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Leaders!

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COmpanies need leaders. Leaders within the company help to grow and continuously grow the company.

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Anybody who has ever watched interviews with managers or coaches of professional sports teams will have heard plenty of discussion of the need for leaders throughout the team. The same thinking is also increasingly a preoccupation of business people. Indeed, the need for "leaders at all levels" is one of the 12 critical issues identified in the Global Human Capital Trends 2014 survey published earlier this month by Deloitte University Press, the publishing arm of the professional services firm's leadership center.

In a paper examining the findings, Adam Canwell, Vishalli Dongrie, Neil Neveras and Heather Stockton - who work for Deloitte in a range of locations - point out that leadership "remains the No. 1 talent issue facing organizations around the world," with 86% of respondents to the survey rating it "urgent" or "important." However, the fact that only 13% say they do an excellent job of developing leaders at all levels means that this area has the largest "readiness gap" in the survey.

Finding good leaders has, of course, always been a crucial issue for all sorts of organizations. This is why the armed forces, for instance, put so much effort into training their officers and why business schools and other providers of executive development have thrived. But the Deloitte team argues that "21 st-century leadership is different". Canwell and his colleagues write: "Companies face new leadership challenges, including developing Millenials and multiple generations of leaders, meeting the demand for leaders with global fluency and flexibility, building the ability to innovate and inspire others to perform, and acquiring new levels of understanding of rapidly changing technologies and new disciplines and fields." No wonder organizations are coming up short.

Almost inevitably, the problem is felt to be especially acute today. This is a result of the strengthening of the global recovery, the desire on the part of the companies to expand in new markets and the growing numbers of older leaders choosing to retire.

A key part of the solution identified by the Deloitte team is for organizations to develop leadership pipelines at every level. At present, it says, companies are not only not developing enough leaders, they are also not equipping those they are creating with the critical capabilities and skills they need to succeed. "Today's market environment places a premium on speed, flexibility and the ability to lead in uncertain situations. At the same time, the flattening of organizations has created an explosion in demand for leadership skills at every level."

It appears that there is no avoiding spending money when it comes to dealing with this situation. The best performing companies already spend thousands of dollars each year developing each would-be leader on their staff, with the figure for senior leaders in the tens of thousands of dollars. Creating strong leadership programs for leaders at all levels - as advocated - requires sustained and substantial investment. At the early stages in the leadership pipeline, potential leaders need to acquire core skills in supervision and management, with frequent assignments to build on this base. Later on, they need to understand all the business functions before becoming executives, when business and product strategy will be central, along with experience of driving change within large teams. Companies need to understand that there are no shortcuts to building broad and deep leadership teams. New leaders typically need 18 months before feeling fully comfortable in a new role, while for those in the mid-level the period is more likely to be two to three years.

The paper also calls for companies to be more flexible in terms of leadership paths. Some leaders will move into senior roles relatively quickly because of a particular situation, while others will develop more slowly.

Above all, though, organizations need to realize that developing leaders amounts to more than having a selection of training programs. "Senior executives should create a culture that broadens the opportunity for leaders to develop in new ways," writes the Deloitte team. "This means putting potential leaders in positions that stretch them beyond their current skill sets, and continuously coaching and supporting leaders so they can build their capabilities as rapidly as possible." This is increasingly well recognised, say the authors, but it is "simply not widely adopted and practiced".

Where should companies begin? A few starting points include:

Engaging top executives to develop leadership strategy and actively govern leadership development.

Aligning leadership strategies and development with evolving business goals

Focusing on three aspects of developing leaders - developing leaders at all levels, developing global leaders locally and developing a succession mindset

Implementing an effective - and unique - leadership program.

But there is no time to delay. The best-performing organizations are already on their way.
Also on Forbes:

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Successful Organizations Need Leaders At All Levels

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Anybody who has ever watched interviews with managers or coaches of professional sports teams will have heard plenty of discussion of the need for leaders throughout the team. The same thinking is also increasingly a preoccupation of business people. Indeed, the need for "leaders at all levels" is one of [...]

# data[].attributes.body
COmpanies need leaders. L

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Anybody who has ever watched interviews with managers or coaches of professional sports teams will have heard plenty of discussion of the need for leaders throughout the team. The same thinking is also increasingly a preoccupation of business people. Indeed, the need for "leaders at all levels" is one of the 12 critical issues identified in the Global Human Capital Trends 2014 survey published earlier this month by Deloitte University Press, the publishing arm of the professional services firm's leadership center.

In a paper examining the findings, Adam Canwell, Vishalli Dongrie, Neil Neveras and Heather Stockton - who work for Deloitte in a range of locations - point out that leadership "remains the No. 1 talent issue facing organizations around the world," with 86% of respondents to the survey rating it "urgent" or "important." However, the fact that only 13% say they do an excellent job of developing leaders at all levels means that this area has the largest "readiness gap" in the survey.

