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The walker in Daoism - walking without the pre-determined goal;

-the word 'goal' is also a bit contradictory

-Wu Wei - working by finding things during the walking, the goal is to find a goal -> more closer to the artistic process -> start with something go in a different direction

-The unexpected - relation with Bergson; we work with certain pre-dispositions, but sometimes our way of doing clashes with an unexpected thing (factor 'Z') -> find something they were not looking for -> things don't always turn out the way they want them to -> artistic process -> leads to thinking and making.

-Functionality - the function is something with a goal; products having a purpose;

-Can we work without a goal? The goal is to not have a goal.

The mind of the computer is a rational one -> the artistic mind does not want to get in a trap of knowing what is expected.

-Spiral - accumilating knowledge - become specialized in something or you move out of the spiral; ciclical way of working

-Dutch artist playing guitar; due to its botily knowledge the body wrote the songs for him -> began looking for another 'Z' (began playign the guitar)

-Inpired by invironment - cave paintings - the cave men began seeing figures in the cave and they began seeing figures of animals;

-Observation;

-Allgorithm - always making our world; tailor made for us;

-Budish - there is a difference between knowing and realizing; you can only know things once you experience them

-Creative process - is personal; open to fall;

-Hero myths -> wants something -> expereinces something -> gains the knowledge

-Bursou - romantic philosopher, changed education; before chirdren were taught how to behave -> now let the child experience and learn with the teacher behind them; you can't completely let the person just swim, there is a balance needed.

Neo-materialize - don't talk about material and idea rather blend them

-Senate - thinking and making in the process something else happens; what happens in the process of the art

-Book about the education - Michel Sandel - education; problem with the society; diploma society; its looked down on practical

-the Greeks - the liberal aritsts (maths; physics etc.); mechanical arts;

-Rennaisance - the hierarchy was a big broken down -> artists becan using maths; physics; etc.-> became respect

-PhD and artisic research- how do we assess research?

-Andres Stulchins - PhD;

-James Gleik

-I don't fit there -> I can give something

-The lines between the art and scienes

-Theory and knowledge is throwing the idea of experimenting and critical thinking

-Artist in Rotterdam working with collecting peoople from different specialities together and he gives artistic way of thinking

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20 Sept, Second talk

We had a second talk in your studio. There I saw your grand visual and textual mind map. We discussed how this could already be a kind of mind map. We talked about how you like to work like that. You said you like to think and work associatively. It's kind of divergent thinking. You also told me that you were already writing stuff. That some parts were almost ready to send to me. I'm looking forward to it. I also saw your work/paintings, where you combine the stillness of painting with the mobile phone as the subject matter. While the stream of info from the digital phone seems not to have an end your paintings seem to calm it down, as if we like a Rembrandt look with attention to the absurd addictive power of that screen, shining its luring light in our face.

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#Kant

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#Duchamp

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Notes on #Metamodernism
#TimotheusVermeulen & #RobinVanDenAkke

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#AlanMoore on #Magic #Solve et #Coagula

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Cut Me Up Issue 7: #Solve et #Coagula, curated by Enrique “Kike” Congrains, is a selection of 18 artworks that explore #Alchemy, magick, ouroboric mythos, iconoclasm and the occult

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Cut Me Up Issue 7: Solve et Coagula, curated by Enrique "Kike" Congrains, is a selection of 18 artworks that explore alchemy, magick, ouroboric mythos, iconoclasmand the occult.

Solve et coagula is a principle of alchemy meaning "dissolve and coagulate". According to this principle, a substance must be broken down before it can be built up into something new. Solve refers to this breaking down of elements and coagula refers to their coming together.

This transmutation process contains both literal and metaphorical meaning: it could be analogous to the destruction of one's ego before the realization of the true self, or the distillation of a substance down to its prime elements to make alchemical preparations. In its purest form, collage is alchemy: a power that transforms by destroying and merging components from multiple sources into a new creation.

Issue 7 explores the relationship between solve et coagula and themes of magick, ouroboric mythos,iconoclasm and the supernatural. Some works delve deep into the occult, while others are as cryptic as alchemy itself. Many works use symbols and signs associated with the occult as well as circles as a way to reflect on the cyclic nature of life. In alchemy, only the right materials can be used to achieve transmutation, just as these selected artworks, now brought together, bring to life this issue of Cut Me Up.
Curatorial prompts for Issue 7 artists:

Submissions are encouraged to explore alchemy, magick, ouroboric mythos, iconoclasm and the occult.

The use of color is very welcome.

Use symbols and signs that you associate with alchemy and the occult.

Include circles or circular shapes to reflect the cyclic nature of life.

Eligible submissions must incorporate some portion or portions of Cut Me Up: Issue 6

Enrique "Kike" Congrains' original curatorial call for Issue 7 can be found here.

All of the 58 response artworks made by 54 artists for Cut Me Up Issue 7: Solve et Coagula can be found here.

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Issue 7: Solve et Coagula - Cut Me Up Magazine

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Cut Me Up Issue 7: Solve et Coagula, curated by Enrique "Kike" Congrains, is a selection of 18 artworks that explore alchemy, magick, ouroboric mythos, iconoclasmand the occult. Solve et coagula is a principle of alchemy meaning "dissolve and coagulate". According to this principle, a substance must be broken down before it can be built up into something new.

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#Mnemosyne. Meanderings through Aby Warburg's Atlas

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Ten panels from the Mnemosyne Atlas

The last project of the German Jewish "cultural scientist" Aby M. Warburg (1866-1929), the Mnemosyne Atlas is an unfinished attempt to map the pathways that give art history and cosmography their pathos-laden meanings. Warburg thought this visual, metaphoric encyclopedia, with its constellations of symbolic images, would animate the viewer's memory, imagination, and understanding of what he called "the afterlife of antiquity."
Read more

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Signale: Modern German letters, cultures and thought

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#AbyWarburg-#Bilderatlas-#Mnemosyne-review

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From the February 2021 issue of Apollo. Preview and subscribe here.

