une compréhension écrite en anglais ? Comprends les attentes des correcteurs 🤓

Pour réussir le jour J, tu dois maîtriser les éléments suivants :

Si le document est un monologue / exposé :

Tu dois restituer les infos principales, mais aussi les détails significatifs du document et sa logique interne. De plus, tu dois avoir compris le contenu informatif ainsi que l'attitude du personnage principal (humour, point de vue, ton, etc.)

Si le document est un dialogue / discussion :

Tu dois relever les points principaux de la discussion (contexte, objet de l'échange, interlocuteurs en jeu...) et relever un nombre satisfaisant de détails importants (relations et attitudes des interlocuteurs, humour, ton, points de vue, etc.)

Compréhension écrite anglais bac - étape 1 : découvrir les documents et repérer les infos 💁‍♂️

1) Analyse rapide du texte et des infos périphériques 🏙

Avant de foncer faire ta première lecture tout(e) stressé(e), profite de ce début d'épreuve pour repérer les informations périphériques de ton texte.

Quels sont les indices qui te permettent d'ores et déjà d'affiner ta compréhension du texte ? Pense à bien checker le titre de l'extrait, la date, le nom de l'auteur, l'introduction ! Mais aussi le genre du document (extrait de roman, journal...)

Tous ces petits éléments qui n'ont l'air de rien vont en fait te mâcher le travail et faciliter ton travail de compréhension.

2) Anglais compréhension écrite - Première lecture du texte ☝️

Une fois ce travail préliminaire réalisé, tu peux passer à cette première lecture (= lecture suivie) du texte. Sois bien concentré puisque le but est ici de lire la totalité de l'extrait sans t'arrêter afin de dégager le sens global du texte.

👉🏻 Pas de panique si tout n'est pas clair du premier coup, c'est normal. Souffle un bon coup, continue ta lecture et tu auras le temps d'affiner ta compréhension lors de ta deuxième lecture.

Ne panique pas comme Sheldon, please 🙏🥺

3) Deuxième lecture du texte ✌️

👉🏻 C'est le moment du repérage. Équipe-toi de 4 crayons de couleur/surligneurs et commence à mettre en valeur les informations primordiales.

Voilà celles que tu dois repérer en priorité :

Noms de personnages : grâce aux majuscules, pronoms

Les relations qui existent entre les personnages

Les indications de lieu et de temps (adverbes, conjonctions, temps)

Mots de liaison, ponctuation particulière

Mots clés et idées directrices

Point de vue de l'auteur (adjectifs, verbes de sentiment)

Etc.

Pour t'aider, voilà une technique encore plus efficace pour n'oublier aucun élément important :

👉🏻 Pose-toi les questions Who, Where, When, What !!! 💥

Rentrons dans le détail :

🦶 Astuce de sioux N°1 : plutôt que de souligner/surligner simplement ton texte, ce qui a parfois pour défaut de le rendre un peu trop bariolé de couleur, tu peux décider de reporter les éléments importants au sein d'un tableau au brouillon découpé en 4 colonnes (who, when, where, what).

🦶 Astuce de sioux N°2 : tu as tout essayé, mais le texte continue à te résister...? Au lieu de flipper et abandonner, fais une dernière et troisième lecture rapide pour voir si tu comprends mieux en t'imprégnant au maximum du contexte. Mais attention, pour ne pas gâcher ton temps précieux, il vaut mieux passer après à la lecture des questions de compréhension (même si tu n'as pas tout compris). Eh oui, ces questions vont te donner des indications extrêmement précieuses et t'aiguiller vers les points clés de ton texte. Donc, passe du temps à bien comprendre la question en relevant les termes clés puis essaye de retrouver dans le texte ce qui correspond à cette question. Super pratique, car ça te permet même avec un niveau plutôt faible de concentrer tous tes efforts sur certains passages clés du texte.

Anglais compréhension écrite méthode - étape 2 : répondre aux questions 🧐

1) Petit b.a.-ba sur les questions de compréhension 👀

La première chose à savoir est que la difficulté des questions va toujours crescendo ! L'épreuve est conçue pour commencer avec des questions faciles, puis celles-ci vont progressivement se corser jusqu'à que cela requière une compréhension plus fine et détaillée de ton texte.

Donc, si tu es plutôt à l'aise en anglais et que ces premières questions coulent de source, n'y passe pas trop de temps puisque celles-ci rapportent en général moins de points. Toute la difficulté de l'épreuve consiste en effet ici à bien savoir gérer son temps pour choper un max de points.

Maintenant que tu sais ça, pense bien à toujours relire chaque question au moins 2 fois. Cela t'assure d'avoir bien compris la question afin de ne pas tomber dans le hors-sujet. Vérifie aussi si on demande de justifier (et si c'est le cas, tu cites bien le texte en indiquant le numéro de la ligne du texte afin de faciliter le travail de ton correcteur).

HEY, ON PROPOSE AUSSI DES COURS PARTICULIERS D'ANGLAIS 👇

2) Comment bien rédiger une réponse pour la compréhension écrite en anglais au lycée ? ✍️

Pour rédiger une bonne réponse, suis toujours ces deux principes 👇

Rédige des phrases complètes et simples EN ANGLAIS (comme le dirait Bossuet, "ce qui se conçoit bien s'énonce clairement) sous la forme sujet → verbe → complément. Mieux vaut une réponse courte simple et sans faute plutôt que de vouloir en faire des tonnes avec une majestueuse erreur...

Quand tu cites le texte, pense bien à mettre les citations entre guillemets ("blablabla") et spécifie la ligne du texte en question.

Tu as ensuite deux grands types de questions lors de cette épreuve de compréhension écrite en anglais au Bac 👇

Les questions avec des réponses "vrai-faux" : tu dois ici indiquer si c'est juste ou faux en pensant absolument à citer le bon passage du texte.

Les questions avec des réponses rédigées : on fait de belles phrases respectant la grammaire et syntaxe anglaise (forme), tout en ayant bien cerné la question et les attentes implicites afin d'éviter tout risque de hors sujet (fond). Le fond et la forme sont super importants si tu veux prendre tous les points !

🦶 Astuce de sioux : si tu bloques totalement sur une question (ça peut arriver...), laisse des lignes vides dans ta copie pour pouvoir y revenir par la suite. Tu dois toujours respecter l'ordre des questions ! Et n'oublie pas d'y revenir à la fin surtout ! Mieux vaut une réponse partielle ou inexacte que pas de réponse du tout. Au Bac, les examinateurs sont assez cléments donc tente le tout pour le tout 🧨

Compréhension écrite anglais bac - étape 3 : relire ses réponses 🕵️‍♀️

Si tu es en LV1, je te conseille de t'arrêter aux alentours des 1h15 pour garder 15 minutes de relecture.

C'est indispensable puisque cela va te permettre de corriger tes fautes d'inattention qui ont le don d'énerver le correcteur. Donc fais bien attention à 👇

L'orthographe

La conjugaison (attention à ces charmants verbes irréguliers)

La grammaire

Vocabulaire incorrect

You better be careful dude ⚠️

Compréhension écrite anglais type bac : exercices à faire chez soi 🏠

Pour t'entraîner à cette épreuve qui peut te déboussoler si tu ne t'es jamais frotté(e) à l'exercice, on t'a fait un petit palmarès des meilleures ressources sur internet pour t'entraîner.

Sujet de bac te met sur un plateau toutes les annales du Bac d'anglais depuis 2003 (oui oui, tu auras de quoi faire), le tout servi avec le corrigé ! Elle est pas belle la vie ?

En ce qui concerne Anglais Facile, tu y trouveras des exercices interactifs pour t'entraîner à la compréhension écrite anglais type bac !

Enfin, sur le site de l'académie de Grenoble, tu peux retrouver des questions de compréhension écrite ainsi que leur barème. De quoi te projeter et savoir quelles notes tu peux taper au Bac !

C'est fini pour aujourd'hui, j'espère avoir pu répondre à ta fameuse question : comment réussir la compréhension écrite en anglais ? Je te souhaite bon courage dans tes révisions ! C'est la dernière ligne droite, donne tout ! 🏃‍♂️👟

HEY, ON PROPOSE AUSSI DES COURS PARTICULIERS D'ANGLAIS 👇

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Méthode ⇒ Compréhension écrite en Anglais au Bac - Les Sherpas

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Même si tu n'es pas hyper à l'aise en anglais, l'épreuve de compréhension écrite en anglais au Bac peut te réserver de bonnes surprises si tu maîtrises bien la méthode. Comptant pour 25% de la note finale, mieux vaut réussir l'épreuve et mettre des points de côté ! Ça tombe bien...

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1100 phrases courtes en anglais (avec la voix française)

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Compréhension Ecrite

LES TESTS PORTANT SUR UN ARTICLE

WORK STOPS IN IRELAND TO WATCH ECLIPSE

Mac Donald's: a hundred billion hamburgers sold

Mystery Queen

The Bermuda Triangle

NOUVEAU! Les tests 100% en français: questions en français, consignes en français, traduction partielle, traduction complète
Dr Martens - 10 questions

Les questions des tests ci-dessous ne suivent pas l'ordre du texte et sont mélangées à chaque fois. Ces tests sont réservés aux niveaux plus élevés:

LES TESTS PORTANT SUR LA VIE D'UNE CELEBRITE / PERSONNE CONNUE
maj 29.05.04
LES FICHES DE COMPREHENSION ECRITE en PDF

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Exercices de compréhension écrite en anglais

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Compréhension Ecrite LES TESTS PORTANT SUR UN ARTICLE WORK STOPS IN IRELAND TO WATCH ECLIPSE Mac Donald's: a hundred billion hamburgers sold Mystery Queen The Bermuda Triangle NOUVEAU! Les tests 100% en français: questions en français, consignes en français, traduction partielle, traduction complète Dr Martens - 10 questions Les questions des tests ci-dessous ne suivent pas l'ordre du texte et sont mélangées à chaque fois.

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Practice Makes Fluent - Lifelong Learning

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exercice compréhension orale de l'anglais pour débutants (recorded by Real Human Voice)

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Leçons de compréhension orale de l'anglais de base - Aptitudes en compréhension orale de l'anglais

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L' épreuve d'expression écrite en anglais au baccalauréat a de quoi impressionner... 300 mots +/- 10%... de quoi avoir le temps de faire d'impardonnables fautes de grammaire et de vocabulaire ! Pourtant, avec la bonne préparation, il est tout à fait possible de décrocher une super note.

Paroles d'un Sherpa ayant obtenu 19 en English au baccalauréat ! 🇬🇧👍

Bonne lecture 📚

Modalités de l'épreuve 🧐

Quel est le déroulement de l'épreuve? 🏂

Si tu es en LV1, l'épreuve dure 3h. La compréhension écrite est notée sur 10 points et l'expression écrite sur 10 points également. Chacune de ces parties compte donc pour 25% de ta note finale.

Si tu es en LV2, cela dure 2h. Même principe.

Timing de l'expression écrite anglais ⏰

Si tu es en LV1, on te conseille de partir sur 1H15 d'écriture et 15 minutes de relecture.
Eh oui, terminer ta rédaction dans le rush est le meilleur moyen de la rater, alors autant éviter 🚨

Attentes des correcteurs 🤓

Si le fond (ce que tu dis) est certes important pour ton correcteur, la richesse de ton vocabulaire et le respect des règles grammaticales sont indispensables si tu veux décrocher une bonne note !

Les différents formats de l'expression écrite 📖

Le jour J, on peut te proposer différents types d'exercices :

Écrire un essai : le plus classique, tu réponds à une question en suivant une argumentation structurée. Bien souvent, tu vas commencer par exprimer différents points avant de prendre position. Example : Do you think technical progress necessarily implies forgetting the past?

Écrire un commentaire : on te demande d'argumenter à partir d'une citation ou d'un passage du texte. Example : Document A: "The danger is that we have come to admire celebrities more than real heroes." (line 18) To what extent do you agree with this statement? (300 words +/- 10%)

Un dialogue. Example : Two students are discussing the pros and cons of moving back to their parents' home after they finish university. Write their conversation.

Une lettre ou un journal intime (rare en LV1, plus courant en LV2)

Un article de journal (rare en LV1, plus courant en LV2)

Voyons désormais comment s'y prendre pour chacun de ces exercices ! 🚀

Méthode expression écrite anglais bac : comment faire un bon essai ? 🥳

Commençons par l'essai, le cas qui tombe le plus souvent :

1) Bien lire et définir les termes le sujet pour trouver la problématique (5 min) 💥

Avant de te lancer à corps perdu dans la rédaction de ton essai, mieux vaut prendre quelques minutes pour bien lire le sujet et repérer/définir ses mots clés. Cela t'évitera déjà le malheureux hors sujet.

Profites-en aussi pour t'assurer d'avoir fait le bon choix de sujet : tu dois avoir assez d'arguments et d'éléments à convoquer qui te viennent en tête.

👉🏻 Prenons désormais un exemple de sujet pour l'illustrer :
To what degree do you consider that a company can succeed in reconciling the two objectives of profitability and environmentalism ?
Quand tu as une question qui t'invite à donner ton point de vue (to what degree / how / to what extent...), tu dois être en mesure de reformuler la question avec tes propres mots. Ne reprends jamais la question telle qu'elle t'est posée.

Ici, bien comprendre l'opposition supposée entre les deux termes clés (profitability = rentabilité ; environmentalism = respect de l'environnement) et reformuler le sujet avec tes propres mots est essentiel si tu veux trouver une bonne problématique.
Pour rappel :
La problématique peut être une question directe (inversion sujet-verbe) 👇

- To what extent is / How is... (dans quelle mesure, comment ?)
- Is... necessarily... ? (est-ce que option A est nécessairement option B ?)

Mais elle peut aussi être une question indirecte (pas d'inversion du verbe et du sujet auquel cas) 👇

- We can wonder if... (nous pouvons nous demander si...)
- We can wonder how... (nous pouvons nous demander comment...)
- We can wonder to what extent... (nous pouvons nous demander dans quelle mesure...)

2) Méthode essai d'anglais au bac : Écrire ses idées au brouillon (25 min) ✍️

Attention, une fois ta problématique trouvée, ne rédige pas tout au brouillon.

Privilégie un plan très détaillé dans un tableau avec tes idées maîtresses. Ton but est ici d'avoir un fil directeur clair dans ton argumentation.

⚠️ Attention : pense toujours à avoir 1 argument accompagné d'1 exemple pour que ton propos soit percutant ! Comme dans une conversation avec quelqu'un, tu dois toujours illustrer une théorie avec quelque chose de concret et compréhensible par ton interlocuteur.

Reprenons notre sujet sur l'environnement et la rentabilité : To what degree do you consider that a company can succeed in reconciling the two objectives of profitability and environmentalism ?

La question nous rappelle que la 1ère chose à laquelle on pense en matière de respect de l'environnement pour les entreprises, c'est le problème du coût. Tu pourrais donc avoir envie de créer un plan en 2 parties opposant rentabilité et écologie. Mais ça serait trop facile... Eh oui, l'utilisation de "to what extent" (= dans quelle mesure) t'invite à la nuance. Tu dois ici te poser donc la question de la compatibilité entre ces deux objectifs que sont le respect de l'environnement et la rentabilité d'une entreprise. Tu vas donc devoir chercher des noms d'entreprises qui peuvent être rentables alors même qu'elles respectent l'environnement.

On pourrait alors partir sur un plan de ce style : on pose d'abord le problème majeur qui est que le respect de l'environnement implique un coût supplémentaire pour les entreprises, ce qui a des conséquences négatives sur leur compétitivité (exemple : le livre de Mortgenstern qui montre que les entreprises vertes doublent leurs coûts de production en moyenne). Ensuite, on peut venir montrer diverses solutions qui existent permettant à la fois de rentabiliser la reconversion écologique tout en soutenant la cause environnementale (par exemple les opportunités business qu'ont saisies des entreprises comme Max Havelaar ou celles dans les technologies vertes. Tu aurais pu aussi penser à la rationalisation du processus de production pour économiser de l'eau et des matières premières par l'usine Ford à Rouge).

Ça nous donnerait du coup un tableau de ce style au brouillon :

Partie 1 : Respect environnement semble difficilement conciliable avec rentabilité

Partie 2 : Mais en fait si c'est possible

Argument principal : Les entreprises respectant l'environnement voient leur compétitivité décliner fortement

Argument principal : Des solutions existent permettant de rentabiliser la reconversion écologique ou de soutenir la cause environnementale

Exemple pertinent : livre Morgensen sur l'explosion du coût pour les entreprises ayant une production "verte"

Exemples pertinents :
Max Havelaar, Technologies vertes,
Usine Ford à Rouge

3) Rédiger l'introduction (10 min) 🐧

Bon, tu as compris comment construire des arguments qui tiennent la route. Passons au cas de l'introduction, celle-ci doit suivre le carcan suivant :
- Introduire ton sujet (avec un fait intéressant si tu as ça dans ta besace)
- Redonner la problématique (c.-à-d. la question posée par le sujet) en reformulant la question

Prenons ici deux illustrations de notre propos :

Si on reprend notre sujet sur l'environnement un peu plus haut, voilà un exemple d'introduction fonctionnant :
To maintain itself, a company must balance its budget. For the sake of the environment, firms have to bear extra expenses, which makes them less competitive; yet, those which go green can cut running costs, or cash on the value added to their products. (= introduction du sujet) The question is, how can companies be profitable and environmentally friendly at the same time ? (= problématique reformulée)

Prenons un autre sujet pour illustrer ce qu'est une bonne introduction :
Video games are often blamed for gun violence. Do you think it is fair?
Proposition d'introduction : In the wake of the Columbine (USA) shooting, the debate about the links between violent video games and gun violence was renewed because the two teenagers who committed the mass murder were fans of games(= introduction du sujet). Yet, how much of the blame can we put on games ? Are they the only thing that should be held responsible for gun violence ? (= problématique reformulée)

4) Méthode essai anglais au bac : Rédiger le développement en 2 ou 3 parties (30 min) 🎬

L'avantage d'avoir fait un bon brouillon, c'est que maintenant, tes arguments coulent de source et tu as un bon fond de connaissances.
Applique-toi donc à rendre une langue claire, propre et sans fautes de grammaire/vocabulaire/syntaxe énormes !
Si c'est le cas, tu seras alors dans de très bonnes dispositions pour choper la note maximale 💪

5) Rédiger la conclusion (5 min) 🥅

Peaufine ta conclusion en prenant position sur ton sujet. Essaye de laisser le correcteur sur une "bonne" dernière impression en évitant d'énormes fautes d'inattention.

6) Relecture (15 min) 🧐

Prends un bon quart d'heure pour t'assurer que tu n'as pas fait de bourdes énormes sur le triptyque grammaire/vocabulaire/syntaxe.

Exemple d'essai en anglais au bac - Une expression écrite anglais en exemple 😍

Voici un exemple qui marche bien en essai. Je le commenterai juste en dessous !

👉🏻 Video games are often blamed for gun violence. Do you think it is fair?

In the wake of the Columbine (USA) shooting, the debate about the links between violent video games and gun violence was renewed because the two teenagers who committed the mass murder were fans of video games (= introduction du sujet). Yet, how much of the blame can we put on games ? Are they the only thing that should be held responsible for gun violence ? (problématique reformulée)

As violent video games - whose rules are to kill as many people as possible - become more and more popular, parents worry and experts try to analyze their effect on teenagers' well-being. Indeed, if killing is a game, how are young kids to understand the difference between the virtual world and real life? Are they not going to want to try to see how it feels to kill someone "for real" after having killed so many virtual characters? However, the number of mass murderers is extremely low compared with the number of game players, which suggests the two are not closely connected.

Indeed, as Michael Moore explains in his documentary Bowling for Columbine, video games cannot be the only cause of gun violence since in a country like Japan, where fans of video games are quite numerous, the number of gun deaths is extremely low. Thus, the American gun problem can be explained by many different things: the easy access to guns, the gun culture inherited from the early years of American history, the gun lobbies such as the NRA, etc.

Thus, the causes of gun violence appear to be complex and putting the blame on games seems to me to be a dangerous simplification of the issue.

274 words

Avis sur cet essai 🙄

Comme tu peux le constater, je suis bien dans les clous au niveau du nombre de mots. L'introduction commence avec un fait intéressant (la fusillade de Colombine) avant d'enchaîner avec la reformulation de la problématique sous forme de deux questions qui s'enchaînent logiquement.

On a ensuite la partie 1 avec un argument principal (avoir "tué" dans les jeux ne donne-t-il pas envie de le faire en vrai?) avant de venir le démonter grâce à l'exemple (le nombre de meurtriers de masse est extrêmement faible comparés au nombre de joueurs de jeux vidéos). Puis on passe à la partie 2 où l'argument principal est que le fait de jouer aux jeux n'entraîne pas nécessairement une culture de violence comme le montre le cas du Japon. On s'appuie ensuite sur l'exemple des États-Unis pour montrer que cela s'explique sûrement par d'autres facteurs plus présents (culture des armes, lobbies, etc.). On finit avec une conclusion avec prise de position (trop simpliste d'accuser le jeu vidéo sur la violence des armes à feu).

Ne tergiverse pas, il faut prendre position 👌

Méthode expression écrite anglais bac : le cas du commentaire 🔖

Comme le montre cet exemple : Document A: "The danger is we have come to admire celebrities more than real heroes." (line 18) To what extent do you agree with this statement? (300 words +/- 10%) ; on te demande d'argumenter à partir d'une citation ou d'un passage du texte étudié.

En effet, l'exercice est de repérer au sein du passage les raisons pour lesquelles nous sommes venus à admirer les célébrités plus que les vrais héros. C'est finalement un poil plus facile que l'essai car certains des arguments sont déjà plus ou moins donnés, mais cela te demande d'avoir bien compris le texte pour ne pas faire fausse route.

En revanche, une fois bien cerné le sujet, n'hésite pas à être un peu original pour sortir des sentiers battus en proposant des illustrations pertinentes et différentes de tes camarades.

En ce qui concerne la méthodologie, c'est ensuite grosso modo la même chose que pour l'essai.

Méthode expression écrite anglais bac : le cas du dialogue 💬

Example : Two students are discussing the pros and cons of moving back to their parents' home after they finish university. Write their conversation.

Bon, rien de bien compliqué, mais il faut prendre en compte les spécificités du dialogue anglais :

Tu ne dois pas utiliser de tirets, mais des guillemets

Utilise si possible des verbes et des expressions variés pour montrer la richesse de ta langue

Attention à bien utiliser la forme affirmative (he said, he answered), et non pas l'inversion du sujet et du verbe comme en français (dit-il...)

Adapte bien le niveau de la langue (familier VS courant VS soutenu) et le style d'écriture selon les types d'interlocuteurs (enfant, ado, étudiant, adulte) et les relations qu'ils entretiennent (amis, ado/parent, prof/élève...)

Tu peux utiliser à foison les marques propres au dialogue comme : les pauses (er..., and...), les tics verbaux (you know...) ou encore les interjections (hey!...)

Méthodologie expression écrite anglais bac : le cas de la lettre 📮

Pour cet exercice, il faut respecter certains éléments caractéristiques :

Date et lieu en haut à droite

Lorsque tu écris, tu t'adresses à quelqu'un : il faut donc bien parler à ton destinataire en lui posant des questions, etc.

N'oublie pas les coordonnées de ton destinataire

Et ne passe pas à côté de la petite formule de politesse en bas selon ton interlocuteur (Sincerely, Best regards, Love...)

Méthode expression écrite anglais bac : le cas de l'article de journal 📰

Pense pour commencer au format classique de l'article de journal :

Et n'oublie pas les règles spécifiques du style journalistique :

Titre de l'article accrocheur pour attirer l'attention du lecteur (fait marquant, jeu de mots, calembour, mots sélectionnés avec soin...)

L'information est organisée en paragraphes allant de l'info la plus généraliste à l'info la plus détaillée possible

Si tu veux aller plus loin et progresser en anglais toujours + vite, on te conseille de regarder ceci ! 😊

Bon avec tout ça, tu devrais être bien paré pour tout déchirer le jour J. On espère que maintenant, tu as ta réponse à la fameuse question : comment réussir une expression écrite en anglais au bac ? Good luck, may the force be with you 🧙‍♂️

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Méthode expression écrite anglais au Bac - Les Sherpas

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L' épreuve d'expression écrite en anglais au baccalauréat a de quoi impressionner... 300 mots +/- 10%... de quoi avoir le temps de faire d'impardonnables fautes de grammaire et de vocabulaire ! Pourtant, avec la bonne préparation, il est tout à fait possible de décrocher une super note.

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Ellis Island est une île située à l'embouchure de l' Hudson à New York, moins d'un kilomètre au nord de Liberty Island qui abrite la statue de la Liberté. Elle a été, dans la première partie du siècle, l'entrée principale des immigrants qui arrivaient aux États-Unis.

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Ellis Island

The Statue of Liberty and Ellis Island, seen from New York Water Taxi in New York Harbor, 2013

Location | Upper New York Bay, New York Harbor, within the U.S. states of New York and New Jersey
Coordinates | 40°41′58″N 74°02′30″W﻿ / ﻿40.699398°N 74.041723°W Coordinates: 40°41′58″N 74°02′30″W﻿ / ﻿40.699398°N 74.041723°W
Area | 27.5 acres (11.1 ha)
Elevation | 7 ft (2.1 m)[1]

Built

1900 (Main Building)
1911 (Hospital)

Architect

William Alciphron Boring
Edward Lippincott Tilton
James Knox Taylor

Architectural style(s) | Renaissance Revival
Governing body | National Park Service
Website | www.nps.gov/elis/index.htm

U.S. National Monument

Official name | Statue of Liberty National Monument
Designated | May 11, 1965[2]

U.S. National Register of Historic Places

Official name | Statue of Liberty National Monument, Ellis Island and Liberty Island
Designated | October 15, 1966[3]
Reference no. | 66000058

New Jersey Register of Historic Places

Official name | Statue of Liberty National Monument, Ellis Island and Liberty Island
Designated | May 27, 1971
Reference no. | 1535[4]

New York City Landmark

Type | District/Individual Interior
Designated | November 16, 1993[5]
Reference no. | 1902 (district), 1903 (main building interior)

Location of Ellis Island in Hudson County, New Jersey

Ellis Island (New Jersey)

Ellis Island (New York City)

Ellis Island (New York)

Ellis Island (the United States)

Ellis Island is a federally owned island in New York Harbor, situated within the U.S. states of New York and New Jersey, that was the busiest immigrant inspection and processing station in the United States. From 1892 to 1954, nearly 12 million immigrants arriving at the Port of New York and New Jersey were processed there under federal law.[6] Today, it is part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument and is accessible to the public only by ferry. The north side of the island is the site of the main building, now a national museum of immigration. The south side of the island, including the Ellis Island Immigrant Hospital, is open to the public only through guided tours.

In the 19th century, Ellis Island was the site of Fort Gibson and later became a naval magazine. The first inspection station opened in 1892 and was destroyed by fire in 1897. The second station opened in 1900 and housed facilities for medical quarantines and processing immigrants. After 1924, Ellis Island was used primarily as a detention center for migrants. During both World War I and World War II, its facilities were also used by the US military to detain prisoners of war. After the immigration station's closure, the buildings languished for several years until they were partially reopened in 1976. The main building and adjacent structures were completely renovated in 1990.

The 27.5-acre (11.1 ha) island was greatly expanded by land reclamation between the late 1890s and the 1930s. Jurisdictional disputes between New Jersey and New York State persisted until the 1998 US Supreme Court ruling in New Jersey v. New York.