Finding good leaders has, of course, always been a crucial issue for all sorts of organizations. This is why the armed forces, for instance, put so much effort into training their officers and why business schools and other providers of executive development have thrived. But the Deloitte team argues that "21 st-century leadership is different". Canwell and his colleagues write: "Companies face new leadership challenges, including developing Millenials and multiple generations of leaders, meeting the demand for leaders with global fluency and flexibility, building the ability to innovate and inspire others to perform, and acquiring new levels of understanding of rapidly changing technologies and new disciplines and fields." No wonder organizations are coming up short.

Almost inevitably, the problem is felt to be especially acute today. This is a result of the strengthening of the global recovery, the desire on the part of the companies to expand in new markets and the growing numbers of older leaders choosing to retire.

A key part of the solution identified by the Deloitte team is for organizations to develop leadership pipelines at every level. At present, it says, companies are not only not developing enough leaders, they are also not equipping those they are creating with the critical capabilities and skills they need to succeed. "Today's market environment places a premium on speed, flexibility and the ability to lead in uncertain situations. At the same time, the flattening of organizations has created an explosion in demand for leadership skills at every level."

It appears that there is no avoiding spending money when it comes to dealing with this situation. The best performing companies already spend thousands of dollars each year developing each would-be leader on their staff, with the figure for senior leaders in the tens of thousands of dollars. Creating strong leadership programs for leaders at all levels - as advocated - requires sustained and substantial investment. At the early stages in the leadership pipeline, potential leaders need to acquire core skills in supervision and management, with frequent assignments to build on this base. Later on, they need to understand all the business functions before becoming executives, when business and product strategy will be central, along with experience of driving change within large teams. Companies need to understand that there are no shortcuts to building broad and deep leadership teams. New leaders typically need 18 months before feeling fully comfortable in a new role, while for those in the mid-level the period is more likely to be two to three years.

The paper also calls for companies to be more flexible in terms of leadership paths. Some leaders will move into senior roles relatively quickly because of a particular situation, while others will develop more slowly.

Above all, though, organizations need to realize that developing leaders amounts to more than having a selection of training programs. "Senior executives should create a culture that broadens the opportunity for leaders to develop in new ways," writes the Deloitte team. "This means putting potential leaders in positions that stretch them beyond their current skill sets, and continuously coaching and supporting leaders so they can build their capabilities as rapidly as possible." This is increasingly well recognised, say the authors, but it is "simply not widely adopted and practiced".

Where should companies begin? A few starting points include:

Engaging top executives to develop leadership strategy and actively govern leadership development.

Aligning leadership strategies and development with evolving business goals

Focusing on three aspects of developing leaders - developing leaders at all levels, developing global leaders locally and developing a succession mindset

Implementing an effective - and unique - leadership program.

But there is no time to delay. The best-performing organizations are already on their way.
Also on Forbes:

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Successful Organizations Need Leaders At All Levels

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Anybody who has ever watched interviews with managers or coaches of professional sports teams will have heard plenty of discussion of the need for leaders throughout the team. The same thinking is also increasingly a preoccupation of business people. Indeed, the need for "leaders at all levels" is one of [...]

# data[].attributes.body
COmpanies need leaders.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Anybody who has ever watched interviews with managers or coaches of professional sports teams will have heard plenty of discussion of the need for leaders throughout the team. The same thinking is also increasingly a preoccupation of business people. Indeed, the need for "leaders at all levels" is one of the 12 critical issues identified in the Global Human Capital Trends 2014 survey published earlier this month by Deloitte University Press, the publishing arm of the professional services firm's leadership center.

In a paper examining the findings, Adam Canwell, Vishalli Dongrie, Neil Neveras and Heather Stockton - who work for Deloitte in a range of locations - point out that leadership "remains the No. 1 talent issue facing organizations around the world," with 86% of respondents to the survey rating it "urgent" or "important." However, the fact that only 13% say they do an excellent job of developing leaders at all levels means that this area has the largest "readiness gap" in the survey.

Finding good leaders has, of course, always been a crucial issue for all sorts of organizations. This is why the armed forces, for instance, put so much effort into training their officers and why business schools and other providers of executive development have thrived. But the Deloitte team argues that "21 st-century leadership is different". Canwell and his colleagues write: "Companies face new leadership challenges, including developing Millenials and multiple generations of leaders, meeting the demand for leaders with global fluency and flexibility, building the ability to innovate and inspire others to perform, and acquiring new levels of understanding of rapidly changing technologies and new disciplines and fields." No wonder organizations are coming up short.

Almost inevitably, the problem is felt to be especially acute today. This is a result of the strengthening of the global recovery, the desire on the part of the companies to expand in new markets and the growing numbers of older leaders choosing to retire.