What is the Bilderatlas Mnemosyne, this strange assembly of passionate postures, mute and motley on their numbered black panels? A pictorial history of European art; a map showing the pathways of its recurring figures; an instrument for research; an argument about the development of human culture; a catalogue of types; a collage or montage of emotion. Aby Warburg (1866-1929), the German-Jewish art historian whose last years were devoted to the project, described it more soberly, as 'an attempt at an art-historical cultural science', and provided an almost parodically formal description: 'An Image Series for the Investigation of the Function of Pre-formed Ancient Expressive Values in the Representation of Animated Life in European Renaissance Art'. But these academic claims coexisted with richer, stranger articulations. He named his atlas of images for Mnemosyne, the mother of the muses and the patron of memory, suggesting that it was both a matrix for creativity, and a theatre of remembrance and the return of the repressed. In the critical industry that has grown up around it, the Bilderatlas has been described as a 'kinetic grotto', a device for divination, a machine for metaphor, an exposure of the archetypes of the psyche, and an externalisation of the paranoiac workings of Warburg's own mind.

In practical terms, the Bilderatlas, in the form it had reached at Warburg's death in 1929, consists of 63 vertical panels, 150 x 125cm, covered in black hessian, on which Warburg, with the help of collaborators, assembled 971 items: reproductions of paintings and works of art, pages from manuscript and printed books, newspaper articles, photographs. The subjects ranged from Babylonian stelae and divinatory tablets to stamps, news reports on the Zeppelin, and contemporary adverts for the Hamburg fishing industry, though the bulk of the material shows mythological figures in Greek, Roman and Renaissance art. The panels were erected in the reading room of the research institution that Warburg had founded in Hamburg, the Kulturwissenschaftliche Bibliothek Warburg, as working materials towards a book project. This would give a verbal account of what the panels illustrated - an argument about the Renaissance revivification of what Warburg called pathos formulae ( Pathosformeln). These nexuses of posture, gesture, and expression, Warburg speculated, imprinted the high emotion and propitiatory actions of ancient ritual, and were transmitted both through an art-historical tradition of imitation, and an atavistic identification with the emotions expressed and their freight of pity and fear, with an afterlife persisting to the present.

The book was never written. What we have instead is what Warburg called a Denkinstrument, a tool to think with: not the work itself, but the condition for its emergence. The photographs taken of the Bilderatlas panels in 1929 show the images affixed by clips, easily detachable, and so liable to movement. Warburg continually revised the classification system of his library, and compulsively reordered his numerous boxes of index cards. Shelves, boxes, and panels were all cognitive contraptions, holding places for temporary configurations of books, cards, images. They used adjacency - what Warburg called 'good neighbourliness' ( gute Nachbarschaft) - and spatial disposition to prompt unexpected relations and trajectories of thought. Despite the local patterns of cohesion in individual panels, and their correspondence with arguments Warburg made in lectures and essays, their value as thought-instruments rests not in their illustration of a particular case, but in their provisionality, testifying to the always imminent possibility of reorganisation. Other constellations are possible.

This has at once given the Bilderatlas a tremendous enigmatic charge, inviting scholarly labour and imaginative reconstruction, and thwarted all attempts to complete it. After Warburg's death, Ernst Gombrich was tasked with rendering the Bilderatlas publishable; he gave up. Gertrud Bing, Warburg's assistant who collaborated with him on the arrangement of 1929 and the elliptical panel headings, continued to elaborate the themes of the work into the 1940s, alongside Fritz Saxl and Edgar Wind, but no final version was realised. The panels were dismantled and the reproductions subsumed into the photographic archive at the Warburg Institute, which emigrated, with the library and several of Warburg's collaborators, to London in 1933. Subsequent editions and exhibitions, including the 2000 edition by Martin Warnke and Claudia Brink for Warburg's Collected Works (De Gruyter), use reproductions of the black-and-white photographs of the panels to render the Bilderatlas in its state of incompletion, foregrounding its invitation to use it as a means of thought.

This openness and irresolution is also the tack taken by this wonderful new facsimile, which accompanies an exhibition that took place at the Haus der Kulturen der Welt (HKW), Berlin, last autumn (it travels to the Bundeskunsthalle, Bonn, this month), and a wider project on the part of the Warburg Institute to digitise and make available its archival materials, including a virtual tour of the recent display (accessible at www.warburg.sas.ac.uk). Collectively, they advance both the accessibility of, and the possibilities of thought offered by, the Bilderatlas. This is the first reconstruction of the Bilderatlas to use not the 1929 photographs of the panels, but, as far as possible, to reconvene the photographs, prints, and reproductions that Warburg himself assembled. The book and exhibition demonstrate an astonishing labour of reconstruction by the curators, Roberto Ohrt and Axel Heil, through which much can be learned about Warburg's methods in acquiring reproductions, of the construction of the panels, and of the ways in which images could serve multiple purposes. The provision in the book of images of earlier versions, a concordance, and an index, also allow the reader to navigate the panels by artist or by mythological figure. The excellent prefatory essays by the Warburg's director, Bill Sherman, by Bernd Scherer, director of the HKW, by the curators, and by the Warburg's archivist, Claudia Wedepohl, supply ample information about the evolution, material form, and afterlife of the Bilderatlas, but they are not a guide to use. In the absence of Warburg's own commentary on the panels - and before the publication of a companion volume of detailed commentary, due in 2021 - the reader is left to their own devices in deploying this thought-instrument. This initially induces a sense of bewilderment in a blizzard of images, especially those panels that show several populous crowd scenes or triumphal processions: we do not know where to look. But the corresponding effect is to leave the viewer or reader free to establish their own pathways, in a practice of what Georges Didi-Huberman has called an 'ordered disorientation'.