Geography and access[edit]

Ellis Island is in Upper New York Bay, east of Liberty State Park and north of Liberty Island. While most of the island is in Jersey City, New Jersey, a small section is an exclave of New York City.[7][8] The island has a land area of 27.5 acres (11.1 ha), much of which is from land reclamation.[9] The natural island and contiguous areas comprise 4.68 acres (1.89 ha) within New York, and are located on the northern portion of the present-day island.[8] The artificial land is part of New Jersey.[10][8] The island has been owned and administered by the federal government of the United States since 1808 and operated by the National Park Service since 1965.[11][12]

Land expansion[edit]

Initially, much of the Upper New York Bay's western shore consisted of large tidal flats with vast oyster beds, which were a major source of food for the Lenape. Ellis Island was one of three "Oyster Islands," the other two being Liberty Island and the now-destroyed Black Tom Island.[13][14][15] In the late 19th century, the federal government began expanding the island by land reclamation to accommodate its immigration station, and the expansions continued until 1934.[16]

The fill was acquired from the ballast of ships, as well as material excavated from the first line of the New York City Subway.[17] It also came from the railyards of the Lehigh Valley Railroad and the Central Railroad of New Jersey. It eventually obliterated the oyster beds, engulfed one of the Oyster Islands, and brought the shoreline much closer to the others.[18]

The current island is shaped like a "C", with two landmasses of equal size on the northeastern and southwestern sides, separated by what was formerly a ferry pier.[19][20] It was originally three separate islands. The current north side, formerly called island 1, contains the original island and the fill around it. The current south side was composed of island 2, created in 1899, and island 3, created in 1906. Two eastward-facing ferry docks separated the three numbered landmasses.[19][20]

The fill was retained with a system of wood piles and cribbing, and later encased with more than 7,700 linear feet of concrete and granite sea wall. It was placed atop either wood piles, cribbing, or submerged bags of concrete. In the 1920s, the second ferry basin between islands 2 and 3 was infilled to create the great lawn, forming the current south side of Ellis Island. As part of the project, a concrete and granite seawall was built to connect the tip of these landmasses.[21]

State sovereignty dispute[edit]

State border after New Jersey vs. New York, 1998

The circumstances which led to an exclave of New York being located within New Jersey began in the colonial era, after the British takeover of New Netherland in 1664. A clause in the colonial land grant outlined the territory that the proprietors of New Jersey would receive as being "westward of Long Island, and Manhitas Island and bounded on the east part by the main sea, and part by Hudson's river."[22][23]

As early as 1804, attempts were made to resolve the status of the state line.[24] The City of New York claimed the right to regulate trade on all waters. This was contested in Gibbons v. Ogden, which decided that the regulation of interstate commerce fell under the authority of the federal government, thus influencing competition in the newly developing steam ferry service in New York Harbor.[25] In 1830, New Jersey planned to bring suit to clarify the border, but the case was never heard.[26] The matter was resolved with a compact between the states, ratified by U.S. Congress in 1834.[26][27][28] This set the boundary line at the middle of the Hudson River and New York Harbor; however, New York was guaranteed "exclusive jurisdiction of and over all the waters of Hudson River lying west of Manhattan and to the south of the mouth of Spuytenduyvil Creek; and of and over the lands covered by the said waters, to the low-water mark on the New Jersey shore."[29] This was later confirmed in other cases by the U.S. Supreme Court.[18][24][30][31]

New Jersey contended that the artificial portions of the island were part of New Jersey, since they were outside New York's border. In 1956, after the closure of the U.S. immigration station two years prior, the Mayor of Jersey City Bernard J. Berry commandeered a U.S. Coast Guard cutter and led a contingent of New Jersey officials on an expedition to claim the island.[32]

Jurisdictional disputes reemerged in the 1980s with the renovation of Ellis Island,[33] and then again in the 1990s with the proposed redevelopment of the south side.[34] New Jersey sued in 1997.[34] The lawsuit was escalated to the Supreme Court, which ruled in New Jersey v. New York. 523 U.S. 767 (1998)[26][35][36] The border was redrawn using geographic information science data:[37] It was decided that 22.80 acres (9.23 ha) of the land fill area are territory of New Jersey and that 4.68 acres (1.89 ha), including the original island, are territory of New York.[8] This caused some initial confusion, as some buildings straddled the interstate border.[26] The ruling had no effect on the status of Liberty Island.[38]

Although the island remained under federal ownership after the lawsuit, New Jersey and New York agreed to share jurisdiction over the land itself. Neither state took any fiscal or physical responsibility for the maintenance, preservation, or improvement of any of the historic properties, and each state has jurisdiction over its respective land areas. Jersey City and New York City then gave separate tax lot numbers to their respective claims.[35][a]

Public access[edit]

Two ferry slips are located on the northern side of the basin that bisects Ellis Island. No charge is made for entrance to the Statue of Liberty National Monument, but there is a cost for the ferry service.[44] A concession was granted in 2007 to Statue Cruises to operate the transportation and ticketing facilities, replacing Circle Line, which had operated the service since 1953.[45] The ferries travel from Liberty State Park in Jersey City and the Battery in Lower Manhattan.[46] The NPS also offers guided public tours of the south side as part of the "Hard Hat Tour".[47][48]

The bridge to Liberty State Park

A bridge to Liberty State Park was built in 1986 for transporting materials and personnel during the island's late-1980s restoration. Originally slated to be torn down in 1992,[49] it remained after construction was complete.[50] It is not open to the public. The city of New York and the island's private ferry operator have opposed proposals to use it or replace it with a pedestrian bridge,[51] and a 1995 proposal for a new pedestrian bridge to New Jersey was voted down in the United States House of Representatives.[50] The bridge is not strong enough to be classified as a permanent bridge, and any action to convert it into a pedestrian passageway would require renovations.[52]

History[edit]

Precolonial and colonial use[edit]

The present-day Ellis Island was created by retreating glaciers at the end of the Wisconsin glaciation about 15,000 years ago. The island was described as a "hummock along a plain fronting the west side of the Hudson River estuary,"[53] and when the glaciers melted, the water of the Upper New York Bay surrounded the mass.[53] The native Mohegan name for the island was "Kioshk", meaning "Gull Island",[54][55][56] in reference to Ellis Island's former large population of seagulls.[54] Kioshk was composed mostly of marshy, brackish lowlands that disappeared underwater at high tide.[53] The Native American tribes who lived nearby are presumed to have been hunter-gatherers who used the island to hunt for fish and oysters, as well as to build transient hunting and fishing communities there.[57][58] It is unlikely that the Native Americans established permanent settlements on Kioshk, since the island would have been submerged at high tide.[58]

In 1630, the Dutch bought Kioshk as a gift for Michael Reyniersz Pauw,[b] who had helped found New Netherland.[58][59][60] When the Dutch settled the area as part of New Netherland, the three islands in Upper New York Bay—Liberty, Black Tom, and Ellis Islands—were given the name Oyster Islands, alluding to the large oyster population nearby. The present-day Ellis Island was thus called "Little Oyster Island",[14][15][61] a name that persisted through at least the early 1700s.[62][c] Little Oyster Island was then sold to Captain William Dyre c. 1674,[d] then to Thomas Lloyd on April 23, 1686.[64][58] The island was then sold several more times,[64] including to Enoch and Mary Story.[58] During colonial times, Little Oyster Island became a popular spot for hosting oyster roasts, picnics, and clambakes because of its rich oyster beds. Evidence of recreational uses on the island was visible by the mid-18th century with the addition of commercial buildings to the northeast shore.[58][65]

By the 1760s, Little Oyster Island became a public execution site for pirates, with executions occurring at one tree in particular, the "Gibbet Tree".[56][66][55] However, there is scant evidence that this was common practice.[58] Little Oyster Island was acquired by Samuel Ellis, a colonial New Yorker and merchant possibly from Wales, in 1774.[67] He unsuccessfully attempted to sell the island nine years later.[68][69] Ellis died in 1794,[67][69][70] and as per his will, the ownership of Ellis Island passed to his daughter Catherine Westervelt's unborn son, who was also named Samuel. When the junior Samuel died shortly after birth, ownership passed to the senior Samuel's other two daughters, Elizabeth Ryerson and Rachel Cooder.[69][70]

Military use and Fort Gibson[edit]

Ellis Island was also used by the military for almost 80 years.[71] By the mid-1790s, as a result of the United States' increased military tensions with Britain and France, a U.S. congressional committee drew a map of possible locations for the First System of fortifications to protect major American urban centers such as New York Harbor.[72][73]A small part of Ellis Island from “the soil from high to low waters mark around Ellis’s Island" was owned by the city. On April 21, 1794, the city deeded that land to the state for public defense purposes.[69][74] The following year, the state allotted $100,000 for fortifications on Bedloe's, Ellis, and Governors Islands,[69] as well as the construction of Castle Garden (now Castle Clinton[75]) along the Battery on Manhattan island.[69] Batteries and magazines were built on Ellis Island in preparation for a war.[76] A jetty was added to the northwestern extremity of the island, possibly from soil excavated from an inlet at the northeastern corner; the inlet was infilled by 1813.[69] Though the military threat never materialized, further preparations were spurred by another possibility of war with France in the late 1790s;[69][27] these new preparations were supervised by Ebenezer Stevens.[70][77] The military conflict also failed to occur, and by 1805, the fort had become rundown.[28]

Stevens, who observed that the Ellis family still owned most of the island, suggested selling off the land to the federal government.[70] Samuel Ryerson, one of Samuel Ellis's grandsons, deeded the island to John A. Berry in 1806.[70][78][74] The remaining portion of the island was acquired by condemnation the next year, and it was ceded to the United States on June 30, 1808, for $10,000.[71][70][27][32] Lieutenant Colonel Jonathan Williams, placed in charge of New York Harbor defenses in the early 1800s, proposed several new fortifications around the harbor as part of the Second System of fortifications. The new fortifications included increased firepower and improved weaponry.[79][27] The War Department established a circular stone 14-gun battery, a mortar battery (possibly of six mortars), magazine, and barracks.[80][81][82] The fort was initially called Crown Fort, but by the end of the War of 1812 the battery was named Fort Gibson, in honor of Colonel James Gibson of the 4th Regiment of Riflemen, who was killed in the war during the Siege of Fort Erie.[83][71] The fort was not used in combat during the war, and instead served as a barracks for the 11th Regiment, as well as a jail for British prisoners of war.[28]

Ellis Island buildings circa 1893

Immediately after the end of the War of 1812, Fort Gibson was largely used as a recruiting depot. The fort went into decline due to under-utilization, and it was being jointly administered by the U.S. Army and Navy by the mid-1830s.[28] Around this time, in 1834, the extant portions of Ellis Island was declared to be an exclave of New York within the waters of New Jersey.[26][27][28] The era of joint administration was short-lived: the Army took over the fort's administration in 1841, demoted the fort to an artillery battery, and stopped garrisoning the fort, leaving a small Navy guard outside the magazine. By 1854, Battery Gibson contained an 11-gun battery, three naval magazines, a short railroad line, and several auxiliary structures such as a cookhouse, gun carriage house, and officers' quarters.[84] The Army continued to maintain the fort until 1860, when it abandoned the weapons at Battery Gibson.[27][85] The artillery magazine was expanded in 1861, during the American Civil War, and part of the parapet was removed.[84]

At the end of the Civil War, the fort declined again, this time to an extent that the weaponry was rendered unusable.[84] Through the 1870s, the Navy built additional buildings for its artillery magazine on Ellis Island,[86] eventually constructing 11 buildings in total.[87] Complaints about the island's magazines started to form, and by the 1870s, The New York Sun was publishing "alarming reports" about the magazines.[70] The guns were ordered removed in 1881, and the island passed under the complete control of the Navy's Bureau of Ordnance.[85]

First immigration station[edit]

Anti-immigrant cartoon expressing opposition to the construction of Ellis Island (Judge, March 22, 1890)

The Army had unsuccessfully attempted to use Ellis Island "for the convalescence for immigrants" as early as 1847.[70] Across New York Harbor, Castle Clinton had been used as an immigration station since 1855, processing more than eight million immigrants during that time.[88][89] The individual states had their own varying immigration laws until 1875, but the federal government regarded Castle Clinton as having "varied charges of mismanagement, abuse of immigrants, and evasion of the laws", and as such, wanted it to be completely replaced.[90] The federal government assumed control of immigration in early 1890 and commissioned a study to determine the best place for the new immigration station in New York Harbor.[90] Among members of the United States Congress, there were disputes about whether to build the station on Ellis, Governors, or Liberty Islands. Initially, Liberty Island was selected as the site for the immigration station,[90] but due to opposition for immigration stations on both Liberty and Governors Islands, the committee eventually decided to build the station on Ellis Island.[e][92] Since Castle Clinton's lease was about to expire, Congress approved a bill to build an immigration station on Ellis Island.[93]

On April 11, 1890, the federal government ordered the magazine at Ellis Island be torn down to make way for the U.S.'s first federal immigration station at the site.[59] The Department of the Treasury, which was in charge of constructing federal buildings in the U.S.,[94] officially took control of the island that May 24.[91] Congress initially allotted $75,000 to construct the station and later doubled that appropriation.[17][91] While the building was under construction, the Barge Office at the Battery was used for immigrant processing.[95] During construction, most of the old Battery Gibson buildings were demolished, and Ellis Island's land size was almost doubled to 6 acres (2.4 ha).[96][94] The main structure was a two-story structure of Georgia Pine,[95][19] which was described in Harper's Weekly as "a latterday watering place hotel" measuring 400 by 150 feet (122 by 46 m).[96] Its outbuildings included a hospital, detention building, laundry building, and utility plant that were all made of wood. Some of the former stone magazine structures were reused for utilities and offices. Additionally, a ferry slip with breakwater was built to the south of Ellis Island.[95][96][19] Following further expansion, the island measured 11 acres (4.5 ha) by the end of 1892.[91]

First Ellis Island Immigrant Station, built in 1892 and destroyed 1897

The station opened on January 1, 1892,[66][19][97][98] and its first immigrant was Annie Moore, a 17-year-old girl from Cork, Ireland, who was traveling with her two brothers to meet their parents in the U.S.[56][97][99][100] On the first day, almost 700 immigrants passed over the docks.[91] Over the next year, over 400,000 immigrants were processed at the station.[f][102][101] The processing procedure included a series of medical and mental inspection lines, and through this process, some 1% of potential immigrants were deported.[103] Additional building improvements took place throughout the mid-1890s,[104][105][106] and Ellis Island was expanded to 14 acres (5.7 ha) by 1896. The last improvements, which entailed the installation of underwater telephone and telegraph cables to Governors Island, were completed in early June 1897.[104] On June 15, 1897, the wooden structures on Ellis Island were razed in a fire of unknown origin. While there were no casualties, the wooden buildings had completely burned down after two hours, and all immigration records from 1855 had been destroyed.[70][102][104][107] Over five years of operation, the station had processed 1.5 million immigrants.[102][94]

Second immigration station[edit]

Design and construction[edit]

Following the fire, passenger arrivals were again processed at the Barge Office, which was soon unable to handle the large volume of immigrants.[88][108][109] Within three days of the fire, the federal government made plans to build a new, fireproof immigration station.[88][108] Legislation to rebuild the station was approved on June 30, 1897,[110] and appropriations were made in mid-July.[111] By September, the Treasury's Supervising Architect, James Knox Taylor, opened an architecture competition to rebuild the immigration station.[111] The competition was the second to be conducted under the Tarsney Act of 1893, which had permitted private architects to design federal buildings, rather than government architects in the Supervising Architect's office.[102][112][113] The contest rules specified that a "main building with annexes" and a "hospital building", both made of fireproof materials, should be part of each nomination.[112] Furthermore, the buildings had to be able to host a daily average of 1,000 and maximum of 4,000 immigrants.[114]

Second Ellis Island Immigration Station (opened 1900) as seen in 1905

Several prominent architectural firms filed proposals,[111][114][115] and by December, it was announced that Edward Lippincott Tilton and William A. Boring had won the competition.[102][116] Tilton and Boring's plan called for four new structures: a main building in the French Renaissance style, as well as the kitchen/laundry building, powerhouse, and the main hospital building.[111][115][117][118] The plan also included the creation of a new island called island 2, upon which the hospital would be built, south of the existing island (now Ellis Island's north side).[111][115] A construction contract was awarded to the R. H. Hood Company in August 1898, with the expectation that construction would be completed within a year,[119][120][121] but the project encountered delays because of various obstacles and disagreements between the federal government and the Hood Company.[119][122] A separate contract to build the 3.33-acre (1.35 ha) island 2 had to be approved by the War Department because it was in New Jersey's waters; that contract was completed in December 1898.[123] The construction costs ultimately totaled $1.5 million.[19]

Early expansions[edit]

The new immigration station opened on December 17, 1900, without ceremony. On that day, 2,251 immigrants were processed.[102][124][125] Almost immediately, additional projects commenced to improve the main structure, including an entrance canopy, baggage conveyor, and railroad ticket office. The kitchen/laundry and powerhouse started construction in May 1900 and were completed by the end of 1901.[125][126] A ferry house was also built between islands 1 and 2 c. 1901.[127] The hospital, originally slated to be opened in 1899, was not completed until November 1901, mainly due to various funding delays and construction disputes.[128] The facilities proved barely able to handle the flood of immigrants that arrived, and as early as 1903, immigrants had to remain in their transatlantic boats for several days due to inspection backlogs.[129][130] Several wooden buildings were erected by 1903, including waiting rooms and a 700-bed barracks,[130] and by 1904, over a million dollars' worth of improvements were proposed.[131] The hospital was expanded from 125 to 250 beds in February 1907, and a new psychopathic ward debuted in November of the same year. Also constructed was an administration building adjacent to the hospital.[127][132]

Immigration commissioner William Williams made substantial changes to Ellis Island's operations, and during his tenure from 1902–1905 and 1909–1913, Ellis Island processed its peak number of immigrants.[129] Williams also made changes to the island's appearance, adding plants and grading paths upon the once-barren landscape of Ellis Island.[133][134] Under Williams's supervision, a 4.75-acre (1.92 ha) third island was built to accommodate a proposed contagious-diseases ward, separated from existing facilities by 200 feet (61 m) of water.[135][19][132] Island 3, as it was called, was located to the south of island 2 and separated from that island by a now-infilled ferry basin.[19] The government bought the underwater area for island 3 from New Jersey in 1904,[135][136] and a contract was awarded in April 1905.[135] The islands were all connected via a cribwalk on their western sides (later covered with wood canopy), giving Ellis Island an overall "E"-shape.[20][137] Upon the completion of island 3 in 1906, Ellis Island covered 20.25 acres (8.19 ha).[138] A baggage and dormitory building was completed c. 1908–1909,[129][132][139] and the main hospital was expanded in 1909.[140] Alterations were made to the registry building and dormitories as well, but even this was insufficient to accommodate the high volume of immigrants.[141] In 1911, Williams alleged that Congress had allocated too little for improvements to Ellis Island,[142] even though the improvement budget that year was $868,000.[143]

The main building's registry room

Additional improvements and routine maintenance work were completed in the early 1910s.[139][141] A greenhouse was built in 1910,[139][144] and the contagious-diseases ward on island 3 opened the following June.[145][141] In addition, the incinerator was replaced in 1911,[140][132] and a recreation center operated by the American Red Cross was also built on island 2 by 1915.[140][144] These facilities generally followed the design set by Tilton and Boring.[132] When the Black Tom explosion occurred on Black Tom Island in 1916, the complex suffered moderate damage; though all immigrants were evacuated safely, the main building's roof collapsed, and windows were broken. The main building's roof was replaced with a Guastavino-tiled arched ceiling by 1918.[146][147][148] The immigration station was temporarily closed during World War I in 1917–1919, during which the facilities were used as a jail for suspected enemy combatants, and later as a treatment center for wounded American soldiers. Immigration inspections were conducted aboard ships or at docks.[19][140][149][148] During the war, immigration processing at Ellis Island declined by 97%, from 878,000 immigrants per year in 1914 to 26,000 per year in 1919.[150]

Ellis Island's immigration station was reopened in 1920, and processing had rebounded to 560,000 immigrants per year by 1921.[19][151] There were still ample complaints about the inadequate condition of Ellis Island's facilities.[152][153] However, despite a request for $5.6 million in appropriations in 1921,[154] aid was slow to materialize, and initial improvement work was restricted to smaller projects such as the infilling of the basin between islands 2 and 3.[155][151] Other improvements included rearranging features such as staircases to improve pedestrian flow.[155] These projects were supported by president Calvin Coolidge, who in 1924 requested that Congress approve $300,000 in appropriations for the island.[155][156] The allocations were not received until the late 1920s.[155]

Conversion to detention center[edit]

With the passing of the Emergency Quota Act of 1921, the number of immigrants being allowed into the United States declined greatly, ending the era of mass immigration.[157][19][158] Following the Immigration Act of 1924, strict immigration quotas were enacted, and Ellis Island was downgraded from a primary inspection center to an immigrant-detention center, hosting only those that were to be detained or deported (see § Mass detentions and deportations).[19][158][159] Final inspections were now instead conducted on board ships in New York Harbor. The Wall Street Crash of 1929 further decreased immigration, as people were now discouraged from immigrating to the U.S.[158] Because of the resulting decline in patient counts, the hospital closed in 1930.[160][161][162]

Edward Corsi, who himself was an immigrant, became Ellis Island commissioner in 1931 and commenced an improvement program for the island. The initial improvements were utilitarian, focusing on such aspects as sewage, incineration, and power generation.[163][164] In 1933, a federal committee led by the Secretary of Labor, Frances Perkins, was established to determine what operations and facilities needed improvement.[165] The committee's report, released in 1934, suggested the construction of a new class-segregated immigration building, recreation center, ferry house, verandas, and doctors/nurses' quarters, as well as the installation of a new seawall around the island.[166][167][168] These works were undertaken using Public Works Administration funding and Works Progress Administration labor, and were completed by the late 1930s. As part of the project, the surgeon's house and recreation center were demolished,[128][144] and Edward Laning commissioned some murals for the island's buildings.[169] Other improvements included the demolition of the greenhouse, the completion of the infilling of the basin between islands 2 and 3, and various landscaping activities such as the installation of walkways and plants.[170][168] However, because of the steep decline in immigration, the immigration building went underused for several years, and it started to deteriorate.[166][164]

With the start of World War II in 1939, Ellis Island was again utilized by the military, this time being used as a United States Coast Guard base.[171][172][173] As during World War I, the facilities were used to detain enemy soldiers in addition to immigrants, and the hospital was used for treating injured American soldiers.[173] So many combatants were detained at Ellis Island that administrative offices were moved to mainland Manhattan in 1943, and Ellis Island was used solely for detainment.[164][174]

Mug shot of Pettersen, taken June 16, 1944[g]

By 1947, shortly after the end of World War II, there were proposals to close Ellis Island due to the massive expenses needed for the upkeep of a relatively small detention center.[175] The hospital was closed in 1950–1951 by the United States Public Health Service, and by the early 1950s, there were only 30 to 40 detainees left on the island.[19][176][177] The island's closure was announced in mid-1954, when the federal government announced that it would construct a replacement facility on Manhattan.[178][177] Ellis Island closed on November 12, 1954, with the departure of its last detainee, Norwegian merchant seaman Arne Pettersen (1906–1981). In 1954, Pettersen was arrested in Brooklyn for overstaying his shore leave, having been in the United States for 6 months instead of the allowed 29 days. At his trial, he claimed he had never overstayed his shore leave previously and was allowed to leave the country himself, without being deported, by 10 November of that year, if he signed to the crew of a departing ship. He left Ellis Island by ferry on 12 November, and the center closed that day.[179][180] At the time, it was estimated that the government would save $900,000 a year from closing the island.[179] The ferryboat Ellis Island, which had operated since 1904, stopped operating two weeks later.[70][181]

Post-closure[edit]

Initial redevelopment plans[edit]

Seen from east. From left to right: contagious diseases ward; lawn; hospital; ferry basin; main building, kitchen, dormitory, and immigration building

After the immigration station closed, the buildings fell into disrepair and were abandoned,[182] and the General Services Administration (GSA) took over the island in March 1955.[70] The GSA wanted to sell off the island as "surplus property"[183] and contemplated several options, including selling the island back to the city of New York[184] or auctioning it to a private buyer.[185] In 1959, real estate developer Sol Atlas unsuccessfully bid for the island, with plans to turn it into a $55 million resort with a hotel, marina, music shell, tennis courts, swimming pools, and skating rinks.[186][187] The same year, Frank Lloyd Wright designed the $100 million "Key Project",[h] which included housing, hotels, and large domes along the edges. However, Wright died before presenting the project.[188][189] Other attempts at redeveloping the site, including a college,[190] a retirement home,[182] an alcoholics' rehabilitation center,[191] and a world trade center[192] were all unsuccessful.[182][193] In 1963, the Jersey City Council voted to rezone the island's area within New Jersey for high-rise residential, monument/museum, or recreational use, though the new zoning ordinance banned "Coney Island"-style amusement parks.[194][195]

In June 1964, the National Park Service published making a report that proposed making Ellis Island part of a national monument.[196] This idea was approved by Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall in October 1964.[197] Ellis Island was added to the Statue of Liberty National Monument on May 11, 1965,[2][198][199] and that August, President Lyndon B. Johnson approved the redevelopment of the island as a museum and park.[199][200]

The initial master plan for the redevelopment of Ellis Island, designed by Philip Johnson, called for the construction of the Wall, a large "stadium"-shaped monument to replace the structures on the island's northwest side, while preserving the main building and hospital.[201][202] However, no appropriations were immediately made, other than a $250,000 allocation for emergency repairs in 1967. By the late 1960s, the abandoned buildings were deteriorating severely.[203][204][202] Johnson's plan was never implemented due to public opposition and a lack of funds.[202] Another master plan was proposed in 1968, which called for the rehabilitation of the island's northern side and the demolition of all buildings, including the hospital, on the southern side.[205] The Jersey City Jobs Corpsmen started rehabilitating part of Ellis Island the same year, in accordance with this plan.[206][205] This was soon halted indefinitely because of a lack of funding.[205] In 1970, a squatters' club called the National Economic Growth and Reconstruction Organization (NEGRO) started refurbishing buildings as part of a plan to turn the island into an addiction rehabilitation center,[207] but were evicted after less than two weeks.[208][209] NEGRO's permit to renovate the island were ultimately terminated in 1973.[209]

Restoration and reopening of north side[edit]

Detail of ceiling of registry room

In the 1970s, the NPS started restoring the island by repairing seawalls, eliminating weeds, and building a new ferry dock.[210] Simultaneously, Peter Sammartino launched the Restore Ellis Island Committee to raise awareness and money for repairs.[70][211][212] The north side of the island, comprising the main building and surrounding structures, was rehabilitated and partially reopened for public tours in May 1976.[70][210][213][214] The plant was left unrepaired to show the visitors the extent of the deterioration.[214] The NPS limited visits to 130 visitors per boat, or less than 75,000 visitors a year.[210] Initially, only parts of three buildings were open to visitors. Further repairs were stymied by a lack of funding, and by 1982, the NPS was turning to private sources for funds.[215]

In May 1982, President Ronald Reagan announced the formation of the Statue of Liberty–Ellis Island Centennial Commission, led by Chrysler Corporation chair Lee Iacocca with former President Gerald Ford as honorary chairman, to raise the funds needed to complete the work.[70][216][217] The plan for Ellis Island was to cost $128 million,[218] and by the time work commenced in 1984, about $40 million had been raised.[219] Through its fundraising arm, the Statue of Liberty–Ellis Island Foundation, Inc., the group eventually raised more than $350 million in donations for the renovations of both the Statue of Liberty and Ellis Island.[220] Initial restoration plans included renovating the main building, baggage and dormitory building, and the hospital, as well as possibly adding a bandshell, restaurant, and exhibits.[221] Two firms, Finegold Alexander + Associates Inc and Beyer Blinder Belle, designed the renovation.[222] In advance of the renovation, public tours ceased in 1984, and work started the following year.[70][223] As part of the restoration, the powerhouse was renovated, while the incinerator, greenhouse, and water towers were removed.[224][144] The kitchen/laundry and baggage/dormitory buildings were restored to their original condition while the main building was restored to its 1918–1924 appearance.[223][225]

The main building opened as a museum on September 10, 1990.[226][227][228] Further improvements were made after the north side's renovation was completed. The Wall of Honor, a monument to raise money for the restoration, was completed in 1990 and reconstructed starting in 1993.[229][224] A research facility with online database, the American Family Immigration History Center, was opened in April 2001.[70][230] Subsequently, the ferry building was restored for $6.4 million and reopened in 2007.[231] The north side was temporarily closed after being damaged in Hurricane Sandy in October 2012,[232] though the island and part of the museum reopened exactly a year later, after major renovations.[233][234][235]

Structures[edit]

view

talk

edit

Buildings and structures at Ellis Island

1. Main building

2. Kitchen-laundry

3. Baggage-dormitory

4. Bakery-carpentry shop

5. Powerhouse

6. Ferry building

7. Laundry-hospital outbuilding

8. Psychopathic ward

9. Main hospital building

10. Recreation building and pavilion

11. Office building; morgue

12. Powerhouse and laundry

13. Measles wards (A, C, G, E)

14. Administration building and kitchen

15. Measles wards (B, D, F, H)

16. Isolation wards (I, K, L)

17. Staff House

18. Wall of Honor

The current complex was designed by Edward Lippincott Tilton and William A. Boring, who performed the commission under the direction of the Supervising Architect for the U.S. Treasury, James Knox Taylor.[119][236] Their plan, submitted in 1898, called for structures to be located on both the northern and southern portions of Ellis Island. The plan stipulated a large main building, a powerhouse, and a new baggage/dormitory and kitchen building on the north side of Ellis Island; a hospital on the south side; and a ferry dock with covered walkways at the head of the ferry basin, on the west side of the island.[118][237] The plan roughly corresponds to what was ultimately built.[20][238]

North side[edit]

The northern half of Ellis Island is composed of the former island 1. Only the areas associated with the original island, including much of the main building, are in New York; the remaining area is in New Jersey.[19][20]

Main building[edit]

The present three-story main structure was designed in French Renaissance style. It is made of a steel frame, with a facade of red brick in Flemish bond ornamented with limestone trim.[124][239][240] The structure is located 8 feet (2.4 m) above the mean waterline to prevent flooding.[119] The building was initially composed of a three-story center section with two-story east and west wings, though the third stories of each wing were completed in the early 1910s. Atop the corners of the building's central section are four towers capped by cupolas of copper cladding.[241][240] Some 160 rooms were included within the original design to separate the different functions of the building. Namely, the first floor was initially designed to handle baggage, detention, offices, storage and waiting rooms; the second floor, primary inspection; and the third floor, dormitories.[237] However, in practice, these spaces generally served multiple functions throughout the immigration station's operating history. At opening, it was estimated that the main building could inspect 5,000 immigrants per day.[242][243] The main building's design was highly acclaimed; at the 1900 Paris Exposition, it received a gold medal, and other architectural publications such as the Architectural Record lauded the design.[244]

Entrance to the Main Building, seen from the south

The first floor contained detention rooms, social service offices, and waiting rooms on its west wing, a use that remained relatively unchanged.[245] The central space was initially a baggage room until 1907, but was subsequently subdivided and later re-combined into a single records room.[245] The first floor's east wing also contained a railroad waiting room and medical offices, though much of the wing was later converted to record rooms.[246] A railroad ticket office annex was added to the north side of the first floor in 1905–1906.[240] The south elevation of the first floor contains the current immigration museum's main entrance, approached by a slightly sloped passageway covered by a glass canopy. Though the canopy was added in the 1980s, it evokes the design of an earlier glass canopy on the site that existed from 1902 to 1932.[247][239]

A 200-by-100-foot (61 by 30 m) registry room, with a 56-foot (17 m) ceiling, is located on the central section of the second floor.[242][248] The room was used for primary inspections.[249][246] Initially, there were handrails within the registry room that separated the primary inspection into several queues, but c. 1911 these were replaced with benches. A staircase from the first floor formerly rose into the middle of the registry room, but this was also removed around 1911.[236][141] When the room's roof collapsed during the Black Tom explosion of 1916, the current Guastavino-tiled arched ceiling was installed, and the asphalt floor was replaced with red Ludowici tile.[148][248] There are three large arched openings each on the northern and southern walls, filled-in with grilles of metal-and-glass. The southern elevation retains its original double-height arches, while the lower sections of the arches on the northern elevations were modified to make way for the railroad ticket office.[241][240] On all four sides of the room, above the level of the third floor, is a clerestory of semicircular windows.[248][241][240] The east wing of the second floor was used for administrative offices,[250] while the west wing housed the special inquiry and deportation divisions, as well as dormitories.[246]

On the third floor is a balcony surrounding the entire registry room.[236][237] There were also dormitories for 600 people on the third floor.[242] Between 1914 and 1918, several rooms were added to the third floor. These rooms included offices as well as an assembly room that were later converted to detention.[250]

The remnants of Fort Gibson still exist outside the main building. Two portions are visible to the public, including the remnants of the lower walls around the fort.[247]

Kitchen and laundry[edit]

Undated photo of southern facade of kitchen and laundry

The kitchen and laundry structure is a two-and-a-half-story structure located west of the main building.[20][238] It is made of a steel frame and terracotta blocks, with a granite base and a facade of brick in Flemish bond.[126] Originally designed as two separate structures, it was redesigned in 1899 as a single structure with kitchen-restaurant and laundry-bathhouse components,[251] and was subsequently completed in 1901.[125][126] A one-and-a-half-story ice plant on the northern elevation was built between 1903 and 1908, and was converted into a ticket office in 1935. It has a facade of brick in English and stretcher bond.[126] Today, the kitchen and laundry contains NPS offices[252] as well as the museum's Peopling of America exhibit.[253] The laundry facility is part of save ellis island's hard hat tour.