A key part of the solution identified by the Deloitte team is for organizations to develop leadership pipelines at every level. At present, it says, companies are not only not developing enough leaders, they are also not equipping those they are creating with the critical capabilities and skills they need to succeed. "Today's market environment places a premium on speed, flexibility and the ability to lead in uncertain situations. At the same time, the flattening of organizations has created an explosion in demand for leadership skills at every level."

It appears that there is no avoiding spending money when it comes to dealing with this situation. The best performing companies already spend thousands of dollars each year developing each would-be leader on their staff, with the figure for senior leaders in the tens of thousands of dollars. Creating strong leadership programs for leaders at all levels - as advocated - requires sustained and substantial investment. At the early stages in the leadership pipeline, potential leaders need to acquire core skills in supervision and management, with frequent assignments to build on this base. Later on, they need to understand all the business functions before becoming executives, when business and product strategy will be central, along with experience of driving change within large teams. Companies need to understand that there are no shortcuts to building broad and deep leadership teams. New leaders typically need 18 months before feeling fully comfortable in a new role, while for those in the mid-level the period is more likely to be two to three years.

The paper also calls for companies to be more flexible in terms of leadership paths. Some leaders will move into senior roles relatively quickly because of a particular situation, while others will develop more slowly.

Above all, though, organizations need to realize that developing leaders amounts to more than having a selection of training programs. "Senior executives should create a culture that broadens the opportunity for leaders to develop in new ways," writes the Deloitte team. "This means putting potential leaders in positions that stretch them beyond their current skill sets, and continuously coaching and supporting leaders so they can build their capabilities as rapidly as possible." This is increasingly well recognised, say the authors, but it is "simply not widely adopted and practiced".

Where should companies begin? A few starting points include:

Engaging top executives to develop leadership strategy and actively govern leadership development.

Aligning leadership strategies and development with evolving business goals

Focusing on three aspects of developing leaders - developing leaders at all levels, developing global leaders locally and developing a succession mindset

Implementing an effective - and unique - leadership program.

But there is no time to delay. The best-performing organizations are already on their way.
Also on Forbes:

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Successful Organizations Need Leaders At All Levels

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Anybody who has ever watched interviews with managers or coaches of professional sports teams will have heard plenty of discussion of the need for leaders throughout the team. The same thinking is also increasingly a preoccupation of business people. Indeed, the need for "leaders at all levels" is one of [...]

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Anybody who has ever watched interviews with managers or coaches of professional sports teams will have heard plenty of discussion of the need for leaders throughout the team. The same thinking is also increasingly a preoccupation of business people. Indeed, the need for "leaders at all levels" is one of the 12 critical issues identified in the Global Human Capital Trends 2014 survey published earlier this month by Deloitte University Press, the publishing arm of the professional services firm's leadership center.

In a paper examining the findings, Adam Canwell, Vishalli Dongrie, Neil Neveras and Heather Stockton - who work for Deloitte in a range of locations - point out that leadership "remains the No. 1 talent issue facing organizations around the world," with 86% of respondents to the survey rating it "urgent" or "important." However, the fact that only 13% say they do an excellent job of developing leaders at all levels means that this area has the largest "readiness gap" in the survey.

Finding good leaders has, of course, always been a crucial issue for all sorts of organizations. This is why the armed forces, for instance, put so much effort into training their officers and why business schools and other providers of executive development have thrived. But the Deloitte team argues that "21 st-century leadership is different". Canwell and his colleagues write: "Companies face new leadership challenges, including developing Millenials and multiple generations of leaders, meeting the demand for leaders with global fluency and flexibility, building the ability to innovate and inspire others to perform, and acquiring new levels of understanding of rapidly changing technologies and new disciplines and fields." No wonder organizations are coming up short.

Almost inevitably, the problem is felt to be especially acute today. This is a result of the strengthening of the global recovery, the desire on the part of the companies to expand in new markets and the growing numbers of older leaders choosing to retire.

A key part of the solution identified by the Deloitte team is for organizations to develop leadership pipelines at every level. At present, it says, companies are not only not developing enough leaders, they are also not equipping those they are creating with the critical capabilities and skills they need to succeed. "Today's market environment places a premium on speed, flexibility and the ability to lead in uncertain situations. At the same time, the flattening of organizations has created an explosion in demand for leadership skills at every level."

It appears that there is no avoiding spending money when it comes to dealing with this situation. The best performing companies already spend thousands of dollars each year developing each would-be leader on their staff, with the figure for senior leaders in the tens of thousands of dollars. Creating strong leadership programs for leaders at all levels - as advocated - requires sustained and substantial investment. At the early stages in the leadership pipeline, potential leaders need to acquire core skills in supervision and management, with frequent assignments to build on this base. Later on, they need to understand all the business functions before becoming executives, when business and product strategy will be central, along with experience of driving change within large teams. Companies need to understand that there are no shortcuts to building broad and deep leadership teams. New leaders typically need 18 months before feeling fully comfortable in a new role, while for those in the mid-level the period is more likely to be two to three years.