The facsimile's title, which claims to present the 'original' Bilderatlas, serves to draw more emphatic attention to the fact that it is assembled of reproductions. (The facsimile, accordingly, is a reproduction of reproductions, though not, like previous editions, a reproduction of reproductions of reproductions.) Walter Benjamin, who was influenced by Warburg, claimed in a famous essay of 1935, 'The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproducibility', that reproductions eliminate the original's 'aura' and authenticity, the 'quality of its presence', and excerpt it from tradition. Though tradition and historical context are important in the Bilderatlas, there is a deliberate anti-aura in Warburg's images. This is the first time the panels have been printed in colour, but this doesn't make for a sudden technicolour blaze after the monochrome photographs of 1929: the majority of the images are still in tones of grey, brown, black, and white. Warburg's own gnomic introduction to the project suggests that the making of art encourages the beholder to 'gaze in cultic devotion at the idol that has been created'. The images on the panels are not intended to evoke that devotion, however, but to invite speculation on its causes. The eye doesn't rest in awe on the individual work, but travels between images in comparison and contrast.

This desacralisation is particularly vivid in the Bilderatlas's treatment of totemic images like the ancient statue of Laocoön and His Sons. Its rediscovery in 1506 fundamentally changed the expression of emotion and representation of musculature in Renaissance sculpture. Discussions of it in the writings of Lessing and Winckelmann were foundational for German aesthetics. Warburg placed a photograph of the statue on Panel 6, as part of a sequence of classical precedents. The statue is central, and, as if in acknowledgement of its decisive influence, the other images are arranged in a formation that echoes its composition. When the death of Laocoön recurs as a motif on Panel 41a, however, it is shown 19 times, 13 of them post-1506, in paintings, drawings, prints, bronzes, and manuscript illustrations. The statue, imitated in some but not all of the iterations, is demoted from exemplary status as the paradigm of artistic expression or the emotive beauty of ancient sculpture, to a single instantiation among many of a Pathosformel.

The difference is only made starker by a sibling exhibition that was held at the Gemäldegalerie, a short walk away in Berlin, of some of the originals of the images reproduced in the Bilderatlas. To move between the two exhibitions - as the virtual tours still allow us to do - is to move between two ways of thinking and feeling with images. It is a tellingly different experience to encounter Ghirlandaio's Judith with her Maidservant, glowing sumptuously and singularly on the black wall of the Gemäldegalerie (or in vivid pixilation on a screen), and to pick out the same painting in monochrome, twice, at postcard size and slightly above floor-height on Panel 47, alongside 26 other iconographically similar images. Painterly technique and the viewer's pleasure recede, and compositional elements prevail. Judith's maid is an example of the figure of the 'head-bearer' to which half of Panel 47 is devoted, but also reiterates the incongruous nymph entering from the right in Ghirlandaio's Birth of John the Baptist, a key image for Warburg, which dominates Panel 46. Judith, with her sword raised to decapitate Holofernes in some of the other images on Panel 47, anticipates a modern photograph on Panel 77 of a woman playing golf, the club at the peak of the swing; the golf-player, meanwhile, also points back to the images of Fortune and Occasion on Panel 48, the curve of her stance imitating the bellying of the sail with which Fortuna harnesses the wind.

All of this flitting from image to image, from panel to panel, makes thinking a practice of motion. Like Warburg's rearrangements of books, or index cards, navigating the panels of the Bilderatlas is an exercise in embodied thought. It is a frustration, then - and no doubt more so for the curators - that only a fraction of the potential audience could experience moving through the exhibition in Berlin, thwarted by the restrictions on travel imposed by the pandemic and the early closing of the run. Nonetheless, the facsimile makes itself felt as a tool for thought that involves the reader physically, not least because the book is huge, measuring 60 x 44cm and weighing almost six kilograms. And the project is also, after all, an atlas: a way of both representing distance and making it compassable. Panel A, the first, shows ways of mapping the heavens, Europe, and genealogies on single sheets of paper. The panels induce impossible geographical and temporal proximities. The use of reproductions is itself a way of collapsing distance, appropriating things from their context into new relations.

A consciousness of distance is, in fact, the point of the Bilderatlas. The first sentence of Warburg's introduction, edited here for the first time in its final form by Claudia Wedepohl, asserts that '[o]ne could describe a conscious distancing between the self and the environment as the founding act of human civilisation' (my translation). That conscious distance establishes what Warburg called Denkraum: thought-space, room for thinking. The shift from cultic devotion to critical thought, in the move from original artworks to the mobile reproductions on Warburg's panels, is a shift into that space. The assembly of the multiple images in the Bilderatlas allows attention not just to the images themselves, but also, as Warburg emphasised, to the gaps ( Zwischenräume) between them, in which thought happens.

It is thus an irony that Warburg, at the end of a famous lecture on Hopi snake rituals delivered in 1923, turned abruptly from discussion of the cosmic, astrological, and religious significance of snakes (including in the Laocoön myth), to complain about Thomas Edison's 'copper snakes', the telegraph wires which had begun to reticulate America. The apparently miraculous achievements of technology - communication at a distance, the collapse of time and space which makes it possible to speak to someone on the other side of the world - seemed to Warburg calamitous. In his hyperbolic terms, electrical ' Augenblicksverknüpfung', or instantaneous connection, murders both the spaces of cultic devotion and the Denkraum that succeeds them: 'the telegram and the telephone destroy the cosmos' by collapsing the hard-won distance of thought. But the virtual tours of the Berlin exhibitions make the most of the possibilities of Augenblicksverknüpfung to enable the experience of operating in thought-space, in the absence of the possibility of actual movement in the world. Instantaneous connection, as our contemporary crisis has made us all too aware, is both a bane and a boon, a way of making things proximate and of remembering how far away they actually are.
Bilderatlas Mnemosyne - The Original by Aby Warburg; Axel Heil and Roberto Ohrt (eds.) is published by Hatje Cantz. From the February 2021 issue of Apollo. Preview and subscribe here.