The building has a central portion with a narrow gable roof, as well as pavilions on the western and eastern sides with hip roofs; the roof tiling was formerly of slate and currently of terracotta. The larger eastern pavilion, which contained the laundry-bathhouse, had hipped dormers. The exterior-facing window and door openings contain limestone features on the facade, while the top of the building has a modillioned copper cornice. Formerly, there was also a two-story porch on the southern elevation. Multiple enclosed passageways connect the kitchen and laundry to adjacent structures.[126]

Bakery and carpentry shop[edit]

The bakery and carpentry shop is a two-story structure located west of the kitchen and laundry building. It is roughly rectangular and oriented north–south.[20][238] It is made of a steel frame with a granite base, a flat roof, and a facade of brick in Flemish bond. The building was constructed in 1914–1915 to replace the separate wooden bakery and carpentry shop buildings, as well as two sheds and a frame waiting room. There are no exterior entrances, and the only access is via the kitchen and laundry.[254][255] The first floor generally contained oven rooms, baking areas and storage while the second floor contained the carpentry shop.[255]

Baggage and dormitory[edit]

View from the southeast; the baggage and dormitory (right) is east of the main building (left)

The baggage and dormitory structure is a three-story structure located north of the main building.[20][238] It is made of a steel frame and terracotta blocks, with a limestone base and a facade of brick in Flemish bond.[256] Completed as a two-story structure c. 1908–1909,[129][132][139] the baggage and dormitory building replaced a 700-bed wooden barracks nearby that operated between 1903 and 1911.[256] The baggage and dormitory initially had baggage collection on its first floor, dormitories and detention rooms on its second floor, and a tiled garden on its roof.[256][257] The building received a third story, and a two-story annex to the north side, in 1913–1914.[256][257] Initially, the third floor included additional dormitory space while the annex provided detainees with outdoor porch space.[257] A detainee dining room on the first floor was expanded in 1951.[255]

The building is mostly rectangular except for its northern annex and contains an interior courtyard, skylighted at the second floor. On its facade the first story has rectangular windows in arched window openings while the second and third stories have rectangular windows and window openings. There are cornices below the second and third stories. The annex contains wide window openings with narrow brick piers outside them. The roof's northwest corner contains a one-story extension. Multiple wings connect the baggage and laundry to its adjacent buildings.[256]

Powerhouse[edit]

The powerhouse of Ellis Island is a two-story structure located north of the kitchen and laundry building and west of the baggage and dormitory building. It is roughly rectangular and oriented north–south.[20][238] Like the kitchen and laundry, it was completed in 1901.[125][258][259] It is made of a steel frame with a granite base, a facade of brick in Flemish bond, and decorative bluestone and limestone elements. The hip roof contains dormers and is covered with terracotta tiling. A brick smokestack rises 111 feet (34 m) from ground level.[256]

Formerly, the powerhouse provided almost all power for Ellis Island. A coal trestle at the northwest end was used to transport coal for power generation from 1901 to 1932, when the powerhouse started using fuel oil.[256] The powerhouse also generated steam for the island.[260] After the immigration station closed, the powerhouse deteriorated[214] and was left unrepaired until the 1980s renovation.[224] The powerhouse is no longer operational; instead, the island receives power from 13,200-volt cables that lead from a Public Service Electric & Gas substation in Liberty State Park. The powerhouse contains sewage pumps that can dispose of up to 480 U.S. gallons per minute (1,800 L/min) to the Jersey City Sewage Authority sewage system. A central heating plant was installed during the 1980s renovation.[261]

South side[edit]

The southern side of Ellis Island, located across the ferry basin from the northern side, is composed of island 2 (created in 1899) and island 3 (created in 1906).[138] The entire southern side of the island is in New Jersey, and the majority of the site is occupied by the hospital buildings. A central corridor runs southward from the ferry building on the west side of the island. Two additional corridors split eastward down the centers of islands 2 and 3.[19][20]

Island 2[edit]

Island 2 comprises the northern part of Ellis Island's southern portion. The structures share the same design: a brick facade in Flemish bond, quoins, and limestone ornamentation.[262][263][264] All structures were internally connected via covered passageways.[19][20]

A Smith Drum laundry machine in the outbuilding

The laundry-hospital outbuilding is south of the ferry terminal, and was constructed in 1900–1901 along with the now-demolished surgeon's house.[128][262] The structure is one and a half stories tall with a hip roof and skylights facing to the north and south.[262] Repaired repeatedly throughout its history,[265] the laundry-outbuilding was last restored in 2002.[266] It had linen, laundry, and disinfecting rooms; a boiler room; a morgue with autopsy room; and quarters for the laundry staff on the second floor.[265]

To the east is the psychopathic ward, a two-story building erected 1906–1907.[127][267][268] The building is the only structure in the hospital complex to have a flat roof, and formerly also had a porch to its south.[268][263] It housed 25 to 30 beds and was intended for the temporary treatment of immigrants suspected of being insane or having mental disorders, pending their deportation, hospitalization, or commitment to sanatoria. Male and female patients were segregated, and there were also a dayroom, veranda, nurse's office, and small pantry on each floor. In 1952 the psychopathic ward was converted into a Coast Guard brig.[263][269]

The main building is directly east of the psychopathic ward. It is composed of three similarly designed structures: from west to east, they are Hospital Building No. 1 (built 1900–1901), the Administration Building (1905–1907), and Hospital Building No. 2 (1908–1909).[128][264] The 3.5-story building no. 1 is shaped like an inverted "C" with two 2.5-story rectangular wings facing southward; the wings contain two-story-tall porches. The administration building is smaller but also 3.5 stories. The 3.5-story building no. 2 is similar to building no. 1, but also has a three-story porch at the south elevation of the central pavilion. All three buildings have stone-stoop entrances on their north facades and courtyards on their south.[264]

Recreation hall[edit]

The recreation hall and one of the island's two recreation shelters are located between islands 2 and 3 on the western side of Ellis Island, at the head of the former ferry basin between the two landmasses.[19][20] Built in 1937 in the Colonial Revival style, the structures replaced an earlier recreation building at the northeast corner of island 2.[270][271][272]

The recreation hall is a two-story building with a limestone base, a facade of brick in Flemish bond, a gable roof, and terracotta ornamentation. The first floor contained recreational facilities, while the second floor was used mostly for offices. It contains wings on the north, south, and west. The recreation shelter, a one-story brick pavilion, is located directly to the east.[272][273] A second shelter of similar design was located adjacent to the power plant on the island's north side.[271][273]

Island 3[edit]

Isolation ward on island 3

As part of the Ellis Island Immigrant Hospital, the contagious disease hospital comprised 17 pavilions, connected with a central connecting corridor. Each pavilion contained separate hospital functions that could be sealed off from each other.[19][20] Most of the structures were completed in 1911.[145][141][274] The pavilions included eight measles wards, three isolation wards, a power house/sterilizer/autopsy theater, mortuary, laboratory, administration building, kitchen, and staff house. All structures were designed by James Knox Taylor in the Italian Renaissance style and are distinguished by red-tiled hip roofs, roughcast walls of stucco, and ornamentation of brick and limestone.[274]

The office building and laboratory is a 2.5-story structure located at the west end of island 3.[275] It housed doctors' offices and a dispensary on the first floor, along with a laboratory and pharmacists' quarters on the second floor.[275][276] In 1924, the first floor offices were converted into male nurses' quarters.[277] A one-story morgue is located east of the office building, and was converted to the "Animal House" circa 1919.[278][279]

An "L"-shaped powerhouse and laundry building, built in 1908, is also located on the west side of island 3. It has a square north wing with boiler, coal, and pump rooms, as well as a rectangular south wing with laundry and disinfection rooms, staff kitchen, and staff pantry.[276][280] The powerhouse and laundry also had a distinctive yellow-brick smokestack. Part of the building was converted into a morgue and autopsy room in the 1930s.[280][281]

To the east are the eight measles pavilions (also known as wards A-H), built in phases from 1906 to 1909 and located near the center of island 3. There are four pavilions each to the west and east of island 3's administration building. All of the pavilions are identical, two-story rectangular structures.[276][282][283] Each pavilion floor had a spacious open ward with large windows on three sides and independent ventilation ducts. A hall leading to the connecting corridor was flanked by bathrooms, nurses' duty room, offices, and a serving kitchen.[283]

The administration building is a 3.5-story structure located on the north side of island 3's connecting corridor, in the center of the landmass.[284] It included reception rooms, offices, and a staff kitchen on the first floor; nurses' quarters and operating rooms on the second floor; and additional staff quarters on the third floor.[285] A one-story kitchen with a smokestack is located opposite the administration building to the south.[286][287]

The eastern end of island 3 contained three isolation pavilions (wards I-K) and a staff building.[276] The isolation pavilions were intended for patients for more serious diseases, including scarlet fever, diphtheria, and a combination of either of these diseases with measles and whooping cough. Each pavilion is a 1.5-story rectangular structure. Wards I and K are located to the south of the connecting corridor while ward J is located to the north; originally, all three pavilions were freestanding structures, but covered ways were built between wards I and K and the center corridor in 1914. There were also nurses' quarters in each attic.[276][288][289] The staff building. located at the extreme east end of island 3's connecting corridor, is a 2.5-story building for high-ranking hospital staff. Living and dining rooms, a kitchen, and a library were located on the first floor while bedrooms were located on the second floor.[276][290]

Ferry building[edit]

Ellis Island Ferry Building

The ferry building is at the western end of the ferry basin, within New Jersey.[20][291] The current structure was built in 1936[292] and is the third ferry landing to occupy the site.[291] It is made of a steel-and-concrete frame with a facade of red brick in Flemish bond, and limestone and terracotta ornamentation, in the Moderne architectural style. The building's central pavilion is mostly one story tall, except for a two-story central section that is covered by a hip roof with cupola. Two rectangular wings are located to the north and south and are oriented east–west.[291][292][293] The south wing was originally reserved for U.S. Customs while the north wing contained a lunchroom and restrooms. A wooden dock extends east from the ferry building.[293] The ferry building is connected to the kitchen and laundry to the north, and the hospital to the south, via covered walkways.[291][293] The structure was completely restored in 2007.[231]

Immigration procedures[edit]

By the time Ellis Island's immigration station closed, almost 12 million immigrants had been processed by the U.S. Bureau of Immigration.[88] It is estimated that 10.5 million immigrants departed for points across the United States from the Central Railroad of New Jersey Terminal nearby.[294][295] Others would have used one of the other terminals along the North River/Hudson River at that time.[296] At the time of closure, it was estimated that closer to 20 million immigrants had been processed or detained at Ellis Island.[297][179] According to an estimate by The History Channel, about 40% of the population of the United States can trace their ancestry to immigrants who arrived in America at Ellis Island.[298]

Initial immigration policy provided for the admission of most immigrants to the United States, other than those with mental or physical disabilities, or a moral, racial, religious, or economic reason for exclusion.[299] At first, the majority of immigrants arriving were Northern and Western Europeans, with the largest numbers coming from the German Empire, the Russian Empire and Finland, the United Kingdom, and Italy.[300] Eventually, these groups of peoples slowed in the rates that they were coming in, and immigrants came in from Southern and Eastern Europe, including Jews. These people immigrated for a variety of reasons including escaping political and economic oppression, as well as persecution, destitution, and violence. Other groups of peoples being processed through the station were Poles, Hungarians, Czechs, Serbs, Slovaks, Greeks, Syrians, Turks, and Armenians.[157]

Immigration through Ellis Island peaked in the first decade of the 20th century.[129][301] Between 1905 and 1914, an average of one million immigrants per year arrived in the United States.[301] Immigration officials reviewed about 5,000 immigrants per day during peak times at Ellis Island.[302] Two-thirds of those individuals emigrated from eastern, southern and central Europe.[303] The peak year for immigration at Ellis Island was 1907, with 1,004,756 immigrants processed,[66] and the all-time daily high occurred on April 17 of that year, when 11,747 immigrants arrived.[304][305] Following the Immigration Act of 1924, which both greatly reduced immigration and allowed processing overseas, Ellis Island was only used by those who had problems with their immigration paperwork, as well as displaced persons and war refugees.[158][159][306] This affected both nationwide and regional immigration processing: only 2.34 million immigrants passed through the Port of New York from 1925 to 1954, compared to the 12 million immigrants processed from 1900 to 1924.[i][301] Average annual immigration through the Port of New York from 1892 to 1924 typically numbered in the hundreds of thousands, though after 1924, annual immigration through the port was usually in the tens of thousands.[301]

Inspections[edit]

Medical inspection[edit]

Beginning in the 1890s, initial medical inspections were conducted by steamship companies at the European ports of embarkation; further examinations and vaccinations occurred on board ship during the voyage to New York.[307][308] On arrival at the port of New York, ships halted at the New York state quarantine station near the Narrows. Those with serious contagious diseases (such as cholera and typhus) were quarantined at Hoffman Island or Swinburne Island, two artificial islands off the shore of Staten Island to the south.[309][310][311] The islands ceased to be used for quarantine by the 1920s due to the decline in inspections at Ellis Island.[308] For the vast majority of passengers, since most transatlantic ships could not dock at Ellis Island due to shallow water, the ships unloaded at Manhattan first, and steerage passengers were then taken to Ellis Island for processing. First- and second-class passengers typically bypassed the Ellis Island processing altogether.[312]

To support the activities of the United States Bureau of Immigration, the United States Public Health Service operated an extensive medical service. The medical force at Ellis Island started operating when the first immigration station opened in 1892, and was suspended when the station burned down in 1897.[313] Between 1897 and 1902, medical inspections took place both at other facilities in New York City and on ships in the New York Harbor.[314] A second hospital called U.S. Marine Hospital Number 43 or the Ellis Island Immigrant Hospital was built in 1902 and operated through 1930.[160][161][162] Uniformed military surgeons staffed the medical division, which was active in the hospital wards, the Battery's Barge Office, and Ellis Island's Main Building.[315][316] Immigrants were brought to the island via barge from their transatlantic ships.[317][318]

A "line inspection" was conducted in the main building. In the line inspection, the immigrants were split into several single-file lines, and inspectors first checked for any visible physical disabilities.[316][318][319] Each immigrant was inspected by two inspectors: one to catch any initial physical disabilities, and another to check for any other ailments that the first inspector did not notice.[319] The doctors then observed immigrants as they walked, to determine any irregularities in their gait. Immigrants were asked to drop their baggage and walk up the stairs to the second floor.[320][318][319]

The line inspection at Ellis Island was unique because of the volume of people it processed, and as such, used several unconventional methods of medical examination.[316][321] For example, after an initial check for physical disabilities, inspectors used special forceps or the buttonhook to examine immigrants for signs of eye diseases such as trachoma.[322] Following each examination, inspectors used chalk to draw symbols on immigrants who were suspected to be sick.[323][317][321] Some immigrants supposedly wiped the chalk marks off surreptitiously or inverted their clothes to avoid medical detention.[320] Chalk-marked immigrants and those with suspected mental disabilities were then sent to rooms for further inspection, according to a 1917 account.[317]

The symbols used for chalk markings were:[323][317]

B – Back

C – Conjunctivitis

TC – Trachoma

E – Eyes

F – Face

FT – Feet

G – Goiter

H – Heart

K – Hernia

L – Lameness

N – Neck

P – Physical and Lungs

PG – Pregnancy

S – Senility

SC – Scalp (favus)

X – Suspected mental defect

ⓧ – Definite signs of mental defect

Primary inspection[edit]

Once immigrants had completed and passed the medical examination, they were sent to the Registry Room to undergo what was called primary inspection. This consisted of interrogations conducted by U.S. Immigrant Inspectors to determine if each newcomer was eligible for admission. In addition, any medical certificates issued by physicians were taken into account. Aside from the U.S. immigrant inspectors, the Bureau of Immigration work force included interpreters, watchmen, matrons, clerks and stenographers.[324] According to a reconstruction of immigration processes in 1907, immigrants who passed the initial inspections spent two to five hours at Ellis Island to do these interviews. Arrivals were asked a couple dozen questions, including name, occupation, and the amount of money they carried. The government wanted to determine whether new arrivals would be self-sufficient upon arrival, and on average, wanted the immigrants to have between $18 and $25 (worth between $523 and $727 as of 2021[j]).[307][325] Some immigrants were also given literacy tests in their native languages, though children under 16 were exempt. The determination of admissibility was relatively arbitrary and determined by the individual inspector.[324]

U.S. Immigrant Inspectors used some other symbols or marks as they interrogated immigrants in the Registry Room to determine whether to admit or detain them, including:[323]

SI – Special Inquiry

IV – Immigrant Visa

LPC – Likely or Liable to become a Public Charge

Med. Cert. – Medical certificate issued

Those who were cleared were given a medical certificate or an affidavit.[318] According to a 1912 account by physician Alfred C. Reed, immigrants were medically cleared only after three on-duty physicians signed an affidavit.[321] Those with visible illnesses were deported or held in the island's hospital.[307][325] Those who were admitted often met with relatives and friends at the Kissing Post, a wooden column outside the registry room.[326]

Between 1891 and 1930, Ellis Island reviewed over 25 million attempted immigrants, of which 700,000 were given certificates of disability or disease and of these 79,000 were barred from entry. Approximately 4.4% of immigrants between 1909 and 1930 were classified as disabled or diseased, and one percent of immigrants were deported yearly due to medical causes. The proportion of "diseased" increased to 8.0% during the Spanish flu of 1918–1919.[327] More than 3,000 attempted immigrants died in the island's hospital.[307][325] Some unskilled workers were deemed "likely to become a public charge" and so were rejected; about 2% of immigrants were deported.[307][325] Immigrants could also be excluded if they were disabled and previously rejected; if they were Chinese, regardless of their citizenship status; or if they were contract laborers, stowaways, and workaways.[324] However, immigrants were exempt from deportation if they had close family ties to a U.S. permanent resident or citizen, or if they were seamen.[328] Ellis Island was sometimes known as the "Island of Tears" or "Heartbreak Island" for these deportees.[329] If immigrants were rejected, appeals could be made to a three-member board of inquiry.[330]

Mass detentions and deportations[edit]

Immigrants being inspected, 1904

Ellis Island's use as a detention center dates from World War I, when it was used to house those who were suspected of being enemy soldiers.[140][149][148][331] During the war, six classes of "enemy aliens" were established, including officers and crewmen from interned ships; three classes of Germans; and suspected spies.[332] After the American entry into World War I, about 1,100 German and Austrian naval officers and crewmen in the Ports of New York and New London were seized and held in Ellis Island's baggage and dormitory building.[331] A commodious stockade was built for the seized officers.[333] A 1917 New York Times article depicted the conditions of the detention center as being relatively hospitable.[334]

Anti-immigrant sentiments developed in the U.S. during and after World War I, especially toward Southern and Eastern Europeans who were entering the country in large numbers.[335][336] Following the Immigration Act of 1924, primary inspection was moved to New York Harbor, and Ellis Island only hosted immigrants that were to be detained or deported.[158][159] After the passage of the 1924 act, the Immigration Service established multiple classes of people who were said to be "deportable". This included immigrants who entered in violation of previous exclusion acts; Chinese immigrants in violation of the 1924 act; those convicted of felonies or other "crimes of moral turpitude"; and those involved in prostitution.[337]

During and immediately following World War II, Ellis Island was used to hold German merchant mariners and "enemy aliens"—Axis nationals detained for fear of spying, sabotage, and other fifth column activity.[338] When the U.S. entered the war in December 1941, Ellis Island held 279 Japanese, 248 Germans, and 81 Italians removed from the East Coast.[339] Unlike other wartime immigration detention stations, Ellis Island was designated as a permanent holding facility and was used to hold foreign nationals throughout the war.[340] A total of 7,000 Germans, Italians and Japanese were ultimately detained at Ellis Island.[66]

The Internal Security Act of 1950 barred members of communist or fascist organizations from immigrating to the United States. Ellis Island saw detention peak at 1,500, but by 1952, after changes to immigration laws and policies, only 30 to 40 detainees remained.[19][66] One of the last detainees was the Indonesian Aceh separatist Hasan di Tiro who, while a student in New York in 1953, declared himself the "foreign minister" of the rebellious Darul Islam movement and was subsequently stripped of his Indonesian citizenship and held as an "illegal alien".[341]

Eugenic influence[edit]

Dormitory room for detained immigrants

When immigration through Ellis Island peaked, eugenic ideals gained broad popularity and made heavy impact on immigration to the United States by way of exclusion of disabled and "morally defective" people. Eugenicists of the late 19th and early 20th century believed human reproductive selection should be carried out by the state as a collective decision.[342] For many eugenicists, this was considered a patriotic duty as they held an interest in creating a greater national race. Henry Fairfield Osborn's opening words to the New York Evening Journal in 1911 were, "As a biologist as well as a patriot...," on the subject on advocating for tighter inspections of immigrants of the United States.[343]

Eugenic selection occurred on two distinguishable levels:

State/Local levels which handles institutionalization and sterilization of those considered defective as well as the education of the public; marriage laws; and social pressures such as fitter-family and better-baby contests.[344]

Immigration control, the screening of immigrants for defects, was notably supported by Harry Laughlin, superintendent of the Eugenics Record Office from 1910 to 1939, who stated that this was where the "federal government must cooperate."[345]

At the time, it was a broadly popular idea that immigration policies had ought to be based on eugenics principles in order to help create a "superior race" in America. To do this, defective persons needed to be screened by immigration officials and denied entry on the basis of their disability.[318]

During the line inspection process, ailments were marked using chalk.[323][317] There were three types of illness that were screened-for:

Physical – people who had hereditary or acquired physical disability. These included sickness and disease, deformity, lack of limbs, being abnormally tall or short, feminization, and so forth.[318][343] This was covered by most of the chalk indications.[323][317]

Mental – people who showed signs or history of mental illness and intellectual disability. These included "feeble-mindedness", "imbecility", depression, and other illnesses that stemmed from the brain such as epilepsy and cerebral palsy.[318][346]

Moral – people who had "moral defects" at the time were (but not limited to) homosexuals and those of illicit sexuality, criminals, impoverished, and other groups associated with "degeneracy" that deviated from the considered norm or American society at the time.[347]

The people with moral or mental disability, who were of higher concern to officials and under the law, were required to be excluded from entry to the United States. Persons with physical disability were under higher inspection and could be turned away on the basis of their disability. Much of this came in part of the eugenicist belief that defects are hereditary, especially those of the moral and mental nature those these are often outwardly signified by physical deformity as well.[342] As Chicago surgeon Eugene S. Talbot wrote in 1898, "crime is hereditary, a tendency which is, in most cases, associated with bodily defects."[348] Likewise, George Lydston, a medicine and criminal anthropology professor, wrote in 1906 that people with "defective physique" were not just criminally associated but that defectiveness was a primary factor "in the causation of crime."[349]

Leadership[edit]

Within the U.S. Bureau of Immigration, there were fifteen commissioners assigned to oversee immigration procedures at the Port of New York, and thus, operations at Ellis Island. The twelve commissioners through 1940 were political appointees selected by the U.S. president; the political parties listed are those of the president who appointed each commissioner. One man, William Williams, served twice as commissioner.[70][350]

1. 1890–1893 John B. Weber (Republican)[70][350][351]

2. 1893–1897 Joseph H. Senner (Democrat)[70][350]

3. 1898–1902 Thomas Fitchie (Republican)[70][350]

4. 1902–1905 William Williams (Republican)[70][350][352]

5. 1905–1909 Robert Watchorn (Republican)[70][350]

6. 1909–1913 William Williams (Republican)[70][350]

7. 1914–1919 Frederic C. Howe (Democrat)[70][350]

8. 1920–1921 Frederick A. Wallis (Democrat)[70][350]

9. 1921–1923 Robert E. Todd (Republican)[70][350]

10. 1923–1926 Henry H. Curran (Republican)[70][350]

11. 1926–1931 Benjamin M. Day (Republican)[350][353]

12. 1931–1934 Edward Corsi (Republican)[70][350]

13. 1934–1940 Rudolph Reimer (Democrat)[70][350]

The final three commissioners held a non-partisan position of "district director". The district directors were:[354]

1. 1933–1942 Byron H. Uhl[355][354]

2. 1942–1949 W. Frank Watkins[356][357][354]

3. 1949–1954 Edward J. Shaughnessy[70][354][357]

Name-change myth[edit]

Scenes at the Immigration Depot and a nearby dock on Ellis Island, 1906

According to a myth, immigrants were unwillingly forced to take new names, though there are no historical records of this.[358][359] Rather, immigration officials simply used the names from the manifests of steamship companies, which served as the only immigration records for those entering the United States. Records show that immigration officials often actually corrected mistakes in immigrants' names, since inspectors knew three languages on average and each worker was usually assigned to process immigrants who spoke the same languages.[358][359][360]

Many immigrant families Americanized their surnames afterward, either immediately following the immigration process or gradually after assimilating into American culture.[359] Because the average family changed their surname five years after immigration, the Naturalization Act of 1906 required documentation of name changes.[359][360] The myth of name changes at Ellis Island still persists, likely because of the perception of the immigration center as a formidable port of arrival.[359]

Current use[edit]

The island is administered by the National Park Service,[361] though fire protection and medical services are also provided by the Jersey City Fire Department.[252] In extreme medical emergencies, there is also a helicopter for medical evacuations.[362]

Museum and Wall of Honor[edit]

Excerpt from a museum exhibit

The Ellis Island Immigration Museum opened on September 10, 1990,[226] replacing the American Museum of Immigration on Liberty Island, which closed in 1991.[363] The museum contains several exhibits across three floors of the main building, with a first-floor expansion into the kitchen-laundry building.[364] The first floor houses the main lobby within the baggage room, the Family Immigration History Center, Peopling of America, and New Eras of Immigration.[365] The second floor includes the registry room, the hearing room, Through America's Gate, and Peak Immigration Years.[366] The third floor contains a dormitory room, Restoring a Landmark, Silent Voices, Treasures from Home, and Ellis Island Chronicles, as well as rotating exhibits.[367] There are also three theaters used for film and live performances.[364] The third floor contains a library, reading room, and "oral history center", while the theaters are located on the first and second floors. There are auditoriums on all floors.[227][368] On the ground floor is a gift shop and bookstore, as well as a booth for audio tours.[227][365][368]

In 2008, by act of Congress and despite opposition from the NPS, the museum's library was officially renamed the Bob Hope Memorial Library in honor of one of the station's most famous immigrants, comedian Bob Hope.[369] On May 20, 2015, the Ellis Island Immigration Museum was officially renamed the Ellis Island National Museum of Immigration, coinciding with the opening of the new Peopling of America galleries in the first floor of the kitchen-laundry building.[370] The expansion tells the entire story of American immigration, including before and after the periods that Ellis Island processed immigrants.[370][371][253]

The Wall of Honor outside of the main building contains a list of 775,000 names inscribed on 770 panels, including slaves, Native Americans, and immigrants that were not processed on the island.[372][229] The Wall of Honor originated in the late 1980s as a means to pay for Ellis Island's renovation, and initially included 75,000 names.[372][373] The wall originally opened in 1990 and consisted of copper panels.[229][224] Shortly afterward it was reconstructed in two phases: a circular portion that started in 1993, and a linear portion that was built between 1998 and 2001.[224] The Statue of Liberty-Ellis Island Foundation requires potential honorees to pay a fee for inscription.[374] By 2019, the wall was mostly full and only five panels remained to be inscribed.[229]

NPS offers several educational opportunities, including self-guided tours and immersive, role-playing activities.[375][376] These educational programs and resources cater to over 650,000 students per year and aim to promote discussion while fostering a climate of tolerance and understanding.[376]

South side[edit]

Ellis Island Immigrant Hospital

The south side of the island, home to the Ellis Island Immigrant Hospital, is abandoned and remains unrenovated.[377][378] Disagreements over its proposed use have precluded any development on the south side for several decades.[223] The NPS held a competition for proposals to redevelop the south side in 1981 and ultimately selected a plan for a conference center and a 250-to-300-room Sheraton hotel on the site of the hospital.[218][379] In 1985, while restoration of the north side of Ellis Island was underway, Interior Secretary Donald P. Hodel convened a long-inactive federal commission to determine how the south side of Ellis Island should be used.[380] Though the hotel proposal was dropped in 1986 for lack of funds,[381] the NPS allowed developer William Hubbard to redevelop the south side as a convention center, though Hubbard was not able to find investors.[382] The south side was proposed for possible future development even through the late 1990s.[34][383]

Save Ellis Island led preservation efforts of the south side of the island. The ferry building remains only partially accessible to the general public.[384] As part of the National Park Service's Centennial Initiative, the south side of the island was to be the target of a project to restore the 28 buildings that have not yet been rehabilitated.[385]

In 2014, the NPS started offering guided public tours of the south side as part of the "Hard Hat Tour", which charges an additional fee that is used to support Save Ellis Island's preservation efforts.[47] The south side also includes "Unframed – Ellis Island", an art installation by the French street artist JR, which includes murals of figures who would have occupied each of the respective hospital buildings.[386][387]

Cultural impact[edit]

Commemorations[edit]

Immigrants arriving at Ellis Island, 1902

The Ellis Island Medal of Honor is awarded annually to American citizens, both native-born and naturalized. According to the award's sponsors, the medal is given to those who "have distinguished themselves within their own ethnic groups while exemplifying the values of the American way of life."[388] Past medalists include seven U.S. presidents, several world leaders,[389] several Nobel Prize winners, and other leaders and pioneers.[388][390][391][392][393]

The USPS issued an Ellis Island commemorative stamp on February 3, 1998, as part of the Celebrate the Century stamp sheet series.[394]

Historical designations[edit]

Ellis Island has been part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument, which also includes the Statue of Liberty and Liberty Island, since 1965.[70][198][2] It has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since 1966.[3] Ellis Island has also been on the New Jersey Register of Historic Places since 1971,[4] and the main building was made a New York City designated landmark in 1993.[5] In addition, it was placed on UNESCO's list of tentative World Heritage Sites in 2017.[395]

See also[edit]

Geography of New York-New Jersey Harbor Estuary

List of Ellis Island immigrants – (Notable persons)

List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan on Islands

National Register of Historic Places listings in Hudson County, New Jersey

National Register of Historic Places listings in New York County, New York

References[edit]

Notes[edit]

1. ^ The boundaries remain the same as today.[39] The New York side of the island is assessed as Manhattan Block 1, Lot 201,[40][41] while the portion of the island in New Jersey is assessed as Jersey City Block 21603, Lot 1.[42][43]

2. ^ Also Paaw or Paauw[58][59]

3. ^ The name "Little Oyster Island" persisted even though Ellis Island was larger than the former Black Tom Island.[14][15][61] By comparison, the comparatively large Liberty Island was called "Great Oyster Island".[14][53][63]

4. ^ The sale may have happened as late as 1680.[58]

5. ^ The opposition to an immigration station on Liberty Island stemmed from the fact that the Statue of Liberty would be built there, while Governors Island was still an active military fort.[91]

6. ^ The cited figures may run as high as 480,000.[101]

7. ^ In this photograph, Pettersen's middle name is misspelled as having the initial "O", when it is actually “P”.