The paper also calls for companies to be more flexible in terms of leadership paths. Some leaders will move into senior roles relatively quickly because of a particular situation, while others will develop more slowly.

Above all, though, organizations need to realize that developing leaders amounts to more than having a selection of training programs. "Senior executives should create a culture that broadens the opportunity for leaders to develop in new ways," writes the Deloitte team. "This means putting potential leaders in positions that stretch them beyond their current skill sets, and continuously coaching and supporting leaders so they can build their capabilities as rapidly as possible." This is increasingly well recognised, say the authors, but it is "simply not widely adopted and practiced".

Where should companies begin? A few starting points include:

Engaging top executives to develop leadership strategy and actively govern leadership development.

Aligning leadership strategies and development with evolving business goals

Focusing on three aspects of developing leaders - developing leaders at all levels, developing global leaders locally and developing a succession mindset

Implementing an effective - and unique - leadership program.

But there is no time to delay. The best-performing organizations are already on their way.
Also on Forbes:

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Successful Organizations Need Leaders At All Levels

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Anybody who has ever watched interviews with managers or coaches of professional sports teams will have heard plenty of discussion of the need for leaders throughout the team. The same thinking is also increasingly a preoccupation of business people. Indeed, the need for "leaders at all levels" is one of [...]

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Anybody who has ever watched interviews with managers or coaches of professional sports teams will have heard plenty of discussion of the need for leaders throughout the team. The same thinking is also increasingly a preoccupation of business people. Indeed, the need for "leaders at all levels" is one of the 12 critical issues identified in the Global Human Capital Trends 2014 survey published earlier this month by Deloitte University Press, the publishing arm of the professional services firm's leadership center.

In a paper examining the findings, Adam Canwell, Vishalli Dongrie, Neil Neveras and Heather Stockton - who work for Deloitte in a range of locations - point out that leadership "remains the No. 1 talent issue facing organizations around the world," with 86% of respondents to the survey rating it "urgent" or "important." However, the fact that only 13% say they do an excellent job of developing leaders at all levels means that this area has the largest "readiness gap" in the survey.

Finding good leaders has, of course, always been a crucial issue for all sorts of organizations. This is why the armed forces, for instance, put so much effort into training their officers and why business schools and other providers of executive development have thrived. But the Deloitte team argues that "21 st-century leadership is different". Canwell and his colleagues write: "Companies face new leadership challenges, including developing Millenials and multiple generations of leaders, meeting the demand for leaders with global fluency and flexibility, building the ability to innovate and inspire others to perform, and acquiring new levels of understanding of rapidly changing technologies and new disciplines and fields." No wonder organizations are coming up short.

Almost inevitably, the problem is felt to be especially acute today. This is a result of the strengthening of the global recovery, the desire on the part of the companies to expand in new markets and the growing numbers of older leaders choosing to retire.

A key part of the solution identified by the Deloitte team is for organizations to develop leadership pipelines at every level. At present, it says, companies are not only not developing enough leaders, they are also not equipping those they are creating with the critical capabilities and skills they need to succeed. "Today's market environment places a premium on speed, flexibility and the ability to lead in uncertain situations. At the same time, the flattening of organizations has created an explosion in demand for leadership skills at every level."

It appears that there is no avoiding spending money when it comes to dealing with this situation. The best performing companies already spend thousands of dollars each year developing each would-be leader on their staff, with the figure for senior leaders in the tens of thousands of dollars. Creating strong leadership programs for leaders at all levels - as advocated - requires sustained and substantial investment. At the early stages in the leadership pipeline, potential leaders need to acquire core skills in supervision and management, with frequent assignments to build on this base. Later on, they need to understand all the business functions before becoming executives, when business and product strategy will be central, along with experience of driving change within large teams. Companies need to understand that there are no shortcuts to building broad and deep leadership teams. New leaders typically need 18 months before feeling fully comfortable in a new role, while for those in the mid-level the period is more likely to be two to three years.

The paper also calls for companies to be more flexible in terms of leadership paths. Some leaders will move into senior roles relatively quickly because of a particular situation, while others will develop more slowly.

Above all, though, organizations need to realize that developing leaders amounts to more than having a selection of training programs. "Senior executives should create a culture that broadens the opportunity for leaders to develop in new ways," writes the Deloitte team. "This means putting potential leaders in positions that stretch them beyond their current skill sets, and continuously coaching and supporting leaders so they can build their capabilities as rapidly as possible." This is increasingly well recognised, say the authors, but it is "simply not widely adopted and practiced".