This openness and irresolution is also the tack taken by this wonderful new facsimile, which accompanies an exhibition that took place at the Haus der Kulturen der Welt (HKW), Berlin, last autumn (it travels to the Bundeskunsthalle, Bonn, this month), and a wider project on the part of the Warburg Institute to digitise and make available its archival materials, including a virtual tour of the recent display (accessible at www.warburg.sas.ac.uk). Collectively, they advance both the accessibility of, and the possibilities of thought offered by, the Bilderatlas. This is the first reconstruction of the Bilderatlas to use not the 1929 photographs of the panels, but, as far as possible, to reconvene the photographs, prints, and reproductions that Warburg himself assembled. The book and exhibition demonstrate an astonishing labour of reconstruction by the curators, Roberto Ohrt and Axel Heil, through which much can be learned about Warburg's methods in acquiring reproductions, of the construction of the panels, and of the ways in which images could serve multiple purposes. The provision in the book of images of earlier versions, a concordance, and an index, also allow the reader to navigate the panels by artist or by mythological figure. The excellent prefatory essays by the Warburg's director, Bill Sherman, by Bernd Scherer, director of the HKW, by the curators, and by the Warburg's archivist, Claudia Wedepohl, supply ample information about the evolution, material form, and afterlife of the Bilderatlas, but they are not a guide to use. In the absence of Warburg's own commentary on the panels - and before the publication of a companion volume of detailed commentary, due in 2021 - the reader is left to their own devices in deploying this thought-instrument. This initially induces a sense of bewilderment in a blizzard of images, especially those panels that show several populous crowd scenes or triumphal processions: we do not know where to look. But the corresponding effect is to leave the viewer or reader free to establish their own pathways, in a practice of what Georges Didi-Huberman has called an 'ordered disorientation'.

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How Aby Warburg remapped art history | Apollo Magazine

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Warburg brought together Greek gods and golfers, antiquities and airships - and in reconstruction, his puzzling arrangements of images are as suggestive as ever

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#AbyWarburg: Archive of Memory (26 minutes, 2003)

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Aby Warburg: Archive of Memory (26 minutes, 2003)

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ARCHIVE OF MEMORY is a visual essay inspired by the work of Aby Warburg, particularly his essay "Notes on a Journey to the Pueblo Indians". Interviews with philosopher Raymond Klibansky (who worked with Warburg in Hamburg in the 1920s) and art historian Margaret Iversen, complement a wide- ranging selection of still and moving images that create a vivid portrait of a legendary art historian who has become a cultural icon.

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The Hermeneutics of Body Movement in #AbyWarburg

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1 Warburg presented this crucial argumentation in his lectures (see Warburg 2012a) and in the Mnemos (...)

1Aby Warburg has played a decisive role in art history and cultural theory. His research has become a significant source and reference in the study of the origin, function and transformation of images and of the psychology of visual forms of expression. Warburg focused his academic work on the movements of the body, which he understood as the expression of the inner, highly emotional impressions of human beings. In examining these themes, Warburg mostly investigated the Renaissance as the beginning of modernity, a period that encouraged the liberation of the individual from the constraints of irrational thought. Through his work he emphasized that ultimately the highly dynamic ancient forms of bodily expression contributed to the liberation of human beings from a state of barbarism and fear into a world of rationality. Essential objects in his argumentation included the Laocoon group ( Figure 1), ancient reliefs ( Figure 2) and the figurative decorations on ancient vases ( Figures 3). 1

Figure 1: Athanadoros, Hagesandros, Polydoros. Laocoon and his Sons.Marble. Roman copy of a Greek original bronze statue ( ca. 2 nd century BC-1 st century AD). Rome, Musei Vaticani, Cortile del Belvedere.

Public Domain.

2Warburg defined such representations of body movements as an expression of highly emotional experiences which he called "pathosformulas" ( Pathosformeln) ("Dürer und die italienische Antike" 446). According to him, gestures constitute the central mode of the external manifestation of inner emotional states, whereby physical movement is part and parcel of a cognitive process involving memory in relation to linguistic concepts. Representations of movements are primary forms of the ex-pression of intensified emotional im-pressions, called by Warburg "primordial forms" and ​​"primordial words", or "Ur-forms" and "Ur-words" ( Urworte), because they are derived from the natural forms of movements such as running, dancing or fighting. According to varying cultural conditions, "Ur-forms" can turn into effective symbolic pathos gestures but they are originally preserved in human memory as the equivalent concept ( Begriff).

3Although developed against the background of a pagan culture, as suppliers of gestural dynamism, pathosformulas played an essential role in the process of overcoming superstition itself. The medieval body, as represented on visual artefacts, appears in all its stiffness, just as, according to Warburg, the medieval world was trapped in the stiffness of the dogmatism of belief, fear and expression ( mittelalterliche Ausdrucksfesseln) ("Dürer und die italienische Antike" 449). The liberation from such restrictions on the way to the Enlightenment also involved the liberation of the body via its dynamization in gestures:

2 "Der Entdemonisierungsprozeß der phobisch geprägten Eindruckserbmasse, der die ganze Skala des Erg (...)