8. ^ The name "Key Project" is a reference to how "the island represented the key to freedom and opportunity for so many."[188][189]

9. ^ From 1892 to 1924, about 14.28 million people passed through the Port of New York. This includes about 2.28 million processed between 1892 and 1900 at the first Ellis Island immigration station and the Battery Park Barge Office.

These numbers also include immigrants who did not pass through Ellis Island.[301]

10. ^ 1634–1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1700–1799: McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1800–present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Retrieved April 16, 2022.

Citations[edit]

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3. ^ a b "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. March 13, 2009.

4. ^ a b "New Jersey and National Registers of Historic Places – Hudson County". New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection – Historic Preservation Office. Retrieved August 2, 2014.

5. ^ a b Ellis Island Main Building Interior Designation Report 1993.

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7. ^ Hudson County New Jersey Street Map. Hagstrom Map Company, Inc. 2010. ISBN 978-0-88097-763-0.

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18. ^ a b Central R. Co. of New Jersey v. Jersey City, 209 U.S. 473 (1908).

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21. ^ Stakely 2003, p. 73.

22. ^ See:

"The Federal and State constitutions, colonial charters, and other organic laws of the state[s], territories, and colonies now or heretofore forming the United States of America /compiled and edited under the Act of Congress of June 30, 1906". December 18, 1998.

American State Papers: Documents, Legislative and Executive, of the Congress of the United States. Issue 20. Gales and Seaton. 1832. p. 479. Retrieved February 12, 2020.

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41. ^ Robins & Urbanelli 1993, p. 6.

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This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the Library of Congress.

Further reading[edit]

Baur, J. "Commemorating Immigration in the Immigrant Society. Narratives of Transformation at Ellis Island and the Lower East Side Tenement Museum", in M. König, and R. Ohliger, eds., Enlarging European Memory. Migration Movements in Historical Perspective (2006) pp. 137–146.

Baur, J. "Ellis Island, Inc.: The Making of an American Site of Memory", in: H. J. Grabbe and S. Schindler, (eds.), The Merits of Memory. Concepts, Contexts, Debates (2008), pp. 185–196.

Bayor, Ronald (2014). Encountering Ellis Island : how European immigrants entered America. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-1368-6. OCLC 863043790.

Bolino, August (1990). The Ellis Island source book. Washington, DC: Kensington Historical Press. ISBN 978-0-939133-03-1. OCLC 23941104.

Cannato, V.J. (2009). American Passage: The History of Ellis Island. HarperCollins e-books. ISBN 978-0-06-194039-2.

Coan, Peter M. (1997). Ellis Island Interviews: In Their Own Words. Barnes & Noble. ISBN 978-0-7607-5309-5.

Corsi, Edward (1969). In the Shadow of Liberty: The Chronicle of Ellis Island. American Immigration Collection. Ayer Company Pub. ISBN 978-0-405-00517-6.

Fairchild, Amy L. (2003). Science at the Borders: Immigrant Medical Inspection and the Shaping of the Modern Industrial Labor Force. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-7080-4.

Kashima, T. (1997). Personal Justice Denied: Report of the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians. University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-97558-0.

Lerner, K. (2006). Immigration and multiculturalism : essential primary sources. Detroit, MI: Thomson Gale. p. 121. ISBN 978-1-4144-1265-8. OCLC 77517876.

Moreno, Barry (2003). Ellis Islandv. Charleston, SC: Arcadia. ISBN 978-0-7385-1304-1. OCLC 53224584.

Moreno, Barry (2003). Ellis Island: Children of Ellis Island. Charleston, SC: Arcadia. ISBN 978-0-7385-1304-1. OCLC 53224584.

Moreno, Barry (2008). Ellis Island's famous immigrants. Charleston, SC: Arcadia Pub. ISBN 978-0-7385-5533-1. OCLC 177000362.

"National Register of Historic Inventory Nomination Form For Federal Properties: Ellis Island–Statue of Liberty National Monument" (PDF). United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service. August 9, 1980.

Pitkin, T. M. Keepers of the Gate, 1975.

Stump, H. (1892). Immigration Investigation. 52d Congress, 1st Session, House. Report. U.S. Government Printing Office.

Yew, E., M.D., "MEDICAL INSPECTION OF IMMIGRANTS AT ELLIS ISLAND, 1891–1924", Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, Vol. 56, No. 5, June 1980, New York Academy of Medicine.

Ellis Island: Blocks 9019 thru 9023, Block Group 9, Census Tract 47, Hudson County, NJ; and Block 1000, Block Group 1, Census Tract 1, New York County, New York; United States Census Bureau.

"Ellis Island: Its Legal Status" (PDF). General Services Administration Offices of General Council. February 11, 1963. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 4, 2012.

Videos[edit]

Encyclopædia Britannica Films, Inc (1946). Immigration (Documentary). Internet Archive. Event occurs at 10:22. Retrieved January 20, 2009. Archive film contains scenes of Ellis Island and New York City in the early 20th century.

Guggenheim, Charles (director) (1989). Island of Hope – Island of Tears (Documentary). National Park Service. Event occurs at 28:24. Retrieved January 20, 2009. From 1892–1954, Ellis Island was the port of entry for millions of European immigrants. Fascinating archival footage tells the moving story of families with dreams of opportunity, leaving their homes with what they could carry.

Emigrants Landing at Ellis Island, a film from 1903 by Alfred C. Abadie from the World Digital Library

Ellis Island: Faces of America on YouTube, video celebrating immigrants at Ellis Island, c. 1900–1926

The short film Island of Hope – Island of Tears (1989) is available for free download at the Internet Archive.

Other archives[edit]

The Ellis Island Experience – Articles, Documents and Images – Gjenvick-Gjønvik Archives

Newspaper articles and clippings about Ellis Island at Newspapers.com

Children's books[edit]

Bial, Raymond (2009). Ellis Island : coming to the Land of Liberty. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Books for Children. ISBN 978-0-618-99943-9. OCLC 244481684.

Demuth, Patricia (2014). What was Ellis Island. New York: Grosset & Dunlap an imprint of Penguin Group (USA) LLC. ISBN 978-0-448-47915-6. OCLC 852221914.

External links[edit]

Official website

Ellis Island Visitor information

Liberty Ellis Foundation

Images[edit]

Eerie Ellis Island, Then and Now – slideshow by NPR

History and Photos of Ellis Island Baggage & Dormitory Building

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The Statue of Liberty and Ellis Island, seen from New York Water Taxi in New York Harbor, 2013

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Ellis Island... Voici une petite île new-yorkaise faisant partie des lieux symboliques de la ville ! Située à proximité de Liberty Island, Ellis Island représentait au début du XXe siècle l' entrée principale de nombreux immigrants arrivant à New York pour vivre leur rêve américain.

Depuis 1990, Ellis Island abrite le Musée de l'Immigration (ou Ellis Island Immigration Museum), qui attire chaque année des millions de visiteurs venus découvrir ce lieu riche en histoire. Alors si vous aussi, vous souhaitez visiter cette petite île, voici un article complet sur cette dernière.

Histoire d'Ellis Island

Avant l'année 1892, Ellis Island était le point d'entrée de nombreux immigrants débarquant aux Etats-Unis pour tenter leur chance et vivre leur rêve américain. Au début surnommée Little Oyster Island, Ellis Island a pris son nom actuel en hommage à Samuel Ellis, un colon d'origine écossaise et propriétaire de l'île dans les années 1770. Ellis Island fut ensuite achetée par la ville de New York.

Au départ, l'île s'étendait sur 1.2 hectares, mais face à l'arrivée massive d'immigrants, sa superficie a été agrandie à 11 hectares. Cette agrandissement a été possible grâce à la terre issue des travaux du métro de New York.

En 1892, le centre fédéral d'immigration de l'île ouvrit ses portes et ferma en novembre 1954. Les immigrants qui arrivaient à New York devaient subir plusieurs examens (physiques et mentaux) afin de savoir s'ils répondaient aux différents critères d'admission du pays. Pendant ces 62 années, l'administration de la ville a enregistré plus de 8 millions d'immigrants.

En 1924, les lois sur l'immigration imposaient plusieurs quotas et avec ces mesures, le taux d'immigration diminua et Ellis Island devint un centre de détention pour tous les étrangers rejetés du territoire des Etats-Unis. Durant la Seconde Guerre Mondiale, l'île servit également de centre de détention.

En 1954, les services d'immigration d'Ellis Island fermèrent leurs portes et aujourd'hui cette île figure sur le National Register of Historic Places (registre national des sites historiques américains). En 1965, l'île fut aussi intégrée au monument national de la Statue de la Liberté.

Sur cette petite île de 0.13 km2, les touristes peuvent aujourd'hui visiter le Musée de l'immigration où des photos et des expositions retraçant l'histoire de l'immigration sont exposées. Ce musée a été ouvert en 1990.

Ellis Island : une île aux noms bien significatifs

Saviez-vous qu'Ellis Island était auparavant surnommée The Island of Tears, autrement dit " l'île aux pleurs " en référence aux immigrants qui étaient refusés à cause de raisons médicales, par exemple (ils étaient environ 2%).

Avec Liberty Island, Ellis Island était aussi appelée The Oyster Island ou " l'île de la petite huître " à cause des bancs d'huîtres qui étaient situés tout autour.

Musée de l'immigration : une visite à ne pas manquer !

Découvrir Ellis Island est devenu aujourd'hui une activité incontournable à faire à New York. En effet, lors de votre visite, vous pourrez profiter d'une île charmante et découvrir le Musée de l'Immigration, un lieu ludique et riche en histoire. Ce musée est facilement reconnaissable grâce à ses tours en briques. Son entrée se situe quant à elle sous une verrière.

Au fur et à mesure de votre visite, vous découvrirez l'histoire de ces millions d'immigrants et les étapes qu'ils ont du parcourir de leur arrivée à New York jusqu'à leur acceptation officielle sur le territoire.

A l'intérieur du Musée de l'Immigration, vous pourrez aussi découvrir plusieurs points d'intérêt :

The American Immigrant Wall of Honor où plus de 600 000 noms sont inscrits.

The American Family Immigration History Center qui recense le nom des immigrants et des différents bateaux dans lesquels ils ont voyagé.

The American Flag of Faces où des montages photos sont exposés. Ces derniers représentent des Américains avec leurs ancêtres et famille.

Des objets de l'époque, des vêtements, mais aussi des affaires personnelles de personnes ayant passé par Ellis Island sont également exposées au troisième étage du musée. N'oubliez pas non plus de vous rendre dans la Registry Room où les immigrants devaient patienter jusqu'à leur inspection et leur inscription sur des registres.

Si vous le souhaitez, le musée vous propose également une visite de 45 minutes durant laquelle vous pourrez visiter le lieu tel un arrivant.

Bon à savoir : dans le musée, des ordinateurs sont également disponibles. Grâce à ces derniers, les personnes le souhaitant peuvent ainsi rechercher dans les archives si certains de leurs ancêtres sont passés par Ellis Island. Des audio-guides en français sont aussi proposés si vous ne parlez pas très bien anglais.

Si vous avez faim durant votre visite, au rez-de-chaussée, une cafétéria est ouverte.

Enfin, l'entrée du musée est gratuite, mais il vous faudra acheter un billet pour le ferry.

Comment découvrir Ellis Island ?

Pour visiter Ellis Island, deux solutions s'offrent à vous :

Statue de la Liberté + Ellis Island : avec cette option, vous pourrez donc visiter ces deux sites incontournables. Après avoir embarqué dans le ferry, ce dernier fera une première escale sur Liberty Island avant de repartir pour Ellis Island. Après avoir admiré la Statue de la Liberté, il vous suffira simplement de reprendre le ferry pour pouvoir découvrir Ellis Island.

Inclure la visite de l'île dans un pass : l'Explorer Pass, le New York City Pass et le New York Pass incluent le billet du ferry pour Ellis Island.

Si vous ne savez pas quel pass choisir, n'hésitez pas à jeter un œil à notre comparatif !

Ellis Island se situe à l'estuaire de l'Hudson River et pour vous y rendre, il vous faudra prendre le ferry soit à Battery Park à New York, soit à Liberty State Park dans l'état du New Jersey. Si vous partez de New York, vous vous arrêterez en premier sur Liberty Island, puis sur Ellis Island et si vous partez du New Jersey, ce sera le contraire. En moyenne, le ferry met 15 minutes pour faire la traversée.

Pour vous rendre à Battery Park, vous pouvez prendre la ligne 1 du métro jusqu'à South Ferry ou les lignes 4 et 5 jusqu'à Bowling Green.

Les ferrys circulent toutes les 20 - 30 minutes. Le prix des billets est de 18.50$ par adulte, 14$ pour les personnes âgées de plus de 62 ans, 9$ pour les enfants âgés de 4 à 12 ans et gratuits pour les petits de moins de 4 ans.

Quelles sont les horaires d'ouverture de l'île ?

Ellis Island est ouvert tous les jours (sauf le 25 décembre) de 9h30 à 17h.

Visiter Ellis Island lors de votre séjour à New York est donc incontournable. Riche en histoire, cette île vous apprendra beaucoup sur l'histoire des immigrants au XXe siècle et si vous pouvez combiner une visite d'Ellis Island et de la Statue de la Liberté, c'est encore mieux 😉

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Ellis Island : une petite île new-yorkaise riche en histoire

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Ellis Island... Voici une petite île new-yorkaise faisant partie des lieux symboliques de la ville ! Située à proximité de Liberty Island, Ellis Island représentait au début du XXe siècle l' entrée principale de nombreux immigrants arrivant à New York pour vivre leur rêve américain.

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Population growth rate with and without migration in the U.S.

Immigration has been a major source of population growth and cultural change throughout much of United States history. In absolute numbers, the United States has a larger immigrant population than any other country, with 47 million immigrants as of 2015.[1] This represents 19.1% of the 244 million international migrants worldwide, and 14.4% of the United States population. Some other countries have larger proportions of immigrants, such as Australia with 30%[2] and Canada with 21.9%.[3]

According to the 2016 Yearbook of Immigration Statistics, the United States admitted a total of 1.18 million legal immigrants (618k new arrivals, 565k status adjustments) in 2016.[4] Of these, 48% were the immediate relatives of United States citizens, 20% were family-sponsored, 13% were refugees or asylum seekers, 12% were employment-based preferences, 4.2% were part of the Diversity Immigrant Visa program, 1.4% were victims of a crime (U1) or their family members were (U2 to U5),[5] and 1.0% who were granted the Special Immigrant Visa (SIV) for Iraqis and Afghans employed by the United States Government.[4] The remaining 0.4% included small numbers from several other categories, including 0.2% who were granted suspension of deportation as an immediate relative of a citizen (Z13);[6] persons admitted under the Nicaraguan and Central American Relief Act; children born after the issuance of a parent's visa; and certain parolees from the former Soviet Union, Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam who were denied refugee status.[4]

Between 1921 and 1965, policies such as the national origins formula limited immigration and naturalization opportunities for people from areas outside Western Europe. Exclusion laws enacted as early as the 1880s generally prohibited or severely restricted immigration from Asia, and quota laws enacted in the 1920s curtailed Eastern European immigration. The civil rights movement led to the replacement[7] of these ethnic quotas with per-country limits for family-sponsored and employment-based preference visas.[8] Since then, the number of first-generation immigrants living in the United States has quadrupled.[9][10] The total immigrant population has stalled in recent years, especially since the election of Donald Trump and the Covid-19 pandemic. Census estimates show 45.3 million foreign born residents in March 2018 and 45.4 million in September 2021; the lowest 3 year increase in decades.[11]

Research suggests that immigration to the United States is beneficial to the United States economy. With few exceptions, the evidence suggests that on average, immigration has positive economic effects on the native population, but it is mixed as to whether low-skilled immigration adversely affects low-skilled natives. Studies also show that immigrants have lower crime rates than natives in the United States.[12][13][14] The economic, social, and political aspects of immigration have caused controversy regarding such issues as maintaining ethnic homogeneity, workers for employers versus jobs for non-immigrants, settlement patterns, impact on upward social mobility, crime, and voting behavior.

History

Immigrants on ocean steamer passing the Statue of Liberty, New York City, 1887

American immigration history can be viewed in four epochs: the colonial period, the mid-19th century, the start of the 20th century, and post-1965. Each period brought distinct national groups, races and ethnicities to the United States.

Colonial period

During the 17th century, approximately 400,000 English people migrated to colonial America.[15] They comprised 83.5% of the white population at the time of the first census in 1790.[16] From 1700 to 1775, between 350,000 and 500,000 Europeans immigrated: estimates vary in sources. Regarding English settlers of the 18th century, one source says 52,000 English migrated during the period of 1701 to 1775, although this figure is likely too low.[17] [18] 400,000–450,000 of the 18th century migrants were Scots, Scots-Irish from Ulster, Germans, Swiss, French Huguenots.[19] Over half of all European immigrants to Colonial America during the 17th and 18th centuries arrived as indentured servants.[20] They numbered 350,000.[21] From 1770 to 1775 (the latter year being when the American Revolutionary War began), 7,000 English, 15,000 Scots, 13,200 Scots-Irish, 5,200 Germans, and 3,900 Irish Catholics migrated to the Thirteen Colonies.[22] According to Butler (2000), up to half of English migrants in the 18th century may have been young, single men who were well-skilled, trained artisans, like the Huguenots.[23] At the time of the first census in 1790, English was the majority ancestry in all U.S. states, ranging from a high of 96.2% in Connecticut to a low of 58.0% in New Jersey.

Ancestries of Each U.S. State in 1790[24]

State | English % | Scotch % | Irish % | Dutch % | French % | German % | Other %
Maine | 93.1 | 4.3 | 1.4 | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0.5 | 0.3
New Hampshire | 94.1 | 4.7 | 1.0 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.0
Vermont | 95.4 | 3.0 | 0.7 | 0.5 | 0.2 | 0.0 | 0.2
Massachusetts | 95.0 | 3.6 | 1.0 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.0 | 0.1
Rhode Island | 96.0 | 3.1 | 0.7 | 0.0 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.0
Connecticut | 96.2 | 2.8 | 0.7 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.0 | 0.0
New York | 78.2 | 3.2 | 0.8 | 16.1 | 0.8 | 0.4 | 0.5
New Jersey | 58.0 | 7.7 | 7.1 | 12.7 | 2.1 | 9.2 | 3.2
Delaware | 86.3 | 7.5 | 3.9 | 1.0 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.4
Pennsylvania | 59.0 | 11.7 | 2.0 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 26.1 | 0.0
Maryland | 84.0 | 6.5 | 2.4 | 0.1 | 0.7 | 5.9 | 0.4
Virginia | 85.0 | 7.1 | 2.0 | 0.2 | 0.6 | 4.9 | 0.2
Kentucky | 83.1 | 11.2 | 2.3 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 2.8 | 0.1
Tennessee | 83.1 | 11.2 | 2.3 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 2.8 | 0.1
North Carolina | 83.1 | 11.2 | 2.3 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 2.8 | 0.1
South Carolina | 82.4 | 11.7 | 2.6 | 0.1 | 1.3 | 1.7 | 0.2
Georgia | 83.1 | 11.2 | 2.3 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 2.8 | 0.1

Historians estimate that fewer than one million immigrants moved to the United States from Europe between 1600 and 1799.[25] By comparison, in the first federal census, in 1790, the population of the United States was enumerated to be 3,929,214.[26]

Early United States era

The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited naturalization to "free white persons"; it was expanded to include black people in the 1860s and Asian people in the 1950s.[27] This made the United States an outlier, since laws that made racial distinctions were uncommon in the world in the 18th century.[28]

In the early years of the United States, immigration (not counting the enslaved, who were treated as merchandise rather than people) was fewer than 8,000 people a year,[29] including French refugees from the slave revolt in Haiti. Legal importation of enslaved African was prohibited after 1808, though many were smuggled in to sell. After 1820, immigration gradually increased. From 1836 to 1914, over 30 million Europeans migrated to the United States.[30] The death rate on these transatlantic voyages was high, during which one in seven travelers died.[31]

After an initial wave of immigration from China following the California Gold Rush, Congress passed its first immigration law, the Page Act of 1875 which banned Chinese women.[32] This was followed by the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, banning virtually all immigration from China until the law's repeal in 1943. In the late 1800s, immigration from other Asian countries, especially to the West Coast, became more common.

Exclusion Era

The peak year of European immigration was in 1907, when 1,285,349 persons entered the country.[33] By 1910, 13.5 million immigrants were living in the United States.[34]

While the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 had already excluded immigrants from China, the immigration of people from Asian countries in addition to China was banned by the Immigration Act of 1917, also known as the Asiatic Barred Zone Act, which also banned homosexuals, people with intellectual disability, and people with an anarchist worldview.[35] The Emergency Quota Act was enacted in 1921, followed by the Immigration Act of 1924. The 1924 Act was aimed at further restricting immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe, particularly Jewish, Italian, and Slavic people, who had begun to enter the country in large numbers beginning in the 1890s.[36] The 1924 Act also consolidated the prohibition of Asian immigration.[citation needed]

Polish immigrants working on the farm, 1909. The welfare system was practically non-existent before the 1930s and the economic pressures on the poor were giving rise to child labor.

Immigration patterns of the 1930s were affected by the Great Depression. In the final prosperous year, 1929, there were 279,678 immigrants recorded,[37] but in 1933, only 23,068 moved to the U.S.[25] In the early 1930s, more people emigrated from the United States than to it.[38] The U.S. government sponsored a Mexican Repatriation program which was intended to encourage people to voluntarily move to Mexico, but thousands were deported against their will.[39] Altogether, approximately 400,000 Mexicans were repatriated; half of them were US citizens.[40] Most of the Jewish refugees fleeing the Nazis and World War II were barred from coming to the United States.[41] In the post-war era, the Justice Department launched Operation Wetback, under which 1,075,168 Mexicans were deported in 1954.[42]

Since 1965

Immigrant trunks. Left, from Sweden, late 19th century. Right, from Refugee camp in Thailand, 1993.

The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, also known as the Hart-Cellar Act, abolished the system of national-origin quotas. By equalizing immigration policies, the act resulted in new immigration from non-European nations, which changed the ethnic demographics of the United States.[43] In 1970, 60% of immigrants were from Europe; this decreased to 15% by 2000.[44] In 1990, George H. W. Bush signed the Immigration Act of 1990,[45] which increased legal immigration to the United States by 40%.[46] In 1991, Bush signed the Armed Forces Immigration Adjustment Act 1991, allowing foreign service members who had served 12 or more years in the US Armed Forces to qualify for permanent residency and, in some cases, citizenship.