Where should companies begin? A few starting points include:

Engaging top executives to develop leadership strategy and actively govern leadership development.

Aligning leadership strategies and development with evolving business goals

Focusing on three aspects of developing leaders - developing leaders at all levels, developing global leaders locally and developing a succession mindset

Implementing an effective - and unique - leadership program.

But there is no time to delay. The best-performing organizations are already on their way.
Also on Forbes:

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Successful Organizations Need Leaders At All Levels

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Anybody who has ever watched interviews with managers or coaches of professional sports teams will have heard plenty of discussion of the need for leaders throughout the team. The same thinking is also increasingly a preoccupation of business people. Indeed, the need for "leaders at all levels" is one of [...]

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HP was named one of the top companies in 2000 by the Forbes List

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Hewlett-Packard on the Forbes World's Most Valuable Brands List

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Hewlett-Packard #42 on the Forbes World's Most Valuable Brands List

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Hewlett-Packard on the Forbes World's Most Valuable Brands List

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Hewlett-Packard #42 on the Forbes World's Most Valuable Brands List

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Communication in the workplace is a pritoity!

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Targets Resource Management

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References

1. B.S. Chakravarthy and Y. Doz, "Strategy Process Research: Focusing on Corporate Self-Renewal," Strategic Management Journal, volume 13, special issue, Summer 1992, pp. 5-14, quote from p. 6.

2. L.B. Mohr, Explaining Organizational Behavior (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1982); P.R. Monge, "Theoretical and Analytical Issues in Studying Organizational Processes," Organization Science, volume 1, number 4, 1990, pp. 406-430; A.H. Van de Ven, "Suggestions for Studying Strategy Process: A Research Note," Strategic Management Journal, volume 13, special issue, Summer 1992, pp. 169-188; and A.H. Van de Ven and G. Huber, "Longitudinal Field Research Methods for Studying Processes of Organizational Change," Organization Science, volume 1, number 3, 1990, pp. 213-219.

3. A.H. Van de Ven, "Central Problems in the Management of Innovation," Management Science, volume 32, number 5, 1986, pp. 590-606.

4. L.R. Sayles, Leadership: Managing in Real Organizations, second edition (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1989).

6. For discussions of processes in the quality literature, see: H.J. Harrington, Business Process Improvement (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991); E.J. Kane, "IBM's Quality Focus on the Business Process," Quality Progress, volume 19, April 1986, pp. 24-33; E.H. Melan, "Process Management: A Unifying Framework," National Productivity Review, volume 8, 1989, number 4, pp. 395-406; R.D. Moen and T.W. Nolan, "Process Improvement," Quality Progress, volume 20, September 1987, pp. 62-68; and G.D. Robson, Continuous Process Improvemen (New York: Free Press, 1991). For discussions of processes in the reengineering literature, see: T.H. Davenport, Process Innovation (Boston: Harvar Business School Press, 1993); M. Hammer and J. Champy, Reengineering the Corporation (New York: Harper Business, 1993); and T.A. Stewart,"Reengineeering: The Hot New Managing Tool," Fortune, 23 August 1993, pp. 40-48.

7. M. Hammer, "Reengineering Work: Don't Automate, Obliterate," Harvard Business Review, volume 68, July-August 1990, pp. 104-112.

8. J.D. Blackburn, "Time-Based Competition: White-Collar Activities," Business Horizons, volume 35, July-August 1992, pp. 96-101.

9. E.H. Melan, "Process Management in Service and Administrative Operations," Quality Progress, volume 18, June 1985, pp. 52-59.

10. Davenport (1993), chapter 7; Hammer and Champy (1993), chapter 3; Harrington (1991), chapter 6; and Kane (1986).

11. Hammer and Champy (1993), pp. 108-109; Kane (1986); and Melan (1989), p. 398.

12. Moen and Nolan (1987); and Robson (1991).

13. Davenport (1993), pp. 10-15; and Hammer and Champy (1993), pp. 32-34.

14. T.H. Davenport and N. Nohria, "Case Management and the Integration of Labor," Sloan Management Review, volume 35, Winter 1994, pp. 11-23, quote from p. 11.

15. I. Price, "Aligning People and Processes during Business-Focused Change in BP Exploration," Prism, fourth quarter, 1993, pp. 19-31.

16. Kane (1986); and Melan (1985) and (1989).

17. H. Gitlow, S. Gitlow, A. Oppenheim, and R. Oppenheim, Tools and Methods for the Improvement of Quality (Homewood, Illinois: Irwin, 1989), chapter 8.

18. P.F. Schlesinger, V. Sathe, L.A. Schlesinger, and J.P. Kotter, Organization: Text, Cases, and Readings on the Management of Organization Design and Change (Homewood, Illinois: Irwin, 1992), pp. 106-110.