The process of de-demonizing the inherited mass of impressions that encompasses the entire range of emotional gesture, from helpless melancholy to murderous cannibalism, also lends the mark of uncanny experience to the dynamics of human movement in the stages that lie in between the extremes of orgiastic seizure-states such as fighting, walking, running, dancing, grasping-which the educated individual of the Renaissance, brought up in the medieval discipline of the Church, regarded as forbidden territory, where only the godless were permitted to run riot, freely indulging their passions" ( Der Bilderatlas MNEMOSYNE 3). 2

4For instance, Warburg refers to 15 th-century Italian works of art such as Lionardo da Colle's Nozze di Pesaro (1480) ( Figure 4). Although they feature the influence of more dynamic gestures borrowed from Antiquity, Da Colle's figures are nevertheless dressed in bulky costumes (called by Warburg "alla franzese") which reduce their freedom of movement and constrain their gestures (Woldt 2012a).

Figure 4: Lionardo Da Colle, Silen. Miniature for Nozze di Pesaro (ca. 1480). (After Nicolò d'Antonio degli Agli, Le admirande magnificentie et stupidissimi apparati delle felice nozze, celebrate da illustre signor di Pesaro, Constantino Sforza, per madonna Camille, Florence 1475). Rom. Biblioteca Vaticana, Ms. Urb. Lat. 899, fol. 77v.

© The Warburg Institute, Photographic Collection, London.

3 Warburg used the term bewegliches Bildverhikel (mobile image vehicle) for the first time in his 19 (...)

4 Warburg discussed that relation in his 1927 lecture on Ovid's Metamorphoses entitled "Urworte leid (...)

5Warburg considered that the most dynamic expressions of gestures, as formed in Antiquity, are stored both in individual and collective memory. Moreover, he argued that according to the functioning of physiological memory, humans repeatedly visualize these expressions in this process of liberation, in the form of dynamic physical figurative gestural structures, which he called "gestural language" ( Gebärdensprache) (Woldt 2012b). That process of expression, however, does not occur unconsciously as a symptom in the Freudian sense but manifests itself quite consciously. The artist makes a rational decision about the shape of his figures and draws from the highly dynamic ancient figurations of gestures, which, for example, persist in modern times in the form of material artefacts as expression and materialisation of a collective cultural memory, such as ancient sarcophagi or coins, statues and sculptures, as well as medals. Warburg called these structural elements "mobile image vehicles" ( bewegliche Bildvehikel) because they carry the ancient concepts of body movement over time and space. 3 Those elements in expressive ancient figurations are, according to Warburg, also preserved in and transmitted by ancient written forms and they remain effective in later epochs. The descriptions of gestural expressions presented in ancient literature are conceived as being strongly related to each other. 4

6Warburg explored how a pathosformula manifests itself over time and space in persistent gestural structures, pre-shaped in ancient times. He recognized and investigated that process for the first time when analysing Albrecht Dürer's drawing The Death of Orpheus (1494) ( Figure 5), in which he perceived the specific pathosformula of "fight", which is both a term and a highly expressive body movement visually manifested in the drawing (Warburg, "Dürer und die italienische Antike").

5 Warburg never published that lecture. It was edited for the first time in 2012 by Fleckner and Wol (...)

7Warburg's investigation of art and culture relies on a particular interdisciplinary approach which is rooted in the context of evolutional theory and psychology. He refers in particular to Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, Theodor Piderit's theory of expression and Richard Semon's theory of the engram (Warburg, "Vom Arsenal zum Laboratorium"). The pathosformula as theoretical category derives from these considerations, and, according to Warburg, decisively regulates the function and effect of images over time and space. Therefore I will focus on the background of Warburg's hermeneutics of body movements, especially as far as the relation between word and image is concerned. First, by focusing on what Warburg generally means by pathosformula; secondly, by analyzing his investigation of the "fight" pathosformula in Dürer's Death of Orpheus in the context of his 1905 lecture on "Dürer and Italian Antiquity" ("Dürer und die italienische Antike"); finally, by showing how Warburg extended his understanding of pathosformula as a language of gestures ( Gebärdensprache) in his lecture and panel exhibition "Ur-Words of the Affective Language of Gesture"( Urworte leidenschaftlicher Gebärdensprache) presented in 1927 in the reading room of his cultural library (KBW) in Hamburg. 5

8The pathosformula is derived from concrete behavioural patterns analyzed by Charles Darwin in his biologist-evolutionary definition of human behaviour. Warburg had read Darwin's work The Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals (1872) in the early days of his research and had kept it for reference. Quite soon, however, he went beyond it. Warburg understands body movement not only, like Darwin, in a mechanistic way based on a "stimulus-reaction model", but also symbolically (see entry of May 22, 1892 in Warburg 2015). Warburg's conception relates to that of his friend, the philosopher Ernst Cassirer, who speaks in a similar context of "conscious overmoulding of motor externalizations" ( bewusster Überformung motorischer Entäußerungen) (Zumbusch 182). The movements of the body, and above all basic gestures, are not merely an empty reaction to external stimuli, whereby meaning stems from an animal's biologically purposeful acts. They are rather an expression of inner affect called forth by content-driven emotions (182). Warburg also refers to the psychologist Theodor Piderit who construed the movements of facial expression "as a reflection of an inner state of the soul" in his 1867 book Mimik und Physiognomik (35, author's translation). Significantly, in a short speech delivered to the members of the board of trustees of his cultural library on December 29, 1927, Warburg described his intellectual formation thus:

6 "Den menschlichen Ausdruck im Bildwerk als Prägestück des praktischen bewegten Lebens zu begreifen (...)

To understand the human expression in the image as the pre-eminence of the practical and moving life, whether it be a religious cult or the drama of courtly festivals on the stage, was a developmental thought which I had long had, especially thanks to two books, which I read in 1888 independently in Florence, and without ever hoping that they would coincide with my art-historical experiences: Darwin's On the Expression of Mind, and Piderit's Mimik und Physiognomik. ("Vom Arsenal zum Laboratorium" 687, author's translation) 6

9Investigating the afterlife of pre-shaped forms, Warburg also refers to Richard Semon's theory of the "engram". In his experiments, Semon discovered that perceived stimuli form and leave a trace in memory that is inherited, a memory track which he called "engram" (Gombrich; Semon; Woldt 2014).