In November 1994, California voters passed Proposition 187 amending the state constitution, denying state financial aid to illegal immigrants. The federal courts voided this change, ruling that it violated the federal constitution.[47]

Appointed by Bill Clinton,[48] the U.S. Commission on Immigration Reform recommended reducing legal immigration from about 800,000 people per year to approximately 550,000.[49] While an influx of new residents from different cultures presents some challenges, "the United States has always been energized by its immigrant populations", said President Bill Clinton in 1998. "America has constantly drawn strength and spirit from wave after wave of immigrants ... They have proved to be the most restless, the most adventurous, the most innovative, the most industrious of people."[50]

In 2001, President George W. Bush discussed an accord with Mexican President Vincente Fox. Due to the September 11 attacks, the possible accord did not occur. From 2005 to 2013, the US Congress discussed various ways of controlling immigration. The Senate and House were unable to reach an agreement.[47]

Nearly 14 million immigrants entered the United States from 2000 to 2010,[51] and over one million persons were naturalized as U.S. citizens in 2008. The per-country limit[8] applies the same maximum on the number of visas to all countries regardless of their population and has therefore had the effect of significantly restricting immigration of persons born in populous nations such as Mexico, China, India, and the Philippines—the leading countries of origin for legally admitted immigrants to the United States in 2013;[52] nevertheless, China, India, and Mexico were the leading countries of origin for immigrants overall to the United States in 2013, regardless of legal status, according to a U.S. Census Bureau study.[53]

Nearly 8 million people immigrated to the United States from 2000 to 2005; 3.7 million of them entered without papers.[54][55] In 1986 president Ronald Reagan signed immigration reform that gave amnesty to 3 million undocumented immigrants in the country.[56] Hispanic immigrants suffered job losses during the late-2000s recession,[57] but since the recession's end in June 2009, immigrants posted a net gain of 656,000 jobs.[58] Over 1 million immigrants were granted legal residence in 2011.[59]

For those who enter the US illegally across the Mexico–United States border and elsewhere, migration is difficult, expensive and dangerous.[60] Virtually all undocumented immigrants have no avenues for legal entry to the United States due to the restrictive legal limits on green cards, and lack of immigrant visas for low-skilled workers.[61] Participants in debates on immigration in the early twenty-first century called for increasing enforcement of existing laws governing illegal immigration to the United States, building a barrier along some or all of the 2,000-mile (3,200 km) Mexico-U.S. border, or creating a new guest worker program. Through much of 2006 the country and Congress was engaged in a debate about these proposals. As of April 2010 few of these proposals had become law, though a partial border fence had been approved and subsequently canceled.[62]

Modern reform attempts

Beginning with Ronald Reagan in the 1980s, presidents from both political parties have steadily increased the number of border patrol agents and instituted harsher punitive measures for immigration violations. Examples of these policies include Ronald Reagan’s Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 and the Clinton-era Prevention Through Deterrence strategy. The sociologist Douglas Massey has argued that these policies have succeeded at producing a perception of border enforcement but have largely failed at preventing emigration from Latin America. Notably, rather than curtailing illegal immigration, the increase in border patrol agents decreased circular migration across the U.S.–Mexico border, thus increasing the population of Hispanics in the U.S.[63]

Presidents from both parties have employed anti-immigrant rhetoric to appeal to their political base or to garner bi-partisan support for their policies. While Republicans like Reagan and Donald Trump have led the way in framing Hispanic immigrants as criminals, Douglas Massey points out that "the current moment of open racism and xenophobia could not have happened with Democratic acquiescence".[64] For example, while lobbying for his 1986 immigration bill, Reagan framed unauthorized immigration as a "national security" issue and warned that "terrorists and subversives are just two days' driving time" from the border.[64] Later presidents, including Democrats Bill Clinton and Barack Obama, used similar "security" rhetoric in their efforts to court Republican support for comprehensive immigration reform. In his 2013 State of the Union Address, Obama said "real reform means strong border security, and we can build on the progress my administration has already made – putting more boots on the southern border than at any time in our history".[65]

Trump administration policies

ICE reports that it removed 240,255 immigrants in fiscal year 2016, as well as 226,119 in FY2017 and 256,085 in FY2018. Citizens of Central American countries (including Mexico) made up over 90% of removals in FY2017 and over 80% in FY2018.[66]

In January 2017, U.S. President Donald Trump signed an executive order temporarily suspending entry to the United States by nationals of seven Muslim-majority countries. It was replaced by another executive order in March 2017 and by a presidential proclamation in September 2017, with various changes to the list of countries and exemptions.[67] The orders were temporarily suspended by federal courts but later allowed to proceed by the Supreme Court, pending a definite ruling on their legality.[68] Another executive order called for the immediate construction of a wall across the U.S.–Mexico border, the hiring of 5,000 new border patrol agents and 10,000 new immigration officers, and federal funding penalties for sanctuary cities.[69]

The "zero-tolerance" policy was put in place in 2018, which legally allows children to be separated from adults unlawfully entering the United States. This is justified by labeling all adults that enter unlawfully as criminals, thus subjecting them to criminal prosecution.[70] The Trump Administration also argued that its policy had precedent under the Obama Administration, which had opened family detention centers in response to migrants increasingly using children as a way to get adults into the country. However, the Obama Administration detained families together in administrative, rather than criminal, detention.[71][72]

Other policies focused on what it means for an asylum seeker to claim credible fear.[73] To further decrease the amount of asylum seekers into the United States, Attorney Jeff Sessions released a decision that restricts those fleeing gang violence and domestic abuse as "private crime", therefore making their claims ineligible for asylum.[74] These new policies that have been put in place are putting many lives at risk, to the point that the ACLU has officially sued Jeff Sessions along with other members of the Trump Administration. The ACLU claims that the policies that are currently being put in place by this Presidential Administration is undermining the fundamental human rights of those immigrating into the United States, specifically women. They also claim that these policies violate decades of settle asylum law.[75]

In April 2020, President Trump said he will sign an executive order to temporarily suspend immigration to the United States because of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States.[76][77]

Origins of the U.S. immigrant population, 1960–2016

% of foreign-born population residing in the U.S. who were born in ...[78]

| 1960 | 1970 | 1980 | 1990 | 2000 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2018
Europe-Canada | 84% | 68% | 42% | 26% | 19% | 15% | 15% | 14% | 14% | 14% | 14% | 13% | 13%
South and East Asia | 4% | 7% | 15% | 22% | 23% | 25% | 25% | 26% | 26% | 26% | 27% | 27% | 28%
Other Latin America | 4% | 11% | 16% | 21% | 22% | 24% | 24% | 24% | 24% | 24% | 24% | 25% | 25%
Mexico | 6% | 8% | 16% | 22% | 29% | 29% | 29% | 28% | 28% | 28% | 27% | 26% | 25%

Note: "Other Latin America" includes Central America, South America and the Caribbean.

Persons obtaining legal permanent resident status by fiscal year[79][80][81][82]

Year | | Year | | Year | | Year | | Year | | Year | | Year | | Year |
1890 | 455,302 | 1910 | 1,041,570 | 1930 | 241,700 | 1950 | 249,187 | 1970 | 373,326 | 1990 | 1,535,872 | 2010 | 1,042,625 | 2018 | 1,096,611
1895 | 258,536 | 1915 | 326,700 | 1935 | 34,956 | 1955 | 237,790 | 1975 | 385,378 | 1995 | 720,177 | 2015 | 1,051,031 | 2019 | 1,031,765
1900 | 448,572 | 1920 | 430,001 | 1940 | 70,756 | 1960 | 265,398 | 1980 | 524,295 | 2000 | 841,002 | 2016 | 1,183,505 | 2020 | 707,362
1905 | 1,026,499 | 1925 | 294,314 | 1945 | 38,119 | 1965 | 296,697 | 1985 | 568,149 | 2005 | 1,122,257 | 2017 | 1,127,167

Decade | Average per year
1890–99 | 369,100
1900–09 | 745,100
1910–19 | 634,400
1920–29 | 429,600
1930–39 | 69,900
1940–49 | 85,700
1950–59 | 249,900
1960–69 | 321,400
1970–79 | 424,800
1980–89 | 624,400
1990–99 | 977,500
2000–09 | 1,029,900
2010–19 | 1,063,300

Refugee numbers

According to the Department of State, in the 2016 fiscal year 84,988 refugees were accepted into the US from around the world. In the fiscal year of 2017, 53,691 refugees were accepted to the US. There was a significant decrease after Trump took office; it continued in the fiscal year of 2018 when only 22,405 refugees were accepted into the US. This displays a massive drop in acceptance of refugees since the Trump Administration has been in place.[83][original research?]

On September 26, 2019, The Trump administration announced it plans to allow only 18,000 refugees to resettle in the United States in the 2020 fiscal year, its lowest level since the modern program began in 1980.[84][85][86][87]

In 2020 The Trump administration announces that it plans to slash refugee admissions to U.S. for 2021 to a record low, 15,000 refugees down from a cap of 18,000 for 2020. This is the fourth consecutive year of declining refugee admissions under the Trump term.[88][89][90]

Period

Refugee Program
[91][92][88][89][90]

2018 | 45,000
2019 | 30,000
2020 | 18,000
2021 | 15,000

Contemporary immigration

Naturalization ceremony, Salem, Massachusetts, 2007

As of 2018, approximately half of immigrants living in the United States are from Mexico and other Latin American countries.[93] Many Central Americans are fleeing because of desperate social and economic circumstances in their countries. Some believe that the large number of Central American refugees arriving in the United States can be explained as a "blowback" to policies such as United States military interventions and covert operations that installed or maintained in power authoritarian leaders allied with wealthy land owners and multinational corporations who stop family farming and democratic efforts, which have caused drastically sharp social inequality, wide-scale poverty and rampant crime.[94] Economic austerity dictated by neoliberal policies imposed by the International Monetary Fund and its ally, the U.S., has also been cited as a driver of the dire social and economic conditions, as has the U.S. "War on Drugs", which has been understood as fueling murderous gang violence in the region.[95] Another major migration driver from Central America (Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador) are crop failures, which are (partly) caused by climate change.[96][97][98][99] "The current debate … is almost totally about what to do about immigrants when they get here. But the 800-pound gorilla that’s missing from the table is what we have been doing there that brings them here, that drives them here", according to Jeff Faux, an economist who is a distinguished fellow at the Economic Policy Institute.

Until the 1930s most legal immigrants were male. By the 1990s women accounted for just over half of all legal immigrants.[100] Contemporary immigrants tend to be younger than the native population of the United States, with people between the ages of 15 and 34 substantially overrepresented.[101] Immigrants are also more likely to be married and less likely to be divorced than native-born Americans of the same age.[102]

Immigrants are likely to move to and live in areas populated by people with similar backgrounds. This phenomenon has remained true throughout the history of immigration to the United States.[103] Seven out of ten immigrants surveyed by Public Agenda in 2009 said they intended to make the U.S. their permanent home, and 71% said if they could do it over again they would still come to the US. In the same study, 76% of immigrants say the government has become stricter on enforcing immigration laws since the September 11, 2001 attacks ("9/11"), and 24% report that they personally have experienced some or a great deal of discrimination.[104]

Public attitudes about immigration in the U.S. were heavily influenced in the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks. After the attacks, 52% of Americans believed that immigration was a good thing overall for the U.S., down from 62% the year before, according to a 2009 Gallup poll.[105] A 2008 Public Agenda survey found that half of Americans said tighter controls on immigration would do "a great deal" to enhance U.S. national security.[106] Harvard political scientist and historian Samuel P. Huntington argued in his 2004 book Who Are We? The Challenges to America's National Identity that a potential future consequence of continuing massive immigration from Latin America, especially Mexico, could lead to the bifurcation of the United States.[107][108]

The estimated population of illegal Mexican immigrants in the US decreased from approximately 7 million in 2007 to 6.1 million in 2011[109] Commentators link the reversal of the immigration trend to the economic downturn that started in 2008 and which meant fewer available jobs, and to the introduction of tough immigration laws in many states.[110][111][112][113] According to the Pew Hispanic Center, the net immigration of Mexican born persons had stagnated in 2010, and tended toward going into negative figures.[114]

More than 80 cities in the United States,[115] including Washington D.C., New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, San Francisco, San Diego, San Jose, Salt Lake City, Phoenix, Dallas, Fort Worth, Houston, Detroit, Jersey City, Minneapolis, Denver, Baltimore, Seattle, Portland, Oregon and Portland, Maine, have sanctuary policies, which vary locally.[116]

Origin countries

Inflow of New Legal Permanent Residents by region, 2015–2020

Region | 2015 | % of total | 2016 | % of total | 2017 | % of total | 2018[80] | % of total | 2019[81] | % of total | 2020[82] | % of total | / % in 2020
Americas | 438,435 | 41.7% | 506,901 | 42.8% | 492,726 | 43.7% | 497,860 | 45.4% | 461,710 | 44.8% | 284,491 | 40.2% | 38.4%
Asia | 419,297 | 39.9% | 462,299 | 39.1% | 424,743 | 37.7% | 397,187 | 36.2% | 364,761 | 35.4% | 272,597 | 38.5% | 25.3%
Africa | 101,415 | 9.7% | 113,426 | 9.6% | 118,824 | 10.5% | 115,736 | 10.6% | 111,194 | 10.8% | 76,649 | 10.8% | 31.1%
Europe | 85,803 | 8.2% | 93,567 | 7.9% | 84,335 | 7.5% | 80,024 | 7.3% | 87,597 | 8.5% | 68,994 | 9.8% | 21.2%
Australia and Oceania | 5,404 | 0.5% | 5,588 | 0.5% | 5,071 | 0.5% | 4,653 | 0.4% | 5,359 | 0.5% | 3,998 | 0.6% | 25.4%
Unknown | 677 | 0.1% | 1,724 | 0.1% | 1,468 | 0.1% | 1,151 | 0.1% | 1,144 | 0.1% | 633 | >0.1% |
Total | 1,051,031 | 100% | 1,183,505 | 100% | 1,127,167 | 100% | 1,096,611 | 100% | 1,031,765 | 100% | 707,632 | 100% | 31.4%

Source: US Department of Homeland Security, Office of Immigration Statistics[117][118][119][120]

Top 15 sending countries, 2015–2020:[121][120]

Country | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020
Mexico | 158,619 | 174,534 | 170,581 | 161,858 | 156,052 | 100,325
India | 64,116 | 64,687 | 60,394 | 59,821 | 54,495 | 46,363
China | 74,558 | 81,772 | 71,565 | 65,214 | 62,248 | 41,483
Dominican Republic | 50,610 | 61,161 | 58,520 | 57,413 | 49,911 | 30,005
Vietnam | 30,832 | 41,451 | 38,231 | 33,834 | 39,712 | 29,995
Philippines | 56,478 | 53,287 | 49,147 | 47,258 | 45,920 | 25,491
El Salvador | 19,487 | 23,449 | 25,109 | 28,326 | 27,656 | 17,907
Brazil | 11,424 | 13,812 | 14,989 | 15,394 | 19,825 | 16,746
Cuba | 54,396 | 66,516 | 65,028 | 76,486 | 41,641 | 16,367
South Korea | 17,138 | 21,801 | 19,194 | 17,676 | 18,479 | 16,244
Jamaica | 17,642 | 23,350 | 21,905 | 20,347 | 21,689 | 12,826
Nigeria | 11,542 | 14,380 | 13,539 | 13,952 | 15,888 | 12,398
Venezuela | 9,144 | 10,772 | 11,809 | 11,762 | 15,720 | 12,136
Colombia | 17,316 | 18,610 | 17,956 | 17,545 | 19,841 | 11,989
Afghanistan | 8,328 | 12,513 | 19,538 | 12,935 | 10,136 | 11,407
Total | 1,051,031 | 1,183,505 | 1,127,167 | 1,096,611 | 1,031,765 | 707,362

Charts

Inflow of New Legal Permanent Residents by continent in 2020:[82]

Unknown (0.1%)

Languages spoken among U.S. immigrants, 2016:[78]

Hindi and related languages (5%)

Other (18%)

Demography

Extent and destinations

Galveston Immigration Stations

Year[122]

Number of
foreign-born

Percent
foreign-born

1850 | 2,244,602 | 9.7
1860 | 4,138,697 | 13.2
1870 | 5,567,229 | 14.4
1880 | 6,679,943 | 13.3
1890 | 9,249,547 | 14.8
1900 | 10,341,276 | 13.6
1910 | 13,515,886 | 14.7
1920 | 13,920,692 | 13.2
1930 | 14,204,149 | 11.6
1940 | 11,594,896 | 8.8
1950 | 10,347,395 | 6.9
1960 | 9,738,091 | 5.4
1970 | 9,619,302 | 4.7
1980 | 14,079,906 | 6.2
1990 | 19,767,316 | 7.9
2000 | 31,107,889 | 11.1
2010 | 39,956,000 | 12.9
2017 | 44,525,500 | 13.7
2018 | 44,728,502 | 13.5
2019 | 44,932,799 |

2010,[123] 2017,[124] 2018[125][126]

The United States admitted more legal immigrants from 1991 to 2000, between ten and eleven million, than in any previous decade. In the most recent decade,[when?] the 10 million legal immigrants that settled in the U.S. represent roughly one third of the annual growth, as the U.S. population increased by 32 million (from 249 million to 281 million). By comparison, the highest previous decade was the 1900s, when 8.8 million people arrived, increasing the total U.S. population by one percent every year. Specifically, "nearly 15% of Americans were foreign-born in 1910, while in 1999, only about 10% were foreign-born".[127]

By 1970, immigrants accounted for 4.7 percent of the US population and rising to 6.2 percent in 1980, with an estimated 12.5 percent in 2009.[128] As of 2010, 25% of US residents under age 18 were first- or second-generation immigrants.[129] Eight percent of all babies born in the U.S. in 2008 belonged to illegal immigrant parents, according to a recent[when?] analysis of U.S. Census Bureau data by the Pew Hispanic Center.[130]

Legal immigration to the U.S. increased from 250,000 in the 1930s, to 2.5 million in the 1950s, to 4.5 million in the 1970s, and to 7.3 million in the 1980s, before becoming stable at about 10 million in the 1990s.[131] Since 2000, legal immigrants to the United States number approximately 1,000,000 per year, of whom about 600,000 are Change of Status who already are in the U.S. Legal immigrants to the United States now[when?] are at their highest level ever, at just over 37,000,000 legal immigrants. In reports in 2005–2006, estimates of illegal immigration ranged from 700,000 to 1,500,000 per year.[132][133] Immigration led to a 57.4% increase in foreign-born population from 1990 to 2000.[134]

Foreign-born immigration has caused the U.S. population to continue its rapid increase with the foreign-born population doubling from almost 20 million in 1990 to over 47 million in 2015.[1] In 2018, there were almost 90 million immigrants and U.S.-born children of immigrants (second-generation Americans) in the United States, accounting for 28% of the overall U.S. population.[135]

While immigration has increased drastically over the 20th century, the foreign-born share of the population is, at 13.4, only somewhat below what it was at its peak in 1910 at 14.7%. A number of factors may be attributed to the decrease in the representation of foreign-born residents in the United States. Most significant has been the change in the composition of immigrants; prior to 1890, 82% of immigrants came from North and Western Europe. From 1891 to 1920, that number decreased to 25%, with a rise in immigrants from East, Central, and South Europe, summing up to 64%. Animosity towards these different and foreign immigrants increased in the United States, resulting in much legislation to limit immigration.[citation needed]

Contemporary immigrants settle predominantly in seven states, California, New York, Florida, Texas, Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Illinois, comprising about 44% of the U.S. population as a whole. The combined total immigrant population of these seven states was 70% of the total foreign-born population in 2000.

Origin

Foreign-born population of the United States in 2017, by country of birth.

>10,000,000

1,000,000–3,000,000

300,000–1,000,000

100,000–300,000

30,000–100,000

<30,000

United States and its territories

Immigrants to the United States (2012–2016) per thousand inhabitants of each country of origin (2012).

>10.0

3.0–10.0

1.0–3.0

0.3–1.0

0.1–0.3

<0.1

United States and its territories

Foreign-born population in the United States in 2019 by country of birth[125][136]

Country of birth

Population (2019)

2018–2019
change

Total foreign-born | 44,932,799 | +204,297
Mexico | 10,931,939 | −239,954
India | 2,688,075 | +35,222
China[a] | 2,250,230 | +28,287
Philippines | 2,045,248 | +31,492
El Salvador | 1,412,101 | −7,229
Vietnam | 1,383,779 | +38,026
Cuba | 1,359,990 | +16,030
Dominican Republic | 1,169,420 | −8,444
South Korea[b] | 1,038,885 | −214
Guatemala | 1,111,495 | +104,508
Colombia | 808,148 | +18,587
Canada | 797,158 | −16,506
Jamaica | 772,215 | +38,786
Honduras | 745,838 | +99,585
Haiti | 701,688 | +14,502
United Kingdom[c] | 687,186 | −12,007
Germany | 537,691 | −21,411
Brazil | 502,104 | +29,467
Venezuela | 465,235 | +71,394
Peru | 446,063 | −21,109
Ecuador | 431,150 | −11,955
Poland | 404,107 | +5,321
Pakistan | 398,399 | +19,296
Nigeria | 392,811 | +18,100
Russia | 392,422 | +8,917
Iran | 385,473 | +3,522
Taiwan | 371,851 | −18,299
Ukraine | 354,832 | +28,947
Japan | 333,273 | −28,292
Italy | 314,867 | −10,036
Bangladesh | 261,348 | +296
Thailand | 260,820 | −8,561
Nicaragua | 257,343 | −4,734
Ethiopia | 256,032 | −22,051
Guyana | 253,847 | −26,450
Iraq | 249,670 | +12,248
Hong Kong | 231,469 | −1,779
Trinidad and Tobago | 212,798 | −9,770
Argentina | 210,767 | +16,346
Egypt[d] | 205,852 | −1,727
Ghana | 199,163 | +3,792
Laos | 176,904 | −7,486
France[e] | 171,452 | −19,727
Romania | 167,751 | +5,308
Nepal | 166,651 | +18,017
Portugal | 161,500 | −8,390
Kenya | 153,414 | +6,854
Burma | 150,877 | +10,486
Cambodia | 149,326 | +10,792
Israel[f] | 132,477 | +2,551
Afghanistan | 132,160 | +18,491
Lebanon | 120,065 | −1,861
Greece | 119,571 | −6,128
Turkey | 117,291 | −9,203
Spain | 116,077 | −1,713
Somalia | 114,607 | +11,230
Ireland | 111,886 | −13,104
South Africa | 111,116 | +11,444
Bosnia and Herzegovina | 104,612 | −957
Indonesia | 101,622 | +7,543
Panama | 101,076 | −2,674
Australia | 98,969 | +8,382
Liberia | 98,116 | +12,824
Albania | 94,856 | +4,617
Chile | 93,950 | −9,080
Costa Rica | 93,620 | +6,237
Syria[g] | 92,514 | −19,252
Jordan[h] | 90,018 | +2,335
Armenia | 87,419 | +151
Netherlands[i] | 82,603 | −5,632
Bolivia | 79,804 | +447
Morocco[j] | 77,434 | −1,978
Saudi Arabia | 76,840 | +2,166
Malaysia | 76,712 | −5,844
Cameroon | 72,634 | −5,374
former  Czechoslovakia | 68,312 | +3,960
Bulgaria | 66,950 | −5,239
Uzbekistan | 65,216 | −3,296
Hungary | 64,852 | −2,413
Democratic Republic of the Congo | 60,512 | +/−
Yemen | 58,627 | −3,795
Belarus | 57,315 | −13,654
Barbados | 52,279 | −1,097
Sri Lanka | 51,695 | −305
Sudan | 51,351 | −1,300
Eritrea | 49,355 | +4,245
Uruguay | 48,900 | +2,638
Fiji | 48,710 | +5,195
Moldova | 46,388 | −1,379
Sierra Leone | 45,506 | −2,328
Belize | 44,364 | −2,923
Uganda | 44,150 | +/−
Sweden | 43,506 | −6,236
Switzerland | 42,958 | +8,536
Bahamas | 40,067 | +10,851
Austria | 39,083 | +100
Serbia | 39,020 | +1,585
Republic of the Congo | 38,932 | +/−
Croatia | 37,044 | −1,941
Cape Verde | 36,410 | −663
Dominica | 36,372 | −721
Singapore | 33,736 | −466
Kazakhstan | 33,438 | +5,148
Lithuania | 32,655 | −445
Belgium | 32,323 | −3,431
Denmark | 31,872 | +2,541
Kuwait | 31,113 | −4,494
Senegal | 30,828 | +/−
North Macedonia | 30,359 | +4,456
Micronesia | 30,136 | +/−
Grenada | 29,722 | −11,288
Latvia | 23,300 | −2,039
Zimbabwe | 20,519 | +/−
Norway | 20,143 | −4,928

1. ^ Excluding Hong Kong, and, also Taiwan (Republic of China).

2. ^ Including North Korea.

3. ^ Including Crown Dependencies.

4. ^ Including the Gaza Strip.

5. ^ Metropolitan France only.

6. ^ Excluding the Golan Heights and the Palestinian territories.

7. ^ Including the Golan Heights.

8. ^ Including the West Bank.

9. ^ European Netherlands only.

10. ^ Excluding Western Sahara.

Effects of immigration

Mexican immigrants march for more rights in Northern California's largest city, San Jose (2006).

Immigration to the United States significantly increases the population. The Census Bureau estimates that the US population will increase from 317 million in 2014 to 417 million in 2060 with immigration, when nearly 20% will be foreign-born.[137] In particular, the population of Hispanic and Asian Americans is significantly increased by immigration, with both populations expected to see major growth.[138][139] Overall, the Pew Report predicts the population of the United States will rise from 296 million in 2005 to 441 million in 2065, but only to 338 million with no immigration.[138] The prevalence of immigrant segregation has brought into question the accuracy of describing the United States as a melting pot.[140][141] Immigration to the United States has also increased religious diversity, with Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Sikhism growing in the United States due to immigration.[142] Changing demographics as a result of immigration have affected political affiliations. Immigrants are more likely than natives to support the Democratic Party.[43][143][144] Interest groups that lobby for and against immigration play a role in immigration policy, with religious, ethnic, and business groups most likely to lobby on issues of immigration.[145][146]

Immigrants have not been found to increase crime in the United States, and immigrants overall are associated with lower crime rates than natives.[12][13][14][147] Some research even suggests that increases in immigration may partly explain the reduction in the U.S. crime rate.[148][149][150] According to one study, sanctuary cities—which adopt policies designed to not prosecute people solely for being an illegal immigrant—have no statistically meaningful effect on crime.[151] Research suggests that police practices, such as racial profiling, over-policing in areas populated by minorities and in-group bias may result in disproportionately high numbers of immigrants among crime suspects.[152][153][154][155] Research also suggests that there may be possible discrimination by the judicial system, which contributes to a higher number of convictions for immigrants.[156][157][158][159][160] Crimmigration has emerged as a field in which critical immigration scholars conceptualize the current immigration law enforcement system.[161]

Increased immigration to the United States has historically caused discrimination and racial unrest.[citation needed] Areas with higher minority populations may be subject to increased policing[152][153][162][155] and harsher sentencing.[156][157][158][159][160] Faculty in educational facilities have been found to be more responsive toward white students,[163] though affirmative action policies may cause colleges to favor minority applicants.[164] Evidence also shows the existence of racial discrimination in the housing market[165][166][167] and the labor market.[165][168][169] Discrimination also exists between different immigrant groups.[170][171] Most immigrants fully assimilate into the United States within a span of 20 years.[172]

Immigration has been found to have little impact on the health of natives.[173] Researchers have also found what is known as the "healthy immigrant effect", in which immigrants in general tend to be healthier than individuals born in the U.S.[174][175] However, some illnesses are believed to have been introduced to the United States or caused to increase by immigration.[176] Immigrants are more likely than native-born Americans to have a medical visit labeled uncompensated care.[177]

A significant proportion of American scientists and engineers are immigrants. Graduate students are more likely to be immigrants than undergraduate students, as immigrants often complete undergraduate training in their native country before immigrating.[178] 33% of all U.S. Ph.D.s in science and engineering were awarded to foreign-born graduate students as of 2004.[179]

Economic effects

High-skilled immigration and low-skilled immigration have both been found to make economic conditions better for the average immigrant[180] and the average American.[181][182] The overall impact of immigration on the economy tends to be minimal.[183][184] Research suggests that diversity has a net positive effect on productivity[185][186] and economic prosperity.[187][188][189] Contributions by immigrants through taxation and the economy have been found to exceed the cost of services they use.[190][191][192] Overall immigration has not had much effect on native wage inequality[193][194] but low-skill immigration has been linked to greater income inequality in the native population.[195] Labor unions have historically opposed immigration over economic concerns.[196]

Immigrants have also been found to raise economic productivity, as they are more likely to take jobs that natives are unwilling to do.[197] Research indicates that immigrants are more likely to work in risky jobs than U.S.-born workers, partly due to differences in average characteristics, such as immigrants' lower English language ability and educational attainment.[198] Refugees have been found to integrate more slowly into the labor market than other immigrants, but they have also been found to increase government revenue overall.[199][200][201] Immigration has also been correlated with increased innovation and entrepreneurship, and immigrants are more likely to start businesses than native Americans.[202][203][204]

Undocumented immigrants have also been found to have a positive effect on economic conditions in the United States.[192][205][206] According to NPR in 2005, about 3% of illegal immigrants were working in agriculture,[207] and the H-2A visa allows U.S. employers to bring foreign nationals to the United States to fill temporary agricultural jobs.[208] States that imposed harsher immigration laws were found to suffer significant economic losses.[209][210]

Public opinion

The ambivalent feeling of Americans toward immigrants is shown by a positive attitude toward groups that have been visible for a century or more, and much more negative attitude toward recent arrivals. For example, a 1982 national poll by the Roper Center at the University of Connecticut showed respondents a card listing a number of groups and asked, "Thinking both of what they have contributed to this country and have gotten from this country, for each one tell me whether you think, on balance, they've been a good or a bad thing for this country", which produced the results shown in the table. "By high margins, Americans are telling pollsters it was a very good thing that Poles, Italians, and Jews immigrated to America. Once again, it's the newcomers who are viewed with suspicion. This time, it's the Mexicans, the Filipinos, and the people from the Caribbean who make Americans nervous."[211][212]

In a 2002 study, which took place soon after the September 11 attacks, 55% of Americans favored decreasing legal immigration, 27% favored keeping it at the same level, and 15% favored increasing it.[213]

In 2006, the immigration-reduction advocacy think tank the Center for Immigration Studies released a poll that found that 68% of Americans think U.S. immigration levels are too high, and just 2% said they are too low. They also found that 70% said they are less likely to vote for candidates that favor increasing legal immigration.[214] In 2004, 55% of Americans believed legal immigration should remain at the current level or increased and 41% said it should be decreased.[215] The less contact a native-born American has with immigrants, the more likely they would have a negative view of immigrants.[215]

One of the most important factors regarding public opinion about immigration is the level of unemployment; anti-immigrant sentiment is where unemployment is highest, and vice versa.[216]

Surveys indicate that the U.S. public consistently makes a sharp distinction between legal and illegal immigrants, and generally views those perceived as "playing by the rules" with more sympathy than immigrants who have entered the country illegally.[217]

According to a Gallup poll in July 2015, immigration is the fourth most important problem facing the United States and seven percent of Americans said it was the most important problem facing America today.[218] In March 2015, another Gallup poll provided insight into American public opinion on immigration; the poll revealed that 39% of people worried about immigration "a great deal".[219] A January poll showed that only 33% of Americans were satisfied with the current state of immigration in America.[220]

Before 2012, a majority of Americans supported securing United States borders compared to dealing with illegal immigrants in the United States. In 2013, that trend has reversed and 55% of people polled by Gallup revealed that they would choose "developing a plan to deal with immigrants who are currently in the U.S. illegally". Changes regarding border control are consistent across party lines, with the percentage of Republicans saying that "securing U.S. borders to halt flow of illegal immigrants" is extremely important decreasing from 68% in 2011 to 56% in 2014. Meanwhile, Democrats who chose extremely important shifted from 42% in 2011 to 31% in 2014.[221] In July 2013, 87% of Americans said they would vote in support of a law that would "allow immigrants already in the country to become U.S. citizens if they meet certain requirements including paying taxes, having a criminal background check and learning English". However, in the same survey, 83% also said they would support the tightening of U.S. border security.[222]

Donald Trump's campaign for presidency focused on a rhetoric of reducing illegal immigration and toughening border security. In July 2015, 48% of Americans thought that Donald Trump would do a poor job of handling immigration problems. In November 2016, 55% of Trump's voters thought that he would do the right thing regarding illegal immigration. In general, Trump supporters are not united upon how to handle immigration. In December 2016, Trump voters were polled and 60% said that "undocumented immigrants in the U.S. who meet certain requirements should be allowed to stay legally".[223]

American opinion regarding how immigrants affect the country and how the government should respond to illegal immigration have changed over time. In 2006, out of all U.S. adults surveyed, 28% declared that they believed the growing number of immigrants helped American workers and 55% believed that it hurt American workers. In 2016, those views had changed, with 42% believing that they helped and 45% believing that they hurt.[224] The PRRI 2015 American Values Atlas showed that between 46% and 53% of Americans believed that "the growing number of newcomers from other countries ... strengthens American society". In the same year, between 57% and 66% of Americans chose that the U.S. should "allow [immigrants living in the U.S. illegally] a way to become citizens provided they meet certain requirements".[225]

In February 2017, the American Enterprise Institute released a report on recent surveys about immigration issues. In July 2016, 63% of Americans favored the temporary bans of immigrants from areas with high levels of terrorism and 53% said the U.S. should allow fewer refugees to enter the country. In November 2016, 55% of Americans were opposed to building a border wall with Mexico. Since 1994, Pew Research center has tracked a change from 63% of Americans saying that immigrants are a burden on the country to 27%.[226]

The Trump administration's zero-tolerance policy was reacted to negatively by the public. One of the main concerns was how detained children of illegal immigrants were treated. Due to very poor conditions, a campaign was begun called "Close the Camps".[227] Detainment facilities were compared to concentration and internment camps.[228][source verification needed]

After the 2021 evacuation from Afghanistan in August 2021, an NPR/Ipsos poll (±4.6%) found 69% of Americans supported resettling in the United States Afghans who had worked with the U.S., with 65% support for Afghans who "fear repression or persecution from the Taliban".[229] There was lower support for other refugees: 59% for those "fleeing from civil strife and violence in Africa", 56% for those "fleeing from violence in Syria and Libya", and 56% for "Central Americans fleeing violence and poverty". 57% supported the Trump-era Remain in Mexico policy, and 55% supported legalizing the status of those illegally brought to the U.S. as children (as proposed in the DREAM Act).