19. J. Browning, "The Power of Process Redesign," McKinsey Quarterly, volume 1, number 1, 1993, pp. 47-58; J.R. Galbraith, Organization Design (Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley, 1977), pp. 118-119; and B.P. Shapiro, K. Rangan and J.J. Sviokla, "Staple Yourself to an Order," Harvard Business Review, volume 70, July-August 1992, pp. 113-122.

20. For example, see: A. March and D.A. Garvin, "Arthur D. Little, Inc." (Boston: Harvard Business School, case no. 9-396-060, 1995).

21. K.E. Weick, The Social Psychology of Organizing, second edition (Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley, 1979), p. 34.

22. S.C. Wheelwright and K.B. Clark, Revolutionizing Product Development (New York: Free Press, 1992).

24. L.A. Hill, Becoming a Manager ( Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1992), pp. 20-21.

26. H. Mintzberg, D. Raisinghani, and A. Théorêt, "The Structure of Unstructured Decision Processes," Administrative Science Quarterly, volume 21, June 1976, pp. 246-275; P.C. Nutt, "Types of Organizational Decision Processes," Administrative Science Quarterly, volume 29, September 1984, pp. 414-450; and E. Witte, "Field Research on Complex Decision-Making Processes - The Phase Theorem," International Studies of Management and Organization, volume 2, Summer 1972, pp. 156-182.

27. Witte (1972), p. 179.

28. Mintzberg et al. (1976); and Nutt (1984).

29. For studies on capital budgeting, see: R.W. Ackerman, "Influence of Integration and Diversity on the Investment Process," Administrative Science Quarterly, volume 15, September 1970, pp. 341-351; and J.L. Bower, Managing the Resource Allocation Process (Boston: Harvard Business School, Division of Research, 1970). For studies on foreign investments, see: Y. Aharoni, The Foreign Investment Decision Process (Boston: Harvard Business School, Division of Research, 1966). For studies on strategic planning, see: P. Haspeslagh, "Portfolio Planning: Uses and Limits," Harvard Business Review, volume 60, January-February 1982, pp. 58-74; and R. Simons, "Planning, Control, and Uncertainty: A Process View," in W.J. Bruns, Jr. and R.S. Kaplan, eds., Accounting and Management: Field Study Perspectives (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1987), pp. 339-367. For studies on internal corporate venturing, see: R.A. Burgelman, "A Process Model of Internal Corporate Venturing in the Diversified Major Firm," Administrative Science Quarterly, volume 28, June 1983, pp. 223-244; and R.A. Burgelman, "Strategy Making as a Social Learning Process: The Case of Internal Corporate Venturing," Interfaces, volume 18, number 3, 1988, pp. 74-85. For studies on business exit, see: R.A. Burgelman, "Fading Memories: A Process Theory of Strategic Business Exit in Dynamic Environments," Administrative Science Quarterly, volume 39, March 1994, pp. 24-56.

30. Bower (1970).

31. G.T. Allison, Essence of Decision (Boston: Little, Brown, 1971); I.L. Janis, Victims of Groupthink (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1972); L.J. Bourgeois, III and K.M. Eisenhardt, "Strategic Decision Processes in High-Velocity Environments: Four Cases in the Microcomputer Industry," Management Science, volume 34, number 7, 1988, pp. 816-835; K.M. Eisenhardt, "Speed and Strategic Choice: How Managers Accelerate Decision Making," California Management Review, volume 32, Spring 1990, pp. 39-54; J.W. Fredrickson and T.R. Mitchell, "Strategic Decision Processes: Comprehensiveness and Performance in an Industry with an Unstable Environment," Academy of Management Journal, volume 27, number 2, 1984, pp. 399-423; J.W. Fredrickson, "The Comprehensiveness of Strategic Decision Processes: Extension, Observations, Future Directions," Academy of Management Journal, volume 27, number 4, 1984, pp. 445-466; and I. Nonaka and J.K. Johansson, "Organizational Learning in Japanese Companies," in R. Lamb and P. Shrivastava, eds., Advances in Strategic Management, volume 3 (Greenwich, Connecticut: JAI Press, 1985), pp. 277-296.

32. Janis (1972).

33. A.C. Amason, "Distinguishing the Effects of Functional and Dysfunctional Conflict on Strategic Decision Making: Resolving a Paradox for Top Management Teams," Academy of Management Journal, volume 39, number 1, 1996, pp. 123-148; D.M. Schweiger, W.R. Sandberg, and J.W. Ragan, "Group Approaches for Improving Strategic Decision Making," Academy of Management Journal, volume 29, number 1, 1986, pp. 51-71; and D.M. Schweiger, W.R. Sandberg, and P.L. Rechner, "Experimental Effects of Dialectical Inquiry, Devil's Advocacy, and Consensus Approaches to Strategic Decision Making," Academy of Management Journal, volume 32, number 4, 1989, pp. 745-772.