10Of decisive importance for that discussion of pathos and the development of the Renaissance as a phase of liberation of the individual from the constraints of dogma was the conception of "double-bodied Renaissance art", which constitutes the very centre of Warburg's work on the real beginning of the Modern Age. Warburg argued against Gotthold Ephraim Lessing's distinction of "discursive" arts, represented by literature or written words, and of "figural arts", represented by fine arts like painting or relief. This disagreement over Lessing's strict differentiation of the functions of art allowed Warburg to deal without the customary strictures with all kinds of visual elements. He also argued strongly against Hans Joachim Winckelmann's conception of a (pathetically) calm ancient art ("Vom Arsenal zum Laboratorium" 684ff). Because he considered that the Renaissance artist sought in the art of rediscovered Antiquity both pathos-laden enhanced facial expressions and classical idealizing calm, Warburg showed that Antiquity had a double-edged influence on the stylistic development of the early Renaissance - contrary to Winckelmann's primary conception of the idealizing calm of Antiquity (Warburg, "Dürer und die italienische Antike" 445).

11Warburg formulated the notion of pathosformula for the first time in his study "Dürer and Italian Antiquity" in 1905, first delivered as a lecture at the 48 th meeting of the German philologists and scholars in Hamburg. The notion relied on his interpretation of The Death of Orpheus, Dürer's 1494 drawing, now housed in the Hamburg Kunsthalle, a subject taken from Ovid's Metamorphoses ( Figure 5). Through his analysis of the body rhetoric of the figures in the drawing, Warburg discovered that the composition was based on a copper engraving by an anonymous artist from Ferrara (a point I will return to below), and that the iconography of the subject had clear origins in Antiquity. Dürer's drawing shows Orpheus kneeling on the ground, trying to protect himself against the maenads pounding on him with clubs. His attribute, the lyre, is placed centrally in the foreground of the picture. While resting on the ground with his right hand, Orpheus raises his left hand to his face in an effort to protect his head from the ultimately fatal blows. This drawing exemplifies different dynamic levels: both maenads have already lifted their sticks and are about to perform their deadly attacks, one of them standing behind Orpheus and facing the viewer, the other one in front of him with her back turned to the viewer.

7 Motifs such as the wind-swept hair or billowing clothes that Warburg calls bewegtes Beiwerk (movin (...)

12The dynamism of the action is emphasized quite obviously by the putto escaping on the left-hand side of the drawing, but also by the muscular tension in the bodies of all figures. The power of the action can also be seen from the aggressive posture of the maenad facing the spectator. The gestures of the raised arms as well as the billowing vestments - called "moving accessories" ( bewegtes Beiwerk) - whose flowing lines flatter the body and are blown away by the wind, contribute to emphasize the energy in the bodily movement. 7 The leaning tree on the left in the margin, under which Dürer locates the scene, also makes the strong winds visible.

13If the observer is familiar with Ovid's myth of Orpheus, s/he recognizes in this composition the moment when the maenads have already begun to attack, as Orpheus has fallen to the ground and further actions are to be foreseen in their gestures. However, without the knowledge of the literary source of the story, the outcome of the event remains unclear. Dürer's drawing differs, for example, from the representation on an antique vase from Nola ( Figure 6), which Warburg uses in his argument as a forerunner for Dürer's composition. In this picture, the maenad pierces the fallen body of Orpheus with a spear. The outcome of the event, namely the death of the god, can already be foreseen here. As a further comparative example, Warburg also shows an outline drawing of an ancient vase from Chiusi (Figure 7).

Figure 7: The Death of Orpheus. Outline drawing from Annali dell' Instituto di Corrispondenza Archeologica (1871, p. 43). Plate K: Attic red-figure Stamnos ( ca. 450-425 BC). Former Emil Brown Collection, Rome (Vase from Chiusi).

Photograph: arachne.uni-koeln.de.

14Here, the maenads interfere with the kneeling Orpheus, whose attitude - particularly the position of leaning on the ground with his right hand, while raising his left hand to his face to protect his head from the blows - recalls both Dürer's drawing and of the figure on the vase from Nola. The highlighted lyre, which is placed centrally in the foreground in Dürer's drawing, points to an iconographic proximity to the ancient works. However, Warburg, as already mentioned, recognized that Dürer's model was less directly related to the ancient examples than apparently to the anonymous copper engraving by an unknown Ferrarese artist ( Figure 8).

15The composition of the Italian engraving is strikingly similar: the kneeling Orpheus resting on his right hand and trying to protect his head from the attack with his left; the maenads, with similar gestures and positions, are about to beat the young god. The billowing accessory - the clothes - is shaped in the same manner. In both works the compositional arrangement of the background is pyramidal. In Dürer's drawing, the central focus is a tree in which a book and a banner are hanging, whereas an undefined monogram of the artist appears in the center of the Italian engraving. In the latter, the viewer's perspective on the scene is further enhanced by dynamic circular lines on the ground, while in Dürer's drawing the tree on the left, bent by the wind, attracts the viewer's gaze and emphasizes the dynamics of the image. This Italian engraving, which originates in ancient representations of the death of Orpheus and Pentheus, is investigated elsewhere by Warburg, as in the constellation of images in plate 5 of the Mnemosyne Atlas ( Der Bilderatlas MNEMOSYNE 22-23).