Religious responses

Religious figures in the United States have stated their views on the topic of immigration as informed by their religious traditions.

Catholicism – In 2018, Catholic leaders stated that asylum-limiting laws proposed by the Trump administration were immoral. Some bishops considered imposing sanctions (known as "canonical penalties") on church members who have participated in enforcing such policies.[230]

Judaism – American Jewish rabbis from various denominations have stated that their understanding of Judaism is that immigrants and refugees should be welcomed, and even assisted. The exception would be if there is significant economic hardship or security issues faced by the host country or community, in which case immigration may be limited, discouraged or even prohibited altogether.[231] Some liberal denominations place more emphasis on the welcoming of immigrants, while Conservative, Orthodox and Independent rabbis also consider economic and security concerns.[232] Some provide moral arguments for both the right of country to enforce immigration standards as well as for providing some sort of amnesty for illegal migrants.[233]

Legal issues

A U.S. green card, a document confirming permanent resident status for eligible immigrants, including refugees, political asylum seekers, family-sponsored migrants, employment-based workers and diversity immigrants (DV).

Laws concerning immigration and naturalization include the Immigration Act of 1990 (IMMACT), the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act (AEDPA), the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRIRA), the Naturalization Act of 1790, the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798, the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, and the Johnson-Reed Act of 1924. AEDPA and IIRARA exemplify many categories of criminal activity for which immigrants, including green card holders, can be deported and have imposed mandatory detention for certain types of cases. The Johnson-Reed Act limited the number of immigrants and the Chinese Exclusion Act banned immigration from China altogether.[234][235]

Refugees are able to gain legal status in the United States through asylum, and a specified number of legally-defined refugees, who either apply for asylum overseas or after arriving in the U.S., are admitted annually.[quantify][citation needed] In 2014, the number of asylum seekers accepted into the U.S. was about 120,000. By comparison, about 31,000 were accepted in the UK and 13,500 in Canada.[236] Asylum offices in the United States receive more applications for asylum than they can process every month and every year, and these continuous applications cause a significant backlog.[237]

Removal proceedings are considered administrative proceedings under the authority of the United States Attorney General, and thus part of the executive branch rather than the judicial branch of government.[238] in removal proceedings in front of an immigration judge, cancellation of removal is a form of relief that is available for some long-time residents of the United States.[239] Eligibility may depend on time spent in the United States, criminal record, or family in the country.[240][241] Members of Congress may submit private bills granting residency to specific named individuals.[citation needed] The United States allows immigrant relatives of active duty military personnel to reside in the United States through a green card.[242][243]

As of 2015, there are estimated to be 11 to 12 million unauthorized immigrants in the United States, making up about 5% of the civilian labor force.[244][245] Under the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) program, unauthorized immigrants that arrived as children were granted exemptions to immigration law.[246]

Most immigration proceedings are civil matters, though criminal charges are applicable when evading border enforcement, committing fraud to gain entry, or committing identity theft to gain employment. Due process protections under the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution have been found to apply to immigration proceedings, but those of the Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution have not due to their nature as civil matters.[247][238]

Immigration in popular culture

A cartoon in Puck from 1888 attacked businessmen for welcoming large numbers of low-paid immigrants, leaving the American men unemployed.[248]

The history of immigration to the United States is the history of the country itself, and the journey from beyond the sea is an element found in American folklore, appearing in many works, such as The Godfather, Gangs of New York, "The Song of Myself", Neil Diamond's "America", and the animated feature An American Tail.[249]

From the 1880s to the 1910s, vaudeville dominated the popular image of immigrants, with very popular caricature portrayals of ethnic groups. The specific features of these caricatures became widely accepted as accurate portrayals.[250]

In The Melting Pot (1908), playwright Israel Zangwill (1864–1926) explored issues that dominated Progressive Era debates about immigration policies. Zangwill's theme of the positive benefits of the American melting pot resonated widely in popular culture and literary and academic circles in the 20th century; his cultural symbolism – in which he situated immigration issues – likewise informed American cultural imagining of immigrants for decades, as exemplified by Hollywood films.[251][252]

The popular culture's image of ethnic celebrities often includes stereotypes about immigrant groups. For example, Frank Sinatra's public image as a superstar contained important elements of the American Dream while simultaneously incorporating stereotypes about Italian Americans that were based in nativist and Progressive responses to immigration.[253]

The process of assimilation has been a common theme of popular culture. For example, "lace-curtain Irish" refers to middle-class Irish Americans desiring assimilation into mainstream society in counterpoint to the older, more raffish "shanty Irish". The occasional malapropisms and social blunders of these upward mobiles were lampooned in vaudeville, popular song, and the comic strips of the day such as Bringing Up Father, starring Maggie and Jiggs, which ran in daily newspapers for 87 years (1913 to 2000).[254][255] In The Departed (2006), Staff Sergeant Dignam regularly points out the dichotomy between the lace-curtain Irish lifestyle Billy Costigan enjoyed with his mother, and the shanty Irish lifestyle of Costigan's father. In recent years,[when?] the popular culture has paid special attention to Mexican immigration;[256] the film Spanglish (2004) tells of a friendship of a Mexican housemaid (played by Paz Vega) and her boss (played by Adam Sandler).

Immigration in literature

Novelists and writers have captured much of the color and challenge in their immigrant lives through their writings.[257]

Regarding Irish women in the 19th century, there were numerous novels and short stories by Harvey O'Higgins, Peter McCorry, Bernard O'Reilly and Sarah Orne Jewett that emphasize emancipation from Old World controls, new opportunities and expansiveness of the immigrant experience.[258]

Hladnik studies three popular novels of the late 19th century that warned Slovenes not to immigrate to the dangerous new world of the United States.[259][needs context]

Jewish American writer Anzia Yezierska wrote her novel Bread Givers (1925) to explore such themes as Russian-Jewish immigration in the early 20th century, the tension between Old and New World Yiddish culture, and women's experience of immigration. A well established author Yezierska focused on the Jewish struggle to escape the ghetto and enter middle- and upper-class America. In the novel, the heroine, Sara Smolinsky, escapes from New York City's "down-town ghetto" by breaking tradition. She quits her job at the family store and soon becomes engaged to a rich real-estate magnate. She graduates college and takes a high-prestige job teaching public school. Finally Sara restores her broken links to family and religion.[260]

The Swedish author Vilhelm Moberg, in the mid-20th century, wrote a series of four novels describing one Swedish family's migration from Småland to Minnesota in the late 19th century, a destiny shared by almost one million people. The author emphasizes the authenticity of the experiences as depicted (although he did change names).[261] These novels have been translated into English (The Emigrants, 1951, Unto a Good Land, 1954, The Settlers, 1961, The Last Letter Home, 1961). The musical Kristina från Duvemåla by ex-ABBA members Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson is based on this story.[262][263]

The Immigrant is a musical by Steven Alper, Sarah Knapp, and Mark Harelik. The show is based on the story of Harelik's grandparents, Matleh and Haskell Harelik, who traveled to Galveston, Texas in 1909.[264]

Documentary films

Film about historical immigration to America from ca. 1970

In their documentary How Democracy Works Now: Twelve Stories, filmmakers Shari Robertson and Michael Camerini examine the American political system through the lens of immigration reform from 2001 to 2007. Since the debut of the first five films, the series has become an important resource for advocates, policy-makers and educators.[265]

That film series premiered nearly a decade after the filmmakers' landmark documentary film Well-Founded Fear which provided a behind-the-scenes look at the process for seeking asylum in the United States. That film still marks the only time that a film-crew was privy to the private proceedings at the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS), where individual asylum officers ponder the often life-or-death fate of immigrants seeking asylum.

In the documentary "Trafficked with Mariana van Zeller", it was argued that weapons smuggling from the United States contributed to insecurity in Latin America, itself triggering more migration to the United States.[266]

Overall approach to regulation

University of North Carolina law professor Hiroshi Motomura has identified three approaches the United States has taken to the legal status of immigrants in his book Americans in Waiting: The Lost Story of Immigration and Citizenship in the United States. The first, dominant in the 19th century, treated immigrants as in transition; in other words, as prospective citizens. As soon as people declared their intention to become citizens, they received multiple low-cost benefits, including the eligibility for free homesteads in the Homestead Act of 1869,[clarification needed] and in many states, the right to vote. The goal was to make the country more attractive, so large numbers of farmers and skilled craftsmen would settle new lands. By the 1880s, a second approach took over, treating newcomers as "immigrants by contract". An implicit deal existed where immigrants who were literate and could earn their own living were permitted in restricted numbers. Once in the United States, they would have limited legal rights, but were not allowed to vote until they became citizens, and would not be eligible for the New Deal government benefits available in the 1930s. The third and more recent policy[when?] is "immigration by affiliation", which Motomura argues is the treatment which depends on how deeply rooted people have become in the country. An immigrant who applies for citizenship as soon as permitted, has a long history of working in the United States, and has significant family ties, is more deeply affiliated and can expect better treatment.[267]

The American Dream is the belief that through hard work and determination, any United States immigrant can achieve a better life, usually in terms of financial prosperity and enhanced personal freedom of choice.[268] According to historians, the rapid economic and industrial expansion of the U.S. is not simply a function of being a resource rich, hard working, and inventive country, but the belief that anybody could get a share of the country's wealth if he or she was willing to work hard.[269] This dream has been a major factor in attracting immigrants to the United States.[270]

See also

Demographics of the United States

Emigration from the United States

European colonization of the Americas

History of laws concerning immigration and naturalization in the United States

How Democracy Works Now: Twelve Stories

Illegal immigration to the United States

Immigration policies of American labor unions

Inequality within immigrant families (United States)

Nativism (politics), opposition to immigration

Opposition to immigration

United States immigration statistics

Immigrant benefits urban legend, a hoax regarding benefits comparison

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Further reading

Surveys

Anbinder, Tyler. City of Dreams: The 400-Year Epic History of Immigrant New York (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2016). 766 pp.[ISBN missing]

Archdeacon, Thomas J. Becoming American: An Ethnic History (1984)

Bankston, Carl L. III and Danielle Antoinette Hidalgo, eds. Immigration in U.S. History Salem Press, (2006)[ISBN missing]

Barkan, Elliott Robert, ed. (2001). Making it in America: A Sourcebook on Eminent Ethnic Americans. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781576070987. CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) short scholarly biographies With bibliographies; 448 pp.

Bodnar, John. The Transplanted: A History of Immigrants in Urban America Indiana University Press, (1985)[ISBN missing]

Daniels, Roger. Asian America: Chinese and Japanese in the United States since 1850 University of Washington Press, (1988)[ISBN missing]

Daniels, Roger. Coming to America 2nd ed. (2005)[ISBN missing]

Daniels, Roger. Guarding the Golden Door : American Immigration Policy and Immigrants since 1882 (2005)[ISBN missing]

Diner, Hasia. The Jews of the United States, 1654 to 2000 (2004)[ISBN missing]

Dinnerstein, Leonard, and David M. Reimers. Ethnic Americans: a history of immigration (1999) online

Gerber, David A. American Immigration: A Very Short Introduction (2011).[ISBN missing]

Gjerde, Jon, ed. Major Problems in American Immigration and Ethnic History (1998).

Glazier, Michael, ed. The Encyclopedia of the Irish in America (1999).[ISBN missing]

Jones, Maldwyn A. American immigration (1960) online

Joselit, Jenna Weissman. Immigration and American religion (2001) online

Parker, Kunal M. Making Foreigners: Immigration and Citizenship Law in America, 1600–2000. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015.[ISBN missing]

Sowell, Thomas. Ethnic America: A History (1981).[ISBN missing]

Thernstrom, Stephan, ed. Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups (1980).[ISBN missing]

Before 1920

Alexander, June Granatir. Daily Life in Immigrant America, 1870–1920: How the Second Great Wave of Immigrants Made Their Way in America (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2007. xvi, 332 pp.)

Berthoff, Rowland Tappan. British Immigrants in Industrial America, 1790–1950 (1953).[ISBN missing]

Briggs, John. An Italian Passage: Immigrants to Three American Cities, 1890–1930 Yale University Press, (1978).[ISBN missing]

Diner, Hasia. Hungering for America: Italian, Irish, and Jewish Foodways in the Age of Migration (2003).[ISBN missing]

Dudley, William, ed. Illegal immigration: opposing viewpoints (2002) online

Eltis, David; Coerced and Free Migration: Global Perspectives (2002) emphasis on migration to Americas before 1800.[ISBN missing]

Greene, Victor R. A Singing Ambivalence: American Immigrants Between Old World and New, 1830–1930 (2004), covering musical traditions.[ISBN missing]

Isaac Aaronovich Hourwich. Immigration and Labor: The Economic Aspects of European Immigration to the United States (1912) (full text online)

Joseph, Samuel; Jewish Immigration to the United States from 1881 to 1910 Columbia University Press, (1914).[ISBN missing]

Kulikoff, Allan; From British Peasants to Colonial American Farmers (2000), details on colonial immigration.[ISBN missing]

Meagher, Timothy J. The Columbia Guide to Irish American History. (2005).[ISBN missing]

Miller, Kerby M. Emigrants and Exiles (1985), influential scholarly interpretation of Irish immigration

Motomura, Hiroshi. Americans in Waiting: The Lost Story of Immigration and Citizenship in the United States (2006), legal history.[ISBN missing]

Pochmann, Henry A. and Arthur R. Schultz; German Culture in America, 1600–1900: Philosophical and Literary Influences (1957).[ISBN missing]

Waters, Tony. Crime and Immigrant Youth Sage Publications (1999), a sociological analysis.[ISBN missing]

U.S. Immigration Commission, Abstracts of Reports, 2 vols. (1911); the full 42-volume report is summarized (with additional information) in Jeremiah W. Jenks and W. Jett Lauck, The Immigrant Problem (1912; 6th ed. 1926)

Wittke, Carl. We Who Built America: The Saga of the Immigrant (1939), covers all major groups

Yans-McLaughlin, Virginia ed. Immigration Reconsidered: History, Sociology, and Politics Oxford University Press. (1990)[ISBN missing]

Recent: post 1965

Beasley, Vanessa B. ed. Who Belongs in America?: Presidents, Rhetoric, And Immigration (2006)[ISBN missing]

Bogen, Elizabeth. Immigration in New York (1987)[ISBN missing]

Bommes, Michael and Andrew Geddes. Immigration and Welfare: Challenging the Borders of the Welfare State (2000)[ISBN missing]

Borjas, George J. ed. Issues in the Economics of Immigration (National Bureau of Economic Research Conference Report) (2000).[ISBN missing]

Borjas, George. Friends or Strangers (1990)[ISBN missing]

Borjas, George J (2002). "Welfare Reform and Immigrant Participation in Welfare Programs". International Migration Review. 36 (4): 1093–1123. doi:10.1111/j.1747-7379.2002.tb00119.x. S2CID 153858736.

Briggs, Vernon M., Jr. Immigration Policy and the America Labor Force. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1984.[ISBN missing]

Briggs, Vernon M., Jr. Mass Immigration and the National Interest (1992)[ISBN missing]

Cafaro, Philip. How Many Is Too Many? The Progressive Argument for Reducing Immigration into the United States. University of Chicago Press, 2015. ISBN 978-0226190655

Cooper, Mark A. Moving to the United States of America and Immigration. 2008.[ISBN missing]

Egendorf, Laura K., ed. Illegal immigration : an opposing viewpoints guide (2007) online

Fawcett, James T., and Benjamin V. Carino. Pacific Bridges: The New Immigration from Asia and the Pacific Islands. New York: Center for Migration Studies, 1987.[ISBN missing]

Foner, Nancy. In A New Land: A Comparative View Of Immigration (2005)[ISBN missing]

Garland, Libby. After They Closed the Gate: Jewish Illegal Immigration to the United States, 1921–1965. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014.

Levinson, David and Melvin Ember, eds. American Immigrant Cultures 2 vol (1997).[ISBN missing]

Lowe, Lisa. Immigrant Acts: On Asian American Cultural Politics (1996)[ISBN missing]

Meier, Matt S. and Gutierrez, Margo, eds. The Mexican American Experience : An Encyclopedia (2003) (ISBN 0-313-31643-0)

Mohl, Raymond A. "Latinization in the Heart of Dixie: Hispanics in Late-twentieth-century Alabama" Alabama Review 2002 55(4): 243–74. ISSN 0002-4341

Portes, Alejandro, and Robert L. Bach. Latin Journey: Cuban and Mexican Immigrants in the United States. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1985.[ISBN missing]

Portes, Alejandro; Böröcz, József (1989). "Contemporary Immigration: Theoretical Perspectives on Its Determinants and Modes of Incorporation" (PDF). International Migration Review. 23 (3): 606–30. doi:10.2307/2546431. JSTOR 2546431. PMID 12282796.

Portes, Alejandro, and Rubén Rumbaut. Immigrant America. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1990.[ISBN missing]

Reimers, David. Still the Golden Door: The Third World Comes to America. New York: Columbia University Press, (1985).[ISBN missing]

Smith, James P., and Barry Edmonston, eds. The Immigration Debate: Studies on the Economic, Demographic, and Fiscal Effects of Immigration (1998), online version

Waters, Tony. Crime and Immigrant Youth Thousand Oaks: Sage 1999.[ISBN missing]

Zhou, Min and Carl L. Bankston III. Growing Up American: How Vietnamese Children Adapt to Life in the United States Russell Sage Foundation. (1998)

Borjas, George J. Heaven's Door: Immigration Policy and the American Economy. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1999. xvii, 263 pp. ISBN 0-691-05966-7

Lamm, Richard D., and Gary Imhoff. The Immigration Time Bomb: the Fragmenting of America, in series, Truman Talley Books. First ed. New York: E.P. Dutton, 1985. xiii, 271 pp. ISBN 0-525-24337-2

External links

History

Immigrant Servants Database

Asian-Nation: Early Asian Immigration to the U.S.

Irish Catholic Immigration to America

Scotch-Irish Immigration to Colonial America

Immigration Archives of Historical Documents, Articles, and Immigrants

Maurer, Elizabeth. "New Beginnings: Immigrant Women and the American Experience". National Women's History Museum. 2014.

Immigration policy

Immigration policy reports from the Brookings Institution

Immigration policy reports from the Urban Institute

Permanent Legal Immigration to the United States: Policy Overview Congressional Research Service (May 2018)

A Primer on U.S. Immigration Policy Congressional Research Service (November 2017)

Current immigration

U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services

U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement

Cornell University's Legal Information Institute: Immigration

Yearbook of Immigration Statistics – United States Department of Homeland Security, Office of Immigration Statistics 2004, 2005 editions available.

"Estimates of the Unauthorized Immigrant Population Residing in the United States: January 2005" M. Hoefer, N. Rytina, C. Campbell (2006) "Population Estimates (August). U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Office of Immigration Statistics.

Economic impact

Abramitzky, Ran; Boustan, Leah (2017). "Immigration in American Economic History". Journal of Economic Literature. 55 (4): 1311–45. doi:10.1257/jel.20151189. PMC 5794227. PMID 29398723.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Immigration to the United States - Wikipedia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
L' immigration est un phénomène démographique qui a généré d'importantes augmentations de population et changements culturels au cours de l'histoire des . Les immigrants sont arrivés à raison de plus d'un million par an durant la première décennie du siècle et d'environ un million par an au cours de la dernière décennie. L' immigration a été considérablement réduite de 1915 à 1965, en partie du fait de la dépression de la fin des années 1920 et 1930 et sous l'effet de diverses mesures restrictives. Les immigrants d'aujourd'hui viennent de pays autres que ceux du début du siècle et s'éparpillent dans un plus grand nombre de centres urbains. Leur arrivée soulève toutefois en ce début de siècle certaines des mêmes questions qu'au début du précédent.

Temps des colonies

Les États-Unis ont cela d'original qu'ils ont été fondés par des immigrants. Les premiers colons furent anglais, espagnols, français et néerlandais. La majorité d'entre eux étaient des anglais qui arrivèrent à partir du siècle et qui jusqu'aux années 1660 constituèrent le flux principal de migrants, cela grâce à une politique volontariste de la couronne britannique. Ils submergèrent au fil des siècles les colonisations coexistantes. Après l'établissement d'une première colonie à Jamestown en 1607 ; en 1622 la couronne britannique décida de reprendre en charge la colonisation. Pour faire venir la main d'œuvre, elle incita les pauvres d' Angleterre à émigrer à travers le système des indentured servants. On leur promettait une terre, et pour payer le voyage il suffisait de travailler gratuitement pendant un certain temps, souvent de 4 à 7 ans, ce qui revenait à être esclave temporairement. Jusqu'en 1662 l'exploitation des terres était assurée par des colons anglais venus là dans des conditions précaires, pas bien meilleures que celles des esclaves indiens et africains. On a calculé qu'au moins 50 à 66 % des émigrants de 1600 à 1776 avaient été des indentured servants.

En 1662, pour compenser la baisse d'immigration due aux guerres cromwelliennes (1649-1661), la couronne donna à la Compagnie royale d'esclavage africain ( Royal Company of African Slave Trade créée en 1660) le monopole sur le commerce d'esclaves. Les exploitants de coton et tabac promouvaient également cette main d'œuvre pas chère, car leurs revenus baissèrent avec les Navigation Acts de 1650/1651. En 1650, les noirs représentaient seulement 5 % des habitants ; en 1776 ce chiffre est passé à 22 % ; en Virginie, la population noire passe de 2 000 à 188 000 personnes.

Ces colons furent vite rejoints, à partir des années 1680, par des millions d' Écossais, Irlandais, Allemands, Français, Hollandais, Italiens, Russes, Polonais, Scandinaves, Grecs, Chinois, Japonais, Africains, et Sud-Américains ; si bien qu'aujourd'hui les États-Unis forment une véritable mosaïque multiculturelle. Ces mêmes migrants se mêlèrent au fil des ans aux populations autochtones d'Amérique : les Amérindiens, qui pour être distingués des futurs arrivants furent appelés " Native Americans ". La majorité des immigrés du temps des colonies étaient Anglais et protestants. Ils se mêlèrent avec plus ou moins de succès aux populations immigrantes catholiques. Avec l'arrivée massive des esclaves africains à partir des années 1660, le système des indentured servants n'était pas aboli pour autant, et il continuait à drainer des immigrés anglais. La couronne britannique décida aussi d'envoyer des condamnés vivre en Amérique en échange de leur liberté. Bien que leur nombre fut petit, ils ne reçurent pas un bon accueil et en 1751 la Virginia Gazette les comparait à des serpents. Le développement de l'esclavage dans les colonies ne plaisait pas aux blancs pauvres qui y voyaient une concurrence déloyale, il ne plaisait pas non plus aux humanistes puritains, comme les quakers, qui étaient par principe contre l'esclavage. William Penn était l'un d'eux. En 1680, il reçut une terre et fit venir des colons anglais : de 1675 à 1725, 25 000 quakers anglais et gallois s'établirent dans la vallée de la Delaware, ils militèrent pour l'abolition de l'esclavage et l'égalité des femmes. Par la suite des congrégationalistes et des anglicans s'ajoutèrent. William Penn menait une véritable campagne de propagande pour inciter les Européens à venir, il n'hésitait pas à embellir la vérité et à parler d'un paradis où les récoltes seraient toujours bonnes.

De 1680 à 1760 les colonies britanniques passèrent de 250 000 habitants à environ 2 millions, le principal vecteur de cette croissance démographique résultant du flux migratoire largement positif. Parmi ces migrants la majorité était constituée de Nord Irlandais. Il y avait aussi 125 000 Allemands. 2 000 Huguenots français, chassés par la révocation de l' édit de Nantes en 1685), s'établirent à Boston, New York et en Caroline du Sud. Quelques Suédois, Écossais et Hollandais s'ajoutèrent à eux. Dans les ports s'établirent aussi des communautés juives, par exemple, à Savannah, Charleston, Philadelphie, New York, Newport. Ces migrants étaient chassés d'Europe par l'intolérance religieuse et les difficultés économiques, certains étaient attirés par l'opportunité de faire fortune. Cette vague subite de migrants a suscité des peurs chez les premiers établis : le nombre de Nord Irlandais étaient tel que les Américains craignaient d'être submergés démographiquement et véritablement détrônés socialement par eux. On prit des mesures coercitives notamment contre les Nord Irlandais, mais aussi contre les catholiques (par antagonisme religieux) en Caroline du Sud dès 1698, mais aussi au Maryland, en Virginie, en Pennsylvanie, etc. La " terre promise " américaine, terre de liberté et de prospérité économique, n'était pas toujours réalité ; les nouveaux arrivés déchantaient ; mais dans leurs courriers certains continuaient d'entretenir le mythe auprès des Européens, ce qui convainquait les sceptiques de les rejoindre à leur tour. Certains immigrés repartaient vers leur terre d'origine ; ceux-là dépeignaient une mauvaise image du pays, dressée à partir d'expériences vraies et vécues : pionniers massacrés régulièrement par les Indiens par exemple. Le voyage lui-même était difficile. Avant même de toucher terre, les migrants affrontaient mille maux : le voyage pouvait durer de 6 semaines à 6 mois selon les conditions climatiques ( tempêtes, calme plat...), chaque passager ayant rarement plus de 2 à lui pour le voyage, la maladie profitait de la promiscuité et des conditions d'hygiène pour proliférer et le mal de mer s'y ajoutait. Plus le voyage durait, plus les conditions empiraient, les plus jeunes et les plus vieux mouraient en cours de route ; plus le voyage durait, plus les problèmes de nourriture et d'eau se posaient, entraînant (rarement) des cas de cannibalisme. En 1741, un bateau irlandais débarqua 60 des 106 passagers, les 46 autres étaient morts, dont 6 avaient été mangés par les survivants. Parfois, tous ou presque mouraient : en 1752, un bateau hollandais débarquant à Philadelphie n'avait plus que 21 de ses 340 passagers d'origine, les autres étaient morts de faim. Parmi les survivants, se trouvaient parfois des pauvres qui avaient promis de payer leur voyage en échange d'un service de 2 ou 3 ans auprès de leurs créditeurs ; des familles entières furent ainsi séparées à leur débarquement entre différents maîtres ; parfois si dans une même famille les parents étaient morts, et que seuls restaient les enfants, ces derniers étaient éduqués et utilisés comme esclaves par les créditeurs jusqu'à leurs 21 ans. Et si on avait la chance de faire le voyage rapidement (six semaines au mieux) et d'arriver sain et sauf, les armateurs des navires retardaient indéfiniment le débarquement sous prétexte de quarantaine, astreignant ainsi les passagers à payer des surtaxes, vidant ainsi leurs poches...

Les Nord Irlandais, Scotch-Irish, en anglais, étaient les descendants des Écossais établis en Ulster depuis 1616. Le gros de leur immigration se produisit après 1717. Ils étaient généralement poussés à l'émigration par les famines à répétition. Très pauvres, ils étaient réduits à voler, mendier, organiser toutes sortes de trafics pour survivre, d'où leur mauvaise réputation ; mais ils étaient aussi les animateurs de spectacles de rue, de théâtre, etc. Ils représentent le deuxième groupe d'immigrés le plus nombreux après les Anglais : 250 000 s'établirent de 1717 à 1776. Leur pauvreté les poussait souvent à migrer vers la frontière avec les Indiens où les conflits étaient nombreux. Ils furent les principales victimes de la rébellion de Pontiac (1763), et la passivité des autorités de Philadelphie à les protéger conduisit aux émeutes de 1763-4.