34. Janis (1972), pp. 146-149.

35. Bourgeois and Eisenhardt (1988).

36. E.H. Schein, Process Consultation: Its Role in Organization Development, second edition (Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley, 1988), pp. 17-19.

38. Schein (1988), p. 21.

39. Ibid., pp. 22-39.

41. Ancona and Nadler (1989), p. 24; Schein (1988), p. 50.

42. D. McGregor, The Professional Manager (New York: McGraw-Hill. 1967), pp. 173-174; and Schein (1988), pp. 57-58, 81-82.

43. R.L. Daft and G.P. Huber, "How Organizations Learn: A Communication Framework," in S.B. Bacharach and N. DiTomaso, eds., Research in the Sociology of Organizations, volume 5 (Greenwich, Connecticut: JAI Press, 1987), pp. 1-36; C.M. Fiol and M.A. Lyles, "Organizational Learning," Academy of Management Review, volume 10, number 4, 1985, pp. 803-813; G.P. Huber, "Organizational Learning: The Contributing Processes and the Literatures," Organization Science, volume 2, number 1,1991, pp. 88-115; B. Levitt and J.G. March, "Organizational Learning," Annual Review of Sociology, volume 14, 1988, pp. 319-340; and P. Shrivastava, "A Typology of Organizational Learning Systems," Journal of Management Studies, volume 20, number 1, 1983, pp. 7-28.

45. Nevis et al. (1995), p. 76.

46. T. Kiely, "The Idea Makers," Technology Review, 96, January 1993, pp. 32-40; M.A. Cusumano and R.W. Selby, Microsoft Secrets (New York: Free Press, 1995); Garvin (1993); J. Simpson, L. Field, and D.A. Garvin, "The Boeing 767: From Concept to Production (A)" (Boston: Harvard Business School, case 9-688-040, 1988); R.C. Camp, Benchmarking (Milwaukee, Wisconsin: ASQC Quality Press, 1989); and R.E. Mittelstaedt, Jr., "Benchmarking: How to Learn from Best-in-Class Practices," National Productivity Review, volume 11, Summer 1992, pp. 301-315; A. De Geus, "Planning as Learning," Harvard Business Review, volume 66, March-April 1988, pp. 70-74; Huber (1991), pp. 105-107; Levitt and March (1988), pp. 326-329; and J.P. Walsh and G.R. Ungson, "Organizational Memory," Academy of Management Review, volume 16, number 1, 1991, pp. 57-91.

47. Shrivastava (1983), p. 16.

48. Bourgeois and Eisenhardt (1988); and Eisenhardt (1990).

49. B. Blumenthal and P. Haspeslagh, "Toward a Definition of Corporate Transformation," Sloan Management Review, volume 35, Spring 1994, pp. 101-106.

50. A.M. Pettigrew, "Longitudinal Field Research: Theory and Practice," Organization Science, volume 1, number 3, 1990, pp. 267-292, quote from p. 270.

51. Van de Ven (1992), p. 80.

52. Van de Ven and Huber (1990).

53. C.J.G. Gersick, "Revolutionary Change Theories: A Multilevel Exploration of the Punctuated Equilibrium Paradigm," Academy of Management Review, volume 16, number 1, 1991, pp. 10-36.

54. For studies on creation, see: D.N.T. Perkins, V.F. Nieva, and E.E. Lawler III, Managing Creation: The Challenge of Building a New Organization (New York: Wiley, 1983); S.B. Sarason, The Creation of Settings and the Future Societies (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1972); and A.H. Van de Ven, "Early Planning, Implementation, and Performance of New Organizations," in J.R. Kimberly, R.H. Miles, and associates, The Organizational Life Cycle (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1980), pp. 83-134. For studies on growth, see: W.H. Starbuck, ed., Organizational Growth and Development: Selected Readings (Middlesex, England: Penguin, 1971). For studies on transformation, see: J.R. Kimberly and R.E. Quinn, eds., New Futures: The Challenge of Managing Corporate Transitions (Homewood, Illinois: Dow Jones-Irwin, 1984); A.M. Mohrman, Jr., S.A. Mohrman, G.E. Ledford, Jr., T.G. Cummings, E.E. Lawler III, and associates, Large-Scale Organizational Change (San-Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1989). For studies on decline, see: D.C. Hambrick and R.A. D'Aveni, "Large Corporate Failures as Downward Spirals," Administrative Science Quarterly, volume 33, March 1988, pp. 1-23; R.I. Sutton, "Organizational Decline Processes: A Social Psychological Perspective," in B.M. Staw and L.L. Cummings, eds., Research in Organizational Behavior, volume 12 (Greenwich, Connecticut: JAI Press, 1990), pp. 205-253; and S. Venkataraman, A.H. Van de Ven, J. Buckeye, and R. Hudson, "Starting Up in a Turbulent Environment," Journal of Business Venturing, volume 5, number 5, 1990, pp. 277-295.