16The pathosformula derives from the emotional excitement expressed in the gestures of the protagonists. In Orpheus, it is derived from the moment of the fight for survival - but not in the same manner as, for example, in the highly influential Laocoon group ( Figure 1). For Warburg, the Laocoon prefigures the Baroque exaggeration of the Renaissance style in the body movement, which is not present in Dürer who is looking for aesthetic and structural balance. The ancient Laocoon sculpture, discovered in 1506 (after Dürer made his drawing), marks the apex of a stylistic process which paved the way for the Baroque through Pollaiuolo's "vehement mannerism" and Mantegna's "heroic theatrical pathos" (Warburg, "Dürer und die italienische Antike" 447).

17As an early example of such a gesture of self-protection, Warburg points to a representation of David holding the head of Goliath painted on a leather shield ( Figure 9), which he believed to be a work by Antonio Pollaiuolo. He also thought that the pathetic expansive gesture of Orpheus' left hand was inspired by the figure of the Tutor, which is a part of the ancient Niobid group (now in the Galleria degli Uffizi in Florence) ( Figure 10).

Figure 10: Tutor. Marble. Part of the Niobid group. Roman copy of a 4 th-century BC Greek original. Florence, Galleria degli Uffizi.

Public Domain.

18Gertrud Bing, Warburg's assistant, revised the attribution of David with the Head of Goliath in the published version of the lecture, however. The work is supposed to be by Andrea del Castagno (1450-1455) and the Tutor of the Niobid group cannot have inspired Pollaiuolo because when it was discovered, the figure was partly destroyed, lacking both arms ("Dürer und die italienische Antike" 625). Its ca te semble clair ?current visual presentation with both arms is a modern reconstruction. Nevertheless, Bing asserts that Castagno's expansive gesture might have been inspired by a version of Nicander of Colophon (Nikandros)'s poem "Theriaca" about venomous creatures, a 10 th-century Byzantine copy of the ancient original. An illustration to verses 115-127 of "Theriaca", about the venom of snakes, contains a miniature with the depiction of the Titans fighting with reptiles ( Figure 11). We recognize the figure of a young man with the familiar gesture of fear, expressed by his uplifted hand.

Figure 11: unknown artist, Titans with Snakes. 10 th-century copy of Nicander's "Theriaca". 2 nd-century BC parchment-miniature. Paris. Bibliothèque nationale de France. Supplément grec. 247.

Public Domain.

19Regardless of Bing's later correction to Warburg's identification of Pollaiuolo's work, it can be generally stated that Warburg focused here on the recording of the migration of an extreme pathetic gesture language from Antiquity to the Early Italian Renaissance and on to the North in Dürer.

20The "fight" pathosformula which can be identified in the iconographic examples of Dürer's Death of Orpheus and his model by the Italian Ferrarese artist, forms a figurative structure going back to ancient times. For Warburg, "fight" as a pathosformula is preserved in human memory in the form of a concept ( Begriff). During the process of memorizing, the concept causes the image and the emotions to which it refers to be transferred into the cultural artefact where the formula becomes part of collective memory. More generally, the formula emerges from the constellation of the perceived and experienced emotion, the evoked movement and gesture, and their anchoring in the memory by means of concepts ( Begriffe), calling forth the image, or rather a form evoked through the concept, which is then expressed in the creative process of visual expression and in its subsequent transformation.

21"Fight" evokes a concept, which Warburg also calls an "Ur-Word", that is firmly anchored in the memory with a codified appearance of gestures as a determination of the scope ( Umfangsbestimmung) that create the image of the concept. However, because it is constantly modified by new experiences, the structure of that image is highly transformable, even if an original trace persists as being linked to a particular emotion, reflecting thus the function of the engram, even as the figure is combined within other constellations. In Warburg's understanding, the perception of a pathosformula as being both stable and mutable was clearly founded: its transfer to modern times occurred largely via Ovid's Metamorphoses. As we shall now see, Warburg focused on processes of mutability in his lecture and panel exhibition in 1927 called "Ur-Words of the Affective Language of Gestures" ( Urworte leidenschaftlicher Gebärdensprache).

22Against the background of the relation between image and linguistic concept, the headings under which Warburg conceived his selection of pictures for the lecture and panel exhibition entitled "Ur-Words of the Affective Language of Gestures" in 1927 concentrated on Ovidian narrative themes: "Persecution (Daphne) / Transformation (Actaeon)", "Robbery (Proserpina)", "Martyrdom (Orpheus)", "Human Sacrifice (Medea)", "Sacrificial Dance/Lament" and "Victory" characterize the Ovidian narrative. They are also to be understood as primordial words, "Ur-words" ( Ur-Worte) of pathos preserved as linguistic concepts in human memory, which, if required, provide the bodily movement with a fixed structural form.

23 The Death of Orpheus appears in that lecture and panel exhibition within an extended narrative context, namely in the context of "Martyrdom (Orpheus)" in panel 3 ( Figure 12). The "fight" formula is exemplified by another engraving by Dürer, Effects of Jealousy, also known as Hercules Fights with Virtues against Vice (1498) ( Figure 13). We recognize a familiar gesture in Virtue, who strikes with a club at the sitting figures of Vice and the Satyr. Hercules does not seem to attack the sitting group directly but to protect it by holding the club in a horizontal position. Yet Dürer obviously places Vice in the familiar defensive posture, raising her left arm to her head, in the same manner as Orpheus who protects himself in The Death of Orpheus.

Figure 12: Aby Warburg, "Ur-words of the Affective Language of Gestures"(1927). Panel 3: Martyrdom (Orpheus). KBW, Hamburg.

© The Warburg Institute, London.

24Ovid's Metamorphoses is an instance of one of the most important classic literary transmissions, in which descriptions have preserved the narrative of a highly emotional experience. Warburg notes:

8 "Das Problem nach dem Einfluß der Antike hat im Laufe der Jahre natürlicherweise dazu geführt, die (...)