Les Allemands constituent le groupe le plus important d'immigrés après les Nord-Irlandais. Vers 1760, on comptait aux États-Unis 18 communautés allemandes, vers 1780 elles étaient 30. Ils profitèrent des assouplissements de lois relatives à l'émigration en Suisse et en Allemagne à cette époque. Ils s'établirent majoritairement en Pennsylvanie, où ils constituaient 33 % de la population en 1760. Ils essaimèrent jusqu'à plusieurs centaines de kilomètres à l'intérieur des terres. Ils apportèrent avec eux leurs sectes plus ou moins persécutées et qui évoluèrent en vase clos : comme les piétistes radicaux, des ménonistes, Moraviens, Swenkfelders, Amish, Dunkers, etc. Le pacifisme de ces sectes les firent apprécier des Quakers anglais, mais rejeter des autres populations, car ils refusaient de porter les armes. Les Moraviens qui s'étaient d'abord établis en Géorgie vers 1740 furent forcés de rejoindre la Pennsylvanie vers 1760 où ils représentaient 10 % des immigrés allemands. La reine Anne promit aux Allemands de leur payer le voyage s'ils travaillaient dans ses chantiers navals, des milliers s'établirent ainsi à Rhinebeck (quartier de New York). Les Allemands étaient connus comme très stricts, très renfermés et très durs au travail ; ils passaient pour traiter mieux leurs vaches que leurs enfants, mais ils excellèrent en tant que fermiers. Ils étaient mal vus des Anglais car ils continuaient à parler Allemand plutôt qu'anglais. La " germanisation " de la Pennsylvanie fit craindre le pire aux Anglais établis, B. Franklin craignait qu'ils imposent leurs mœurs et leur langue aux Anglais plutôt que l'inverse. Pour forcer leur intégration on créa la Society for the Propagating of Christian Knowledge among the Germans, mais les concernés s'y opposèrent et elle dut fermer dès 1763.

La plupart étaient huguenots et avaient fui la révocation de l'édit de Nantes de 1685. Ils s'établirent dans les ports principalement, car beaucoup étaient commerçants, et partout dans les colonies. Ils se marièrent avec les élites locales et occupèrent très vite de hauts postes dans la société américaine. Ils parlèrent très vite l'anglais, ce qui les rendit enviés par les autres migrants et appréciés par les Anglais même. Un faible nombre était très pauvre, ce qui explique l'expression " riche comme un Huguenot. " Les guerres franco-anglaises au siècle les poussèrent à s'installer au sud, notamment à Charleston.

Avant l'occupation de New York par les Anglais, en 1664, cette ville s'appelait Nouvelle-Amsterdam. Les Néerlandais se concentraient dans la vallée de l' Hudson, l'Est de Long Island, et le New Jersey. Comme les Allemands, les Néerlandais étaient renfermés sur leur communauté, ainsi au encore leurs descendants parlaient des dialectes locaux basés sur le néerlandais. Mais ils restaient plus ouverts que les Allemands : au ils perdirent peu à peu leur culture : leur éducation s'est longtemps faite en néerlandais mais jusqu'en 1750 cette pratique baissa ; dans le droit néerlandais la femme pouvait hériter, mais peu à peu on perdit cette coutume pour se couler dans le moule anglais. Les Néerlandais étaient connus comme skieurs, cavaliers, buveurs et leurs femmes passaient pour fumer beaucoup.

600 Écossais débarquèrent dans les années 1680 et s'installèrent dans l'Est du Jersey. La plupart était de riches marchands et propriétaires et ils étaient bien éduqués. Ouverts aux autres groupes, ils se fondirent si bien dans la population que, malgré leur petit nombre, leurs descendants représentaient 15 % de la population du New Jersey en 1750. Les Écossais passent pour un modèle d'intégration tout comme les Huguenots français. Entre 1763 et 1776 une autre vague d'immigrés Écossais arriva et prospéra dans le commerce. Parmi eux les Écossais des Highlands étaient méprisés alors que les Écossais des Lowlands accédèrent vite à des charges importantes qui les compromirent avec la monarchie, ce qui les obligea à fuir après 1776.

En 1654, vingt-trois familles juives venant du Brésil débarquent à la Nouvelle-Amsterdam dès l'époque hollandaise. Ils s'établirent ensuite dans l'État de Rhode Island. Leur afflux fut freiné par les restrictions religieuses d'autres États où les non-chrétiens n'étaient pas admis. Vers 1750, ils étaient très présents dans le commerce maritime avec les Caraïbes. Ils essaimèrent à Philadelphie, Charleston et d'autres villes. Les immigrés arrivant en Amérique sont en majorité en position de dominés, aussi pour s'entraider ils créent des sociétés d'entraide : les Écossais fondent la Scots Charity Box en 1657 à Boston ; les Allemands ont la Die Deutsche Gesellschaft, les Français la Société française de bienfaisance basée à Philadelphie, les Irlandais The Friendly Sons of St Patrick, etc. la plupart fondées entre 1760 et 1790.

Avant la fin du siècle, il n'existe pas réellement de codes de loi se rapportant à l'immigration même si des régulations existent bel et bien dans les faits. Entre 1819 et 1840 environ 743 000 immigrés arrivent aux États-Unis. Parmi eux plus de 80 % d' Irlandais (335 000), d' Allemands (155 000) et de Britanniques (103 000). La ruée vers l'or de 1848 ( the forty-eighters ou 48ers) en Californie favorise l'immigration de dizaines de milliers de personnes d'Europe (majoritairement français), Hawaï, Chine, Australie, Mexique, Pérou, etc. Ceci n'alla pas sans tensions avec les Amérindiens (100 000 décès jusqu'en 1868).[réf. nécessaire]

Entre 1840 et 1860 plus de 4 millions d' Européens sont arrivés aux États-Unis. 75 % d'entre eux venaient d'Irlande et d'Allemagne. Entre 1841 et 1850 : 781 000 Irlandais, 434 000 Allemands, 255 000 Britanniques, 77 000 Français rejoignent les États-Unis. Entre 1850 et 1860 : 951 000 Allemands, 914 000 Irlandais, 317 000 Britanniques, 76 000 Français. En 1850 le nombre de personnes nées à l'étranger était de 2.200.000, en 1860 il passe à plus de 4 000 000. La différence de migration entre le siècle et avant est que désormais les migrants ne fuient plus tellement l'intolérance religieuse européenne, mais qu'ils cherchent à faire fortune aux États-Unis. En 1853 le voyage depuis l'Europe jusqu'à l'Amérique restait très dur : en 1853, 14 Norvégiens décrivent un horrible voyage à bord d'un vaisseau anglais où les marins traitent les passagers pires que des chiens, où les femmes et filles sont constamment menacées de viol, les scènes de bagarre générale lors des distributions de nourriture sont quotidiennes, etc.. New York est le port où arrivent plus de 60 % des migrants ; le deuxième port le plus important est La Nouvelle-Orléans. En 1860, les immigrés forment la majorité de la population dans les villes de New York, San Francisco, La Nouvelle-Orléans et Chicago. Les immigrés débarqués à New York empruntaient ensuite le chemin de fer jusqu'à Buffalo et poursuivaient jusqu'à Chicago et San Francisco selon leurs ressources, mais beaucoup restaient dans leur port de débarquement par manque de moyens, surtout les familles,. Les villes du Nord du Midwest (Saint-Louis, Milwaukee, Cincinnati) accueillirent beaucoup de migrants après l'achèvement du canal Erié en 1825 (axe La Nouvelle-Orléans Mississippi Ohio Grands Lacs) ; ces villes étaient connues pour leur grandes communautés allemandes et scandinaves.

Après 1854 les Allemands formèrent le plus important groupe d'immigrés jusqu'en 1891. De 1881 à 1890, 1 400 000 Allemands entrent aux États-Unis, soit un tiers de l'immigration totale européenne. L'année 1882 avec 250 000 entrées en constitue l'apogée. 80 % d'entre eux s'établissent dans le quart Nord-Est des États-Unis. En 1900, les Allemands formaient le groupe le plus important d'étrangers dans les États de Californie, Wisconsin, Kansas, Missouri, New Jersey, New York et 20 autres États. Seuls les Irlandais les dépassaient en nombre à Boston et Philadelphie. Les Irlandais constituaient le groupe immigré le plus pauvre du pays ; ils avaient fui les grandes famines irlandaises du siècle.

Le est voté le premier Immigration Act qui impose une taxe de 0,50 $ par immigrants. L'argent récolté devait servir à payer les frais de régularisation de l'immigrant. Cette loi a aussi donné le pouvoir aux autorités de refuser l'entrée aux personnes jugées indésirables. Cet argent a aussi servi à payer les agents de l'immigration et les organismes fédéraux indépendants d'immigration. Cette loi est complétée par celle de 1891 qui établit définitivement la supervision fédérale de l'immigration et renforce les dispositifs relatifs à l'exclusion des personnes indésirables.

Face à l'afflux d'immigrés (en 1905, pour la première fois dans l' histoire des États-Unis, le volume d'immigrants dépasse le million en un an, le pic étant atteint en 1907 avec 1.3 million d'immigrants), le gouvernement américain décide de suspendre l'Immigration aux États-Unis.

En 1907, une nouvelle loi sur l'immigration remet à jour celle de 1882 et de 1891. Elle augmente la taxe d'entrée sur le territoire et passe de 0,50 $ à 5 $ et les "imbéciles, personnes faibles d'esprit, les enfants de moins de 17 ans non accompagnés et les personnes présentant après examen des problèmes mentaux ou physiques qui nuiraient à leur capacité de gagner leur vie" sont ajoutés à la liste des exclus. Une version plus sévère qui prévoyait d'exclure tout homme n'ayant pas initialement 25 $ et toute femme n'ayant pas 15 $ a été retirée avant son adoption par le congrès. Cela révèle le début d'une politique nativiste qui vise à restreindre et surtout sélectionner les immigrants. Elle est cependant modulée par leurs opposants.

En 1917 est votée une nouvelle loi qui abroge et remplace l' Immigration Act de 1891, imposant un test d'alphabétisation à toute nouvelle personne qui souhaite s'installer aux États-Unis. Cette nouvelle mesure interdit surtout l'entrée sur le territoire américain des personnes jugées indésirables. Ce document est surnommé "Barred Zone Act".

En 1921 est signé le Quota Emergency Act qui limite le nombre d'immigrants par pays : seul 3 % du nombre total d'immigrants en provenance d'un pays donné qui vivaient déjà aux États-Unis en 1910 est autorisé chaque année à s'installer aux États-Unis. Le nombre de migrants passe ainsi de 900 000 en 1920 à 375 000 en 1921. En 1924 une deuxième loi des quotas voit le jour : la Johnson Reed Act qui fait encore baisser le nombre d'admissions, évalué à 150 000. Cependant cette loi ne s'appliquait pas aux personnes originaires du continent américain.

De tous les Blancs aux États-Unis, ce furent les Italiens qui souffrirent des pires persécutions et eurent le plus de victimes. La xénophobie ciblant les Italiens étaient notamment entretenue par la presse à scandale. La pire manifestation de cette xénophobie se produisit le 14 mars 1891 à la Nouvelle-Orléans, quand onze Italiens accusés à tort du meurtre d'un policier furent lynchés par la foule après avoir été innocentés par la justice. La couverture de l'événement par la presse américaine fut d'ailleurs largement complaisante, et les responsables du lynchage ne furent jamais poursuivis. Le New York Times félicita les meurtriers, car la mort des Italiens " accroissait la sécurité des biens et de la vie des habitants de La Nouvelle-Orléans ". Le Washington Post assura que le lynchage mettrait un terme au " règne de la terreur " qu'imposerait les Italiens. Selon le Saint Louis Globe Democrat, les lyncheurs n'avaient fait qu'exercer " les droits légitimes de la souveraineté populaire ". Le futur président Théodore Roosevelt, 'appréciant guère les " diplomates ritals ", comme il le disait publiquement, estima que ce lynchage fut " plutôt une bonne chose ".

En 1868, les Californiens accueillent avec joie le traité de Burlingame entre les États-Unis et la Chine, qui accepte de mettre fin au contrôle sur l'émigration de ses ressortissants. Avec la crise économique de 1873, les sentiments anti-immigrants se renforcèrent à nouveau et les partis républicain et démocrate intégrèrent à leurs programmes électoraux des mesures anti-chinoises. Lors du référendum de 1879, les électeurs de l'État californien votent à 94 % contre la présence d' immigrants chinois, ce qui prépare le terrain à la loi d'exclusion des Chinois de 1882. Une telle contradiction apparente se retrouve chez Dennis Kearney, qui en tant que membre de la Pickhandle brigade aida la police et le Comité de sûreté publique de William Tell Coleman à réprimer les émeutes xénophobes anti- coolies en juillet 1877, mais qui, en tant que secrétaire du Workingman's Party à partir d'août 1877, milita en faveur des lois restreignant l'immigration chinoise.

À partir des années 1930 et la montée du nazisme en Allemagne, le nombre d'exilés juifs et d'opposants politiques va fortement augmenter.

Au printemps 1939, le paquebot Saint Louis quitte Hambourg pour rejoindre les États-Unis avec 937 passagers, en grande majorité des juifs allemands ; seuls 29 sont admis : les 907 restants font le trajet retour, dont 254 qui mourront dans des camps de concentration nazis.

1965 et fin des quotas

Bien que la notion de multiculturalisme se développe au début du siècle, se mettent en place dans la même période des lois de l'immigration qui instaurent des quotas.

1965 constitue un tournant, y compris pour l'opinion publique américaine, car cette date est celle de la fin de la politique des quotas d'immigration. Il est établi un plafond numérique mis en place par Lyndon Johnson, ce plafond constitue selon lui " la consécration du critère du mérite et la fin de la discrimination selon le pays d'origine " [réf. nécessaire]. Aucun pays ne peut faire admettre plus de 20 000 ressortissants par an, les ressortissants sont admis selon sept catégories de visa encore en vigueur en 1990. Il convient aussi de remettre ce tournant vis-à-vis de l'immigration dans le cadre d'un tournant majeur aux États-Unis, celui du mouvement pour les droits civiques. Il existe en effet dans la société américaine une volonté d'appliquer les Civil Rights à tous les domaines des politiques publiques, y compris à l'immigration. Ce comportement constitue aussi une rupture avec la situation de l'après guerre, dans laquelle l'attention se portait d'avantage vers les réf.

Pour le président Lyndon Johnson, au moment où il signe la loi d'abolition des quotas en bas de la statue de la Liberté en 1965, " l'Amérique [les États-Unis] redevient terre d'asile ". Cependant, il dit lui-même que la nouvelle loi ne changera pas la société de fond en comble et qu'il faudra " filtrer " les nouveaux arrivants suivant leurs liens avec le pays d'accueil même s'il était une " erreur " dans l'histoire des États-Unis d'avoir aboli des quotas " raciaux ". Pour lui, il en est terminé autant de l'injustice que de l'immigration illimitée des premiers temps de la construction son pays. Mais pour comprendre cet événement il faut le replacer dans son contexte. En effet, la loi Mc Carran Walter en 1952 avait changé les quotas " raciaux " en quotas selon l'origine nationale afin de " préserver l'identité et la culture " des États-Unis. John F. Kennedy, après son élection et en partie en raison de sa propre expérience d'enfant issu de l'immigration et de catholique aux États-Unis, avait ouvert la voie à la loi de 1965. Cependant, son assassinat en 1963 le remplace par Johnson qui en tant que sénateur ne s'était que très peu exprimé sur le sujet de l'immigration [réf. nécessaire]. À son élection en 1964, l'immigration n'avait pas été un thème majeur dans sa campagne mais plusieurs éléments vont ouvrir la voie à la nouvelle loi et à la postérité respectée de la volonté de Kennedy :

Durant la campagne, les deux candidats ont essayé d'attirer le vote des citoyens issus de l'immigration.

Le contexte du mouvement pour les droits civiques donne la volonté aux démocrates de mettre fin à la discrimination sur tous les plans, y compris l'immigration.

La large majorité démocrate au Sénat et à la Chambre permet que la loi passe sans provoquer une défaite dès les élections passées.

L'économie se porte bien, il n'existe presque pas de tension au niveau de l'emploi, ce qui allège la pression de la part des syndicats d'autant plus que seulement la moitié des 50 000 à 70 000 migrants prévus sont supposés devenir des travailleurs. (Le syndicat principal, l'AFL-CIO n'émettra que de faibles réserves et soutiendra in fine le vote de la loi).

Le soutien est presque unanime d'autant plus que certaines organisations conservatrices conçoivent cette loi comme un bien car elle prévoit de privilégier les membres de familles de citoyens américains. L'idée est assez répandue que l'origine des Américains ne sera pas diversifiée et que les proportions seront gardée entre les différents groupes ethniques en raison de la préférence que la loi accorde aux liens de parenté avec des citoyens américains. Cette loi plaît bien sur aux organisations humanistes de la société civile ainsi qu'aux VOLAG, les organisations chargées de l'accueil et de l'insertion des réfugiés dans la société américaine. L'abandon du système de séparation pour la sélection appelé " triangle Asie Pacifique " et du système de l'origine nationale passe dans l'opinion publique comme allant dans le même sens que les Civil Rights. Un élément étonnant cependant, seules quelques organisations de migrants asiatiques et notamment l'organisation des " japonais américains " ont critiqué le fait que les proportions ethniques dans la société américaine allaient rester les mêmes. Ces organisations et les immigrés qu'elles représentent se sentaient lésés affirmant que si en raison du " triangle Asie Pacifique " la population asiatique avait été faible dans le passé, elle continuerait à être faible dans le futur. L'histoire leur donnera satisfaction comme on le verra par la suite.

La loi de 1965 prévoit donc de faire passer le mérite devant l'origine nationale sur le principe du premier arrivé-premier servi avec un plafond global. Au-delà des détails numériques de la loi, il est important de retenir que des préférences sont accordées en fonction du degré de parenté (père, mère, époux, enfant, frère ou sœur, etc.) avec un citoyen américain. Au bout de quelques années, 90 000 personnes arrivent par an aux États-Unis dans le cadre de cette nouvelle loi, 125 000 en 1978 puis 138 000 en 1979. Cela dépasse largement le nombre de personnes prévues et la loi est ensuite baptisée de façon populaire la loi " frères et sœurs " (" Brothers and Sisters Act "). En effet, une fois un premier regroupement familial effectué par une personne présente sur le sol des États-Unis, les époux des membres de cette famille font à leur tour venir leurs frères et leurs sœurs et une nouvelle famille s'installe aux États-Unis. C'est donc une sorte d'effet " boule de neige " qui est décrit et qui ne cesse de faire augmenter chaque année les personnes admises grâce aux visas délivrés dans le nouveau cadre. Prenant conscience de cette situation et du mécontentement d'une certaine partie de l'électorat blanc anglo-saxon (dont l'opinion est aussi mue, comme on le verra plus loin, par la sensation de la présence d'un grand nombre d'immigrés sans papiers sur le sol des États-Unis) l'administration réagit afin de préserver une préférence nationale pour certains emplois dont les immigrés sont perçus comme en prenant le plus de postes. Par exemple, c'est la fin en 1979 de la préférence pour les médecins lors des demandes de visa, malgré le fait que dans les grandes villes, les médecins manquent encore dans les années 1980. On leur permettra alors de prolonger leur visa.

Outre le très fort dépassement numérique de ce qui était prévu par la loi de 1965, il est à retenir que parmi les personnes qui en bénéficient se distinguent plusieurs groupes :

L'immigration européenne, contrairement aux prévisions est minoritaire, elle concerne 113 000 personnes en 1965 et 65 000 dix ans plus tard. Cela n'est pas seulement dû à la nouvelle sélection pour les visas concernant les États-Unis mais aussi au fait que l'Europe connaît une plus grande prospérité économique.

Les Asiatiques constituent le groupe à la croissance la plus rapide notamment grâce au regroupement familial mais aussi car sa population est plus jeune.

Le groupe le plus nombreux est celui des Latino américains, ils sont vingt millions à la fin de la période dont 12,5 millions de Mexicains.

Recoupant parfois les deux groupes précédents et celui qui touche le plus l'opinion publique de la classe moyenne notamment dans les banlieues pavillonnaires des grandes villes et parfois celle des travailleurs américains les plus pauvres, le groupe des sans papiers. Il représente entre 1,5 et 3 millions de personnes en 1990 dont plus des deux tiers concentrée en Californie, à New York et dans l'État du Texas. Sa tolérance par la population est variable, en effet, si beaucoup d'actes racistes sont enregistrés au Texas contre les Mexicains, beaucoup d'Irlandais ont pu outrepasser l'échéance de leur visa sans subir de problèmes d'intégration dans leur communauté d'arrivée.

Toutes ces mesures présentent des difficultés propre à toute détermination du statut de réfugié : évaluation objective de la crédibilité du récit d'asile, délais de réponse, etc. La définition juridique du réfugié elle aussi pose problème car elle ne concerne que les personnes qui fuient des pays " communistes ". Ainsi sont accueillis Cubains, Vietnamiens ou Hongrois après examen de leur demande (et ce plus facilement s'ils ont des liens aux États-Unis, cependant les Salvadoriens, les Chiliens après le coup d'État de 1973 organisé par la CIA, ou encore les Haïtiens sont directement considérés comme des migrants économiques car ils proviennent de pays dont le gouvernement (qu'il soit démocratique ou non) est soutenu par Washington. L'exemple le plus flagrant est le dépôt au début des années 1980 de 10 000 demandes d'asile par des Centraméricains à la suite des multiples guerres civiles dans leurs pays. Seulement une dizaine furent acceptées.

En ce qui concerne les migrants sans papiers, il faut différencier ceux qui entrent sur le territoire américain sans visa et ceux qui dépassent la date d'échéance de leur titre. Cela concernait déjà plusieurs millions en 1970, et pourrait concerner plus de treize millions aujourd'hui. Leur entrée dans les années 1970 se fait principalement par la frontière mexicaine et malgré tous les efforts de l' Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) et l'informatisation de l'enregistrement des passages en 1980, l'immigration clandestine continue. En effet, les politiques répressives n'ont fait qu'augmenter la demande de passeurs, un métier qui se professionnalise et qui rapporte de plus en plus à la frontière mexicaine.

D'autre part, les raids de la police se multiplient pour déporter les sans papiers. Ces raids visent particulièrement les populations d'origine latinoaméricaine à la fin des années 1970 et surtout années 1980. En conséquence, les communautés s'organisent et crient à la discrimination. Les syndicats se trouvent dans une position difficile et ambiguë. En effet, les United Farm Workers (UFW) alors guidés par César Chávez se positionnent d'abord contre les briseurs de grève qui attaquent directement leurs stratégie d'obtenir de nouveaux droits puis décident ensuite d'unifier à la fois les migrants légaux et les migrants sans papiers. Par ailleurs, il est très difficile de traiter de façon générale une population aussi diverse. Pour la période concernée, elle serait constituées d'étudiants israéliens ou iraniens ayant dépassé la date de leur visa ou des travailleurs pauvres venus de Chine par le Mexique trouver des emplois difficiles et mal payés à Los Angeles. Les migrants sans papiers se retrouvent souvent dans les grandes villes, recoupant les communautés de migrants légaux de par l'utilisation de leurs réseaux. En 1975, la Chambre du Texas décide que les sans papiers n'ont pas le droit à l'éducation. Si cette décision est cassée par la Cour Suprême en 1982 (5 voix contre 4), elle consacre le fait que l'immigration irrégulière a été érigée en problème politique. Le républicain Peter W. Rodino, président de la commission des affaires judiciaires à la chambre des représentants, témoigne devant la sous commission chargée d'examiner le projet de loi contre l'immigration. Il expose dans son discours que répression et amnistie ne sont pas contradictoires mais deux volets complémentaires de la politique à partir du moment où elles ne d'adresse pas aux mêmes personnes. Il répond à la fois aux communautés issues de l'immigration et aux restrictionnistes en disant qu'il est nécessaire de réprimer les employeurs de travailleurs sans papiers tout en protégeant ces derniers juridiquement pour éviter qu'il y ait de la discrimination spécialement contre ceux qui " ont l'air étrangers ". Pour lui, la répression des employeurs doit s'accompagner d'une vague de régularisations et davantage de contrôles aux frontières. C'est le tour qui est pris par la loi IRCA de 1986, avec des résultats mitigés.

Dans les années 1980, les États-Unis ont accueilli 7,3 millions d'immigrants et neuf millions dans les années 1990. Aujourd'hui, moins de 10 % des immigrants sont d'origine européenne.

En 1986, l' Immigration and Reform Control Act (IRCA) satisfait le débat public qui fait l'emphase sur l'immigration illégale. L'immigration devient alors un problème de régulation et non plus d'attraction ou de repoussement comme auparavant. Il s'agit en effet pour les gouvernants de gérer une population qui se trouve déjà sur son territoire et que l'on ne peut plus sélectionner à l'entrée. Les principales lignes de l'IRCA prévoient :

Des sanctions civiles et pénales aux employeurs de travailleurs illégaux ainsi que pour les passeurs, une amnistie des sans papiers (undocumented) installés durablement depuis avant le premier janvier 1982 et enfin l'autorisation de la venue annuelle d'une main d'œuvre saisonnière destinée à s'intégrer.

À partir de la fin des années 1980, l'attitude de l'administration par rapport au réfugiés évolue lentement par rapport au contexte de la guerre froide. Par exemple, la loi du premier octobre 1990, signée par Bush père accorde enfin une protection provisoire" aux Salvadoriens qui avaient jusqu'alors été considérés comme des migrants économiques en raison du soutien de Washington à San Salvador et aux troupes régulières dans la guerre civile opposant les Sandinistes au gouvernement. La nouvelle loi fixe aussi des objectifs pour le traitement des demandes d'asile, on vise à recruter et à former des agents plus compétents et à traiter les demandes en soixante jours. Il est aussi officiellement mis fin aux refus d'entrée, de visas et d'asile pour motifs idéologiques (notamment les anarchistes et les communistes), sanitaires (malades du VIH/SIDA) ou d'orientation sexuelle. On crée des articles de loi spécifiques pour les femmes battues ayant acquis leur permis de résidence par le mariage, pour les demandeuses d'asile victimes de mutilations sexuelles et on accorde en 1995 quatre cents millions de dollars de budget à l'Office of Refugee Resettlement. Cependant, des discriminations perdurent notamment à l'encontre des Caribéens, le mythe d'une " marée de Haïtiens " arrivant à la suite de la délivrance de permis pour quelques-uns d'entre eux perdure dans les esprits de la population et aussi dans ceux de l'administration Clinton. En comparaison aux Haïtiens, les Cubains ont toujours bénéficié d'un régime de faveur, en raison du contexte international de guerre froide. Cependant, avec la chute du Rideau de fer et le mandant de Bill Clinton, la reconnaissance primo facie des Cubains prend fin en 1995 et s'accompagne du principe " pieds mouillés / pieds secs ". Ce principe établit que tout Cubain pris par les garde-côtes en mer sera refoulé tandis qu'un Cubain présent sur le sol américain ne sera pas renvoyé à Cuba.

Les mesures restrictives de l' administration Clinton notamment vis-à-vis de l'immigration latino-américaine se tournent en premier lieu vers la frontière avec le Mexique symbolisant par excellence leur entrée clandestine aux États-Unis. Dans le milieu des années 1990, les opérations Hold the line à El Paso et Gatekeeper à San Diego consacrent le début d'une politique sécuritaire à la frontière sud ainsi que la fin d'une tolérance d'allées et venues en vigueur depuis la délimitation de cette frontière (la Border Patrol avait été créée en 1924, avec seulement deux agents pour contrôler plusieurs milliers de kilomètres de frontières). Les conséquences de ce type de politique, bloquant l'accès aux migrants dans des lieux propices au passage, repousse les routes migratoires vers des lieux bien plus dangereux comme la continuité du désert de Sonora dans les États de l'Arizona et du Nouveau Mexique ainsi que dans l'arrière-pays désertique de la Californie. Le nombre de morts à la frontière sud des États-Unis (la tortilla border) augmente rapidement d'année en année et la militarisation de cette frontière devient un sujet d'opposition pour les organisations de défense des migrants et de défense des Droits de l'Homme. Ces politiques ont aussi un coût financier non négligeable : il faut acheter des terrains ou procéder à des expropriations pour construire le " mur de protection ", recruter de nombreux agents et faire appel à des techniques de pointe (caméras à vision nocturne, détecteurs de mouvements, etc.).

Du point de vue économique, il faut mettre cela en parallèle avec l'entrée en vigueur de l' Accord de libre-échange nord-américain (ALENA) en 1994 qui permet la mise en place du système des maquiladoras. Ce système permet la délocalisation des usines notamment du sud des États-Unis vers le côté mexicain de la frontière. Ainsi, des travailleurs pour la plupart Mexicains sont recrutés chez le voisin du sud pour travailler dans ces nouvelles usines. Ce système, plus rentable pour les chefs d'entreprises américaines, allège la pression de demande de main d'œuvre. Cependant, l'effet de la mise en place de ce système est difficile à évaluer sur l'immigration clandestine vers les États-Unis. En effet, ce système a provoqué la migration de nombreux travailleurs pauvres (notamment des travailleurs agricoles ayant perdu leur travail à la suite de l'invasion du marché mexicain par les produits agricoles américains) vers les villes industrielles du nord du Mexique comme Tijuana ou Ciudad Juárez. La très forte insécurité dans ces villes ainsi que l'instabilité du marché du travail et la proximité avec les États-Unis incitent ces travailleurs à partir, légalement ou non, plus au nord.