55. Gersick (1991), p. 10.

58. P. Selznick, Leadership in Administration (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1957), pp. 103-104.

59. Tushman, W.H. Newman, and E. Romanelli, "Convergence and Upheaval: Managing the Unsteady Pace of Organizational Evolution," California Management Review, volume 29, Fall 1986, pp. 29-44.

60. R.M. Kanter, B.A. Stein, and T.D. Jick, The Challenge of Organizational Change (New York: Free Press, 1992), pp. 375-377.

61. R. Beckhard and R.T. Harris, Organizational Transitions, second edition (Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley, 1987); K. Lewin, Field Theory in Social Science (New York: Harper, 1951); E.H. Schein, Professional Education (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1972), pp. 76-84; and N. Tichy and M. Devanna, The Transformational Leader (New York: Wiley, 1986).

63. C. Perrow, "A Framework for the Comparative Analysis of Organizations," American Sociological Review, volume 32, number 2, 1967, pp. 194-208, quote from p. 195.

64. D.A. Garvin, "Leveraging Processes for Strategic Advantage, Harvard Business Review, volume 73, September-October 1995, pp. 76-90.

65. See, for example: Galbraith (1977); and Schlesinger, Sathe, Schlesinger, and Kotter (1992).

66. W.G. Astley and A.H. Van de Ven, "Central Perspectives and Debates in Organization Theory," Administrative Science Quarterly, volume 28, June 1983, pp. 245-273, quote from p. 263.

67. C.A. Bartlett and S. Ghoshal, "Beyond the M-Form: Toward a Managerial Theory of the Firm," Strategic Management Journal, volume 14, special issue, Winter 1993, pp. 23-46.

68. Hales (1986); Mintzberg (1973); Sayles (1989); and L.R. Sayles, Managerial Behavior (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964).

69. J. Pfeffer, "Understanding Power in Organizations," California Management Review, volume 34, Winter 1992, pp. 29-50, quote from p. 29.

72. E.M. Leifer and H.C. White, "Wheeling and Annealing: Federal and Multidivisional Control," in J.F. Short, Jr., ed., The Social Fabric (Beverly Hills, California: Sage, 1986), pp. 223-242.

73. Hill (1992); and Kotter (1982).

74. W. Skinner and W.E. Sasser, "Managers with Impact: Versatile and Inconsistent," Harvard Business Review, volume 55, November-December 1977, pp. 140-148.

75. Examples include The Soul of a New Machine, featuring Tom West, the leader of a project to build a new minicomputer at Data General Corporation, and My Years with General Motors, written by Alfred Sloan, who resurrected General Motors in the more than twenty years that he served as the company's chief executive and chairman. See: J.T. Kidder, The Soul of a New Machine (Boston: Little, Brown, 1981); and A.P. Sloan, Jr., My Years with General Motors (New York: Doubleday, 1963).

76. Mintzberg (1973), p. 92; Sayles (1964), chapter 9; and Hales (1986).

77. Kotter (1982).

79. Sayles (1964).

80. Hill (1992); Kotter (1982); F. Luthans, R.M. Hodgetts, and S.A. Rosenkrantz, Real Managers (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Ballinger, 1988); and Mintzberg (1973).

81. D.J. Isenberg, "How Senior Managers Think," Harvard Business Review, volume 62, November-December 1984, pp. 80-90, quote from p. 84.

82. Sayles (1964).

84. D.C. Hambrick and A.A. Cannella, "Strategy Implementation as Substance and Selling," Academy of Management Executive, volume 3, number 4, 1989, pp. 278-285.

85. Mintzberg (1973), pp. 67-71; and Sayles (1964).

86. Isenberg (1984); and M.A. Lyles and I.I. Mitroff, "Organizational Problem Formulation: An Empirical Study," Administrative Science Quarterly, volume 25, March 1980, pp. 102-119.

87. Sayles (1964), pp. 170.

88. Mintzberg (1973), pp. 67-71.

89. D.A. Schön, The Reflective Practitioner (New York: Basic Books, 1983), chapters 1, 2, and 8.

90. MacMillan and Guth (1985); and Bower and Doz (1979), pp.152-153.

91. Mohr (1982), p. 43.

92. E.D. Chapple and L.R. Sayles, The Measure of Management (New York: Macmillan, 1961), pp. 49-50.

93. Garvin (1995).

94. E.H. Schein, Process Consultation: Lessons for Managers and Consultants (Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley, 1987); and Schein (1988).

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