Les commentateurs politiques et historiens spécialistes des États-Unis s'accordent à dire que le président George W. Bush préparait un programme de régularisation et un assouplissement des modalités migratoires pour les Mexicains au début de son mandat. Issu d'une famille traditionnelle texane, G. W. Bush a toujours aimé la culture mexicaine et s'est souvent senti proche du " voisin du Sud "[réf. nécessaire]. Cependant, les événements du 11 septembre 2001 et la volonté sécuritaire que développe par la suite des conseillers de la Maison-Blanche instaurent le début d'une politique strictement sécuritaire aux frontières qui ne permet pas la mise en place des accords prévus ou du moins préparés avec le Mexique. Le Patriot Act, signé par George Bush le , sonne un retour partiel à la loi Mc Carren Walter de 1952. Il donne en effet au procureur général des États-Unis le droit de renvoyer une personne si elle se trouve qu'elle est terroriste ou s'il la soupçonne de terrorisme.

Immédiatement après les attentats du 11 septembre, le gouvernement lança un vaste programme d'arrestation dans le cadre de la " guerre contre le terrorisme " Le , le département de la Justice émit un mémorandum, connu sous le nom d' Absconder Apprehension Initiative, qui demandait l'arrestation et l'expulsion des personnes faisant l'objet de mesures d'expulsion, auxquelles elles s'opposaient. L' Immigration and Naturalization Service transmis une liste de noms aux forces de police, mettant l'accent en particulier sur les immigrés en situation irrégulière provenant de pays arabes ou/et musulmans (bien que la plupart des immigrés en situation irrégulière faisant l'objet de mesures d'expulsion provenaient d' Amérique latine). Le département de la Justice annonça alors qu'il mettait les noms de 314 000 immigrés en situation irrégulière sur les bases de données criminelles du FBI, visant en particulier 6 000 personnes venant de pays arabes ou/et musulmans,.

En 2003, le passage de l'Immigration and Customs Enforcement du département de la Justice à celui de la Sécurité intérieure consacre une vision strictement sécuritaire de l'immigration par l'administration Bush[réf. nécessaire]. Le Département à la sécurité intérieure lança le programme Operation Liberty Shield, une politique, fondée sur des critères de nationalité, qui encadrait les règles de détention concernant les demandeurs de droit d'asile provenant de pays arabes ou musulmans, en isolant en particulier une trentaine d'États.

En dépit de mesures sécuritaires, le nombre de personnes sans statut légal aux États-Unis est resté au-dessus des 11,5 millions avec près de 7 millions de Mexicains. Parallèlement, entre 1995 et 2005, le nombre de morts à la frontière a triplé, avec près de 4 000 migrants sud-américains qui ont perdu la vie. [réf. nécessaire]

D'après le rapport de 2005 du Centre d'étude de l'immigration intitulé Last five years highest immigration in history, en cinq ans, de 2000 à 2005, 8 millions de clandestins ont franchi les frontières américaines. Ce rythme est 2,5 fois supérieur à la grande vague d'immigration européenne de 1910. Ce qui représente un million de personnes par an. Sur ce million d'immigrants, un tiers environ parvient à rester sur le territoire des États-Unis, les deux tiers restant sont appréhendés et renvoyés de l'autre côté de la frontière entre les États-Unis et le Mexique [réf. nécessaire]. Sur la même période, 35,2 millions d'immigrants ce qui représente 11,7 % de la population totale du pays, vivent aux États-Unis de manière légale ou illégale.

Sous la présidence de Barack Obama, entre 2009 et 2014, 2,5 millions de personnes ont été expulsés des États-Unis, plus que durant l'ensemble du , et le budget en 2016 consacré aux contrôles des frontières est à l'immigration est de 41,2 milliards de dollars dont plus de 19 milliards de dollars pour les services de polices ayant ce domaine de compétence soit plus de la moitié du budget des forces de police fédérales. S'il est favorable au renforcement des contrôles à la frontière mexicaine, Barack Obama défend une régularisation des immigrés clandestins déjà présents auxquels il envisage l'octroi du permis de conduire. Le , dans une allocution télévisée de la Maison Blanche, le président Barack Obama annonce une "action différée" qui permettrait à environ 45 % des immigrants illégaux de rester aux États-Unis. Jusqu'à 3,7 millions d'individus de parents sans papiers, ou qui ont résidé légalement dans le pays depuis au moins cinq ans, sont éligibles au ( Statut DACA).

L'incapacité à analyser et à prévoir les conséquences à long terme de la migration : le migrant n'est pas un individu rationnel qui choisit le départ quand les politiques se durcissent, le processus migratoire s'inscrit dans le temps long (départ, mariage, éducation des enfants...) alors que les mandats électoraux ne durent que quelques années.

L'incapacité à trouver un consensus dans le gouvernement et dans les autres acteurs majeurs des politiques migratoires, par exemple lors du vote de l' Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 : le discours de l'administration était de sanctionner les employeurs ce qui n'a jamais été mis en place en raison du trop important lobby des producteurs agricoles du Sud-Ouest de ce pays..

L'inadéquation entre les objectifs et les outils des politiques publiques qui ne prennent pas le phénomène migratoire dans une dimension intégrale : la militarisation de la frontière avec le Mexique qui renforce les réseaux illégaux et ne réduit pas le flux de migrants principalement mus par la dépendance des pays de départ vis-à-vis des remises en est l'exemple flagrant.

Il est aussi possible de nous interroger sur l'avenir des politiques migratoires notamment durant le mandat de Barack Obama élu en 2009 qui a su drainer les voix à la fois des démocrates traditionnels et des citoyens américains issus de l'immigration notamment hispanique. Barack Obama a repris dans sa campagne la possibilité d'une régularisation des sans papiers comme George W. Bush l'avait proposée dans son projet de Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007. Mc Cain avait pour sa part considéré que ce type d'amnistie était " trop facile " et qu'il valait mieux donner priorité à une sanction des employeurs de sans papiers afin de réduire le flux de migrants économiques.

Environ deux tiers des arrestations de personnes sans-papiers aux États-Unis se produisent au Texas. où se trouvent la plupart des centres de détention pour migrants des États-Unis. La première prison privée a été construite en 1983. Les deux principales sociétés, cotées en bourse, sont la CoreCivic (ex-Corrections Corporation of America) et le GEO Group. Le total du chifre d'affaire de ces sociétés s'élève à quatre milliards de dollars en 2017.

Le soutien politique de ces groupes privées s'élève à dix millions de dollars (candidats) et 25 millions (lobbying). Cette industrie milite pour que les peines soient plus sévères et plus longues, de manière à améliorer le taux de remplissage de leurs lits.

Le fonctionnement des centres de détention permet également l'activité économique d'avocats spécialisés dans l'immigration et des sociétés de crédit de paiement de cautions. Le cout de la caution est de l'ordre de 10000 à 15000 dollars, le plus souvent.

Ci-dessous figurent les dix principaux pays d'origine des immigrés légaux ( Lawful Permanent Residents) aux États-Unis depuis 1995. Les pourcentages correspondent à la part de chaque pays dans le nombre total d'immigrés légaux pour une année donnée.

Le Mexique, la Chine, l' Inde, les Philippines et le Viêt Nam sont les seuls pays à figurer systématiquement dans le top 10 depuis 1995.

Note : seules les grandes villes sont prises en compte. Chiffres valables pour 2010.

Généralités

Entre 1820 et 1967, 43 millions d'immigrants se sont établis aux États-Unis : 9,4 millions d'Irlandais, 6,8 millions d'Allemands, 5 millions d'Italiens, 4,2 millions d'Austro-Hongrois, 3,3 millions de Russes, 400 000 Mexicains, 120 000 Asiatiques (principalement chinois). De 1905 à 1914, les immigrants sont arrivés aux États-Unis principalement par bateau, à une moyenne d'un million par an. Depuis 1992, la moyenne annuelle est la même, mais les immigrants arrivent maintenant par voie terrestre, maritime et aérienne.

Si les chiffres sont aussi élevés au début qu'à la fin du siècle, leur impact sur la composition de la population est très différent car le pays est aujourd'hui beaucoup plus peuplé. Les Américains nés à l'étranger représentaient près de 15 % de la population totale au début des années 1900 contre environ 8 % aujourd'hui, d'après Martin et Midgley, et d'après un article de Carol De Vita publié en 1996 dans Population Bulletin, intitulé The United States at Mid-Decade (Les États-Unis au milieu de la décennie).

La différence la plus évidente entre les immigrants d'hier et ceux d'aujourd'hui est leur pays d'origine. Dans les années 1900, la plupart venaient d'Italie, d'Autriche-Hongrie, d'Irlande, de Russie, du Canada et d'Angleterre. Ils étaient si nombreux à venir d'Europe par bateau, que les autorités n'ont commencé à compter ceux qui entraient aux États-Unis en provenance du Mexique et du Canada qu'en 1908. Le Mexique est devenu une source importante d'immigration dans les années 1920. C'est lui qui fournit aujourd'hui le plus grand nombre d'immigrants aux États-Unis, suivi par les Philippines, la Chine et l' Inde.

Depuis 1989, date de l'adoption du traité de l' ALENA avec le Canada et le Mexique, les États-Unis ont renforcé leur frontière avec le Mexique. 1 132 km de tronçons de mur, de surveillance électronique et de barrières anti-véhicules ferment la " linea ", qui s'étend sur 3 140 kilomètres. À Tijuana, la clôture se dresse même dans l'océan.

Selon le gouvernement américain[réf. nécessaire], le renforcement des contrôles est dissuasif. Le nombre d'interpellés aurait baissé de 24 % entre octobre 2006 et juin 2007 par rapport à la même période un an auparavant. Cependant, de nombreux rapports montrent que le renforcement de ces contrôles poussent les migrants à emprunter des passages moins surveillés et plus dangereux comme le désert de l'Arizona. Depuis la construction des nouveaux dispositifs de contrôle le long de la frontière sud des États-Unis, le nombre de migrants morts en tentant de traverser cette frontière s'élèverait à plus d'un millier par an. [réf. nécessaire]

Notes et références

1. Éric Mousson-Lestang, " La part allemande de l'Amérique ", La Nouvelle Revue d'histoire, n°86 de septembre-octobre 2016, .

2. Industrialisation des États-Unis 1865-1918 sur www.medarus.org.

3. Nancy L. Green, " L'île de M. Ellis, du dépôt de munitions au lieu de mémoire ", Hommes & Migrations, 1247,‎ , p. 40 .

4. Randy Willoughby, " Immigration, race et sécurité à la frontière mexicano-californienne ", Cultures et Conflits, 26-27, 2001, mis en ligne le 15 mars 2006.

5. Luc Vinogradoff, " Il y a 75 ans, les Etats-Unis renvoyaient 254 migrants vers la mort dans les camps nazis ", sur lemonde.fr, .

6. " Donald Trump durcit la politique d'immigration pour stopper les " terroristes islamiques " ", Le Monde.fr,‎ .

7. La carte d'identité n'existe pas aux États-Unis, c'est le permis de conduire qui fait office de justificatif et l'instauration de la détention obligatoire d'une carte d'identité est perçue par une grande partie de l'opinion publique comme une atteinte grave aux libertés fondamentales.

8. (en) M. V. Hood III et Irwin L. Morris, Give us your tired, your poor, ... but make sure they have a green card. The Effects of Documented and Undocumented Migrant Context on Anglo Opinion Toward Immigration, Political Behaviour, vol. 20, 1, 1998.

9. Il leur est délivré un permis de séjour de 18 mois et c'est ensuite à l'Attorney General de juger s'ils ont des raisons légitimes ou non de rester aux États-Unis.

10. (en) Analysis: The "Absconder Apprehension Initiative - Rob Rhandava, Civil rights.org, 8 février 2002.

11. Dan Eggen, Deportee Sweep Will Start With Mideast Focus, The Washington Post, 8 février 2002 (page A01).

12. Maxime Robin, " En Arizona, le mur de Donald Trump existe déjà ", Le Monde diplomatique,‎ (lire en ligne, consulté le 29 juillet 2018)

13. Stephen Castles, " The factors that make and unmake migration policies ", International Migration Review, 2004, vol.38, 3, .

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L' immigration est un phénomène démographique qui a généré d'importantes augmentations de population et changements culturels au cours de l'histoire des . Les immigrants sont arrivés à raison de plus d'un million par an durant la première décennie du siècle et d'environ un million par an au cours de la dernière décennie.

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The Development, Relief, and Education for Alien Minors Act, known as the DREAM Act, is a United States legislative proposal to grant temporary conditional residency, with the right to work, to unauthorized immigrants who entered the United States as minors-and, if they later satisfy further qualifications, they would attain permanent residency.

In April 2001, United States Senators Dick Durbin ( D- Illinois) and Orrin Hatch ( R- Utah) first introduced the bill in the Senate as S. 1291, but it did not pass. The proposal has since been reintroduced several times, but has not been approved by majorities in either house of the United States Congress.

The beneficiaries of the proposed DREAM Act would have to meet the following requirements to qualify:

Not be inadmissible to or deportable from the United States, or be in Temporary Protected Status (Sec. 3(b)(1))

Have proof of having arrived in the United States before age 16 (Dream Act of 2017, S.1615, Sec.3(b)(1)(B), and HR3440, Sec.3(b)(1)(B)).

Have proof of residency in the United States for at least five consecutive years

If a male born in 1960 or later, have registered with the Selective Service

Be between the ages of 12 and 35 at the time of bill enactment

Have graduated from an American high school, obtained a GED, or been admitted to an institution of higher education

Be of good moral character

During the first six years, qualifying people would be granted "conditional" status and would be required to (a) graduate from a two-year community college or (b) complete at least two years towards a four-year degree or (c) serve two years in the US military. After this six-year period, those who meet at least one of these three conditions would be eligible to apply for permanent resident status. During this six-year conditional period, they would not be eligible for federal higher education grants such as Pell grants but they would be able to apply for student loans and work study.

If they have met all of the conditions at the end of the 6-year conditional period, they would be granted permanent residency, which would eventually allow them to become U.S. citizens. It is not known how many of those eligible would go on to complete the further requirements. One organization estimated that only 7,000-13,000 college students nationally can fulfill the further obligations. An analysis by the Center for Immigration Studies found that over 2 million individuals could benefit under the Act.

The individual must:

have proof that they entered the United States before the age of 16 and must have continuously lived in the country for at least 5 years.

have graduated from a United States high school or obtained a GED in the US.

demonstrate good moral character.

pass criminal background checks and reviews.

After having obtained and held conditional resident status, permanent residency may be granted if the following requirements have been met in a period of six years.

The individual must:

Have attended an institution of higher learning or served in the United States military for at least two years and if discharged, have received an honorable discharge

Pass another series of background checks

Continue to demonstrate good moral character

If these requirements are not fulfilled the conditional resident will lose their legal status and be subject to deportation.

Members of Congress have introduced several forms of this bill in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. Members in the House passed one such bill on December 8, 2010, by a vote of 216-198; Senators debated a version of the DREAM Act on September 21, 2010. A previous version of the bill, S. 2205, which required 60 votes to gain cloture, failed on a 52-44 vote in 2007, eight votes short of overcoming a filibuster by senators opposed to the bill.

The United States military faced challenges in enlistment, which in 2005 were described as a "crisis", though the economic downturn of 2007-2010 did away with many of the enlistment challenges. Immigrants without a United States Permanent Resident Card (also known as a green card) are not allowed to enlist. In 2007, several senior officials at the Department of Defense have spoken in favor of promising resident status to members of the military as a means of boosting recruitment.

The bill also restores the option for states to determine residency for purposes of higher education benefits by repealing Section 505 of the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRIRA) of 1996 ( 8 U.S.C. § 1623. The majority of states interpret this provision as disqualifying undocumented immigrant students from certain higher education benefits such as in-state tuition rates. Some states have enacted laws aimed at making undocumented state residents eligible for in-state tuition rates without violating this IIRIRA provision. However, some students paying out-of-state tuition have filed lawsuits in these states, claiming state education officials violated this federal law.

The original version of the DREAM Act was introduced on April 25, 2001 by Representative Luis Gutiérrez, Democrat from Illinois, as the "Immigrant Children's Educational Advancement and Dropout Prevention Act of 2001" ( H.R. 1582) during the 107th Congress. This bill received 34 cosponsors, and would have allowed undocumented immigrant students to first apply to be protected from deportation and then apply for and receive lawful permanent residency if they met the criteria.

One month later, on May 21, 2001, Gutiérrez's version of the bill was scrapped in favor of a more limited version entitled "Student Adjustment Act of 2001" ( H.R. 1918), introduced by Representative Chris Cannon, Republican from Utah. This version of the bill lowered age eligibility to 21 years of age and garnered 62 cosponsors. On August 1, 2001 a mirror bill to the "Student Adjustment Act of 2001" was introduced in the Senate by Senator Orrin Hatch, also a Republican from Utah. This legislation, S. 1291, was the first bill given the short title of "Development, Relief, and Education for Alien Minors Act" or "DREAM Act." Since that time the DREAM Act has been introduced in both the Senate and the House at various times.

The text of the bill was placed in various other immigration-related bills, including the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2006 ( S. 2611) and the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007 ( S. 1348). With the failure of these comprehensive reform bills, Senator Richard Durbin, Democrat from Illinois, made its passage a top priority for 2007. In September 2007, Durbin filed to place the DREAM Act as an amendment to the 2008 Department of Defense Authorization Bill ( S. 2919). In light of the criticism, Durbin tabled the amendment in favor of a rewritten DREAM Act amendment to the Defense Bill. In consideration of their opponents, all language regarding in-state tuition was removed from the amendment and an age cap of 30 was put in place for potential beneficiaries. Military leaders embraced the bill, which included the promise of resident status to members of the military, as a means of boosting recruitment.

On October 18, 2007, Durbin, along with Republican co-sponsors Charles Hagel of Nebraska and Richard Lugar of Indiana, introduced the DREAM Act as S. 2205. Although nearly identical to the revised amendment to the Defense Bill, opponents continued to cite previous arguments. To bring the DREAM Act up for debate, a vote was scheduled on October 24 that would require a filibuster-proof count of 60 yes votes, but that failed. Senate opponents cited a variety of reasons for their opposition. Some labeled the DREAM Act as amnesty that would encourage chain migration and further undocumented immigration in anticipation of new versions of the DREAM Act. Others stated that the DREAM Act, though worthy legislation, should be enacted only as part of a comprehensive immigration reform.

Senator Kay Bailey Hutchison, who had previously stated that she would oppose consideration of the DREAM Act, announced on the Senate floor that she had expressed reservations to Durbin and he had made a verbal commitment to work with her to make changes that she saw necessary to garner greater Republican support. In response, Durbin announced that the first amendment that would be considered, should debate of the DREAM Act begin, would completely re-write the bill in favor of the language that Hutchison suggested. According to her suggestions, undocumented immigrant students should be allowed to hold a temporary student visa with a renewable work permit instead of conditional permanent residency. Although 52 Senators voted in favor of considering the DREAM Act, this fell eight votes short of breaking filibuster and the legislation was not considered.

The act was re-introduced in both chambers of Congress on Thursday, March 26, 2009, during the 111th Congress by Senators Dick Durbin (D-IL), Richard Lugar (R-IN), Harry Reid (D-NV), Mel Martinez (R-FL), Patrick Leahy (D-VT), Joseph Lieberman (I-CT), Ted Kennedy (D-MA), and Russ Feingold (D-WI) and U.S. Representative Howard Berman (D-CA). To date, 128 representatives and 39 senators (not including former Senator Edward Kennedy) co-sponsored the bill. Under this version of the DREAM Act, immigrants could qualify in part, by meeting the following requirements:

Be between the ages of 12 and 35 at the time the Law is enacted

Arrived in the United States before the age of 16

Resided continuously in the United States for at least 5 consecutive years since the date of their arrival

Graduated from a US high school or obtained a General Education Diploma

Good moral character

In addition to the temporary Residency, undocumented immigrant students who qualified would also be entitled to apply for student loans and work study but would not be eligible for Pell grants. Ion residency if he or she did not meet the educational or military service requirement within the six-year time period or if they committed any crimes (other than those considered non-drug related misdemeanors) regardless of whether or not they had already been approved for permanent status at the end of their six years. If an individual were convicted of a major crime or drug-related infraction, (except for a single offense of possession of 30 g or less of marijuana) they would automatically lose the six-year temporary residence status and be immediately subject to deportation.

The 111th Congress continued to consider the DREAM Act bill throughout 2010. S. 3827, a new version of the DREAM Act, includes numerous changes to address concerns raised about the bill. The DREAM Act, along with a repeal of " Don't Ask, Don't Tell", was incorporated into the National Defense Authorization Act for the Fiscal Year 2011. On September 21, 2010, the Senate filibuster of the bill was maintained in a 56-43 vote; it would have taken 60 votes to stop the filibuster and continue the progress of the bill. The following day, Durbin introduced the bill once again along with Richard Lugar. Only two senators co-sponsored the bill and it was defeated again.

Less than a month later, on November 16, President Barack Obama and top Democrats pledged to introduce the Dream Act into the House by November 29. The House of Representatives passed the DREAM Act on December 8, 2010, but the bill failed to reach the 60-vote threshold necessary to end debate on the Senate floor (55-41-Motion to invoke cloture on the motion to concur in the House amendment to the Senate amendment No. 3 to H.R. 5281).

On May 11, 2011, then Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid reintroduced the DREAM Act in the Senate. Some Republicans who had supported the bill in the past, including Sen. John Cornyn of Texas, Jon Kyl of Arizona, John McCain of Arizona, and Lindsey Graham of South Carolina, withheld their votes, objecting that such a bill should not be granted without increasing immigration enforcement. Reid indicated that he would consider adding a workplace enforcement measure in the DREAM Act that would require every employer to use E-Verify, the government's Internet-based work eligibility verification system. President Obama supported the bill as one of his efforts to reform the US immigration system.

In July 2011, the state of California enacted the California DREAM Act, giving undocumented immigrant students access to private college scholarships for state schools. In August, the state of Illinois authorized a privately funded scholarship plan for children of immigrants both documented and undocumented.

On June 15, 2012, Barack Obama announced that his administration would stop deporting undocumented immigrants who match certain criteria included in the proposed DREAM Act. On August 15, 2012, the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) began accepting applications under the Obama administration's new Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) program. Thousands applied for the new program. Because DACA was designed in large measure to address the immigration status of the same people as the DREAM Act, the two programs are often debated together, with some making little distinction between them and others focusing on the difference between the DREAM Act's legislative approach in contrast to the implementation of DACA through executive action. As of January 2017, 740,000 people have registered through DACA.

On September 5, 2017 the Trump administration rescinded the program, while pushing Congress to enact a replacement to the legislation prior to the elimination of DACA protections. The Dream Act of 2017 was introduced on July 20, 2017 by Senators Lindsey Graham (R-SC), Dick Durbin (D-IL), Jeff Flake (R-AZ), and Chuck Schumer (D-NY). With potential to provide a direct process for gaining U.S. citizenship, this bipartisan act has been both championed and scrutinized, but again failed to pass. People eligible for citizenship are those who are undocumented, have DACA or temporary protected status (TPS) (people without lawful immigration status), and who graduate from U.S. high schools and attend college, enter the workforce, or enlist in the military. Several other bills were introduced in 2012 meant to protect undocumented youth, all similar to the Dream Act, but never becoming law.

The 2017 version of the Act would adapt the current law in several ways. it would give DACA beneficiaries permanent resident status and TPS beneficiaries the opportunity to apply for this status. The pathway to U.S. citizenship would be first conditional permanent resident status for 8 years, apply for and receiving LPR status, spending 5 years in LPR status, and lastly applying for and receiving U.S. citizenship. The Act would also terminate the deportation proceedings of anyone meeting the requirements of the Dream Act and those enrolled in elementary or secondary school over 5 years of age. It lastly would improve accessibility to college in-state tuition and financial aid for undocumented youth and immigrants.

In a December 2010 report, the federal Congressional Budget Office and the Joint Committee on Taxation estimated that the November 30, 2010 version of the DREAM Act would reduce (federal) direct deficits by about $1.4 billion over the 2011-2020 period and increase federal government revenues by $2.3 billion over the next 10 years. Indirect federal costs (about 80% of the federal budget) and state and local tax impacts were not considered. However, the same report also notes that the Act "would increase projected deficits by more than $5 billion in at least one of the four consecutive 10-year periods starting in 2021" (emphasis added). A study conducted by the Center for American Progress estimates that if passed, the DREAM Act would create 1.4 million jobs by 2030, primarily through the expected increase in educational attainment, earnings, and buying power for "DREAMers".

Luis Miranda, White House Director of Hispanic Media, has spoken in support of the 2010 version of the DREAM Act. He argues that passage of the Act would make the U.S. more competitive in the global economy by allowing undocumented immigrants "to live up to their fullest potential and contribute to the economic growth of our country." Miranda argues that the DREAM Act would not create an "amnesty program" because it requires a "lengthy and rigorous process" to be eligible for benefits, requiring, for example, a criminal background check and proof that the applicant has not committed any crimes that would make him ineligible for residency. Miranda also argues the Act would not encourage more students to immigrate because it only applies to undocumented immigrants who are already in the country. Furthermore, the Act would create a waiting period before DREAM Act applicants could sponsor green card applications for their relatives. Miranda also notes that Defense Secretary Robert Gates has stated that the DREAM Act would provide an expanded pool of military recruits.

A 2010 study by UCLA's North American Integration and Development Center, an advocacy and research group that focuses on "transnationalism and globalization through action research", conducting "interdisciplinary research concerning the economic integration process between the United States, Mexico and Canada", produced two estimates of the income that would be earned by undocumented immigrants who would be potentially eligible for the proposed DREAM Act benefits. The first estimate is based on analysis from a study by the Migration Policy Institute's National Center on Immigrant Integration Policy, an organization seeking to "advance the economic mobility and social inclusion of immigrants in the United States", which estimated that 38% of those eligible for the DREAM Act's benefits would actually obtain legal permanent resident status. In that scenario, the NAIDC estimates that DREAM Act beneficiaries would earn $1.4 trillion over a 40-year period. On the other hand, NAIDC estimates that if all those eligible for DREAM Act benefits successfully met the education or military service requirements and obtained legal resident status, they would earn $3.6 trillion over the same 40-year period. How many dollars they would use of available federal, state and local resources over the 40-year period was not estimated.

Education is a major priority for The DREAM Act. In a research article written by Roger M. Mahony, it is stated that the DREAM Act aims to repeal a provision of law that penalizes states for offering these students in-state tuition rates. Depending on eligibility standards, the DREAM Act could benefit as many as 1.2 million young people in the United States, giving them an opportunity to reach their educational and economic potential.

The DREAMers movement emerged during the time that the DREAM Act was being pushed in Congress. The individuals that make up the group are primary undocumented students/youth. The DREAMers movement have been seen tackling issues in regards to immigration, education, and citizenship. The DREAMers have partaken in many activists activities to demonstrate their support for the DREAM Act. On May 1, 2006, there was a demonstration that involved a collective group of students taking a stand to voice their concerns. There was an occasion on June 5, 2012, when DREAMers participated in a nonviolent civil disobedience which included picket-lines, sit-ins, hunger strikes, etc. There have been other scenarios throughout the country where undocumented youth have been actively involved in promoting the DREAM Act. Furthermore, the movement has had influence in other policies such as DACA (Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals), an Executive Branch memorandum made by then-Secretary of Homeland Security Janet Napolitano on June 15, 2012 entitled "Exercising Prosecutorial Discretion with Respect to Individuals Who Came to the United States as Children," creating a non-congressionally authorized administrative program that permitted certain individuals who came to the United States as juveniles and meet several criteria-including lacking any current lawful immigration status-to request consideration of deferred action for a period of two years, subject to renewal, and eligibility for work authorization. This program became known as Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA).

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The Development, Relief, and Education for Alien Minors Act, known as the DREAM Act, is a United States legislative proposal to grant temporary conditional residency, with the right to work, to unauthorized immigrants who entered the United States as minors-and, if they later satisfy further qualifications, they would attain permanent residency.

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Le DREAM Act ( acronyme pour Development, Relief, and Education for Alien Minors , " développement, secours et éducation pour les mineurs étrangers ") est un projet de loi américaine proposée au Sénat des États-Unis le par les sénateurs Dick Durbin ( Parti démocrate) et Orrin Hatch ( Parti républicain).

Description

Il prévoit d'accorder une carte de résident permanent (sous conditions) à certaines personnes entrées illégalement en tant que mineurs aux États-Unis. Cela éviterait donc de renvoyer dans un pays des personnes qui n'y ont quasiment pas vécu.

Parmi les conditions, il s'agit de pouvoir justifier d'une " bonne moralité " du prétendant par l'obtention d'un diplôme dans une école secondaire américaine et le fait qu'il ait vécu dans le pays sans interruption pendant au moins cinq ans avant la promulgation du projet de loi. L'engagement dans les forces armées américaines et d'autres conditions apportent des possibilités de régularisation temporaires. Une limite d'âge est également définie pour limiter ce projet aux personnes ayant moins de 31 ans.

Critiques et soutiens

Les principales discussions autour de ce projet de loi concernent le fait que cela récompenserait l'immigration illégale.

Le journaliste Jose Antonio Vargas, notable pour avoir couvert la fusillade de l'université Virginia Tech et avoir reçu un prix Pulitzer, est une des personnes qui soutient cette loi car il est directement concerné.

Notes et références

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Le DREAM Act ( acronyme pour Development, Relief, and Education for Alien Minors , " développement, secours et éducation pour les mineurs étrangers ") est un projet de loi américaine proposée au Sénat des États-Unis le par les sénateurs Dick Durbin ( Parti démocrate) et Orrin Hatch ( Parti républicain).