The problem of the influence of Antiquity has, of course, led, over the years, to the investigation of the principal vehicles through which the ancient gods' world enters the European world. The main travel agency for traveling gods evidently rested for centuries in the hands of the tried-and-true enterprise: Publius Ovidius Naso and Epigones.
[...] The mythographers' catalogue of gods becomes a treasure trove for expressive values ​​of psychological dynamics [...]. (Warburg Institute Archive III, 97.3, fol. 1-3; author's translation) 8

25Knowledge of the literary sources directly evokes definite figurative constellations, especially in connection with antique visual formations:

9 "Das wiedererwachte sogenannte primitive Menschentum äußert sich darin, daß es die Grenzwerte des (...)

The reawakened so-called primitive humanity manifests itself in the fact that it strives to experience the limiting values ​​of psychic expression objectively and at the same time it wants to preserve the moderate imprinted form in precisely this intensified passion. (WIA III, 97.3, fol. 1-3, author's translation) 9

26In his short essay of 1898 about Botticelli, Warburg referred to the importance of Ovid's Metamorphoses for the visual art of the Early Renaissance, in order to symbolize the ideal artistic representation of life in movement. Warburg recognized that Botticelli was looking for patterns in the ancient world ("Sandro Botticelli" 65). Not unsurprisingly the first panel examined in the 1927 lecture on Ovid deals with the topic of "Transformation (Daphne) / Persecution (Actaeon)" ( Figure 14), where the picture constellations were placed around Botticelli's painting Primavera ( Figure 15) presented on the panel in a larger format than the other pictures.

Figure 14: Aby Warburg, "Ur-words of the Affective Language of Gestures"(1927). Panel 1: "Transformation (Daphne)/Persecution (Actaeon)".KBW, Hamburg.

© The Warburg Institute, London.

27For Warburg, Botticelli's painting became the epitome of the recollection of Antiquity and the introduction of effective movement into the painting of the early Renaissance. Warburg understood the group to the right of the composition presenting Zephyr and Flora as an erotic persecution scene, which, according to Ovid, was the story of Daphne's flight before the persecution by Apollo. Warburg also produced further interpretations of the theme of Daphne's transformation into a tree and arranged them around Botticelli's painting ( Figure 16). He linked Daphne's story to the cause of her transformation by placing drawings of Apollo and the Dragon in the upper right-hand corner of the panel. He regarded the gesture of shooting a bow in Bernardo Buontalenti's drawing as an impetus for further events to support the narrative ( Figure 17).

Figure 16: Giovanni Pietro Birago (attributed), Apollo and Daphne (last quarter of the 15 th century). Miniature from Daphniphilos. Wolfenbüttel, Herzog August Bibliothek. Ms. Guelf. 277.4. fol. 23r.

© The Warburg Institute, Photographic Collection, London.

Figure 17: Bernardo Buontalenti, Flying Apollo (1589). Drawing. Illustration for the 3 rd Intermedium of La Pellegrina, on the occasion of the wedding feast of Ferdinando I de Medici and Christina of Lorraine. Florence, Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale. Palatina. C.B.3.53. Vol. 2. c. 24v.

Public Domain.

10 "Die antike Prägung führt in der barocken Skulptur zu ‚gesteigerter seelischer Dynamik', sie führt (...)

28Warburg saw the link between word and image, or literature and visual representation, as strengthened by illustrated books. In the lower part of the first panel, he placed book editions of Ovid's Metamorphoses, opened on the page where the pictorial representations of Daphne's persecution and her transformation into a tree are visible. In the right-hand corner of the panel, at the end of the series of 17 th-century editions, he added a photograph of Gian Lorenzo Bernini's sculpture Apollo and Daphne ( Figure 18). The "figura serpentinata" - the twisted figuration of the bodies caught in an upward movement manifested in that sculpture - unites the internal and external movement of the figures. The ancient imprint of the movement ultimately leads to baroque "enhanced psychological dynamics [...] to a baroque style of sympathetic and excited pathological formulas", whose origins lie in Antiquity and are additionally promoted by the discovery of the extremely moving figure of the Laocoon, says Warburg (Woldt 2012b 78). 10

11 "Einmünden der dichterisch-epischen lyrischen Dynamik in das reale Drama der Neuzeit".

12 "die sentimental-lyrische Selbstempfindung, die die Pathetik tief tragische[n] Urwort[s] der Gebär (...)

29Warburg goes on to point out the parallel requirement for the pictorial expression of inner turmoil in theatrical drama, a real staging of the body movement in modern times: "Enabling the poetical-epic lyric dynamics into the real drama of the modern era" (WIA III, 97.1.1, fol. 40). 11 Buontalenti's drawings of Apollo and the Dragon are sketches for a scenic representation of La Pellegrina performed on the occasion of the wedding feast of Ferdinando I de Medici and Christina of Lorraine in 1589 in Florence. The panel "Martyrdom" with the depictions of the death of Orpheus, in addition to the above-mentioned works by Dürer and the Ferrarese master, as well as their iconographic models since Antiquity, present a development in the direction of drama, which is represented in this particular case by images from the libretto of Ottavio Rinucci's Eurydice, as well as being illustrated by Monteverdi's version of the myth in his early opera L'Orpheo. In a fragment of the lecture, one can read that the ancient physical expressions of gesture in Ovid are characterized by ambivalence. According to Warburg, they embody in erotic or cultic life the passionate affection ( leidenschaftliche Ergriffenheit) of Persecution, Robbery, Death and Triumph, but they "also let the sentimental-lyrical self-sense resonate, so that the pathos of the deeply tragic preface of the gestural language turns/transforms/switches into the 'fairytale'" (WIA III, 97.3, fol. 1-3). 12 This allows us to come back to Warburg's understanding of the Renaissance as double-bodied, characterised as it is by a highly dramatic evocative form of expression and by ideal rest, a double meaning which comes from Antiquity.

30Warburg's hermeneutics of body movements is anchored in the attempt to trace the process of memory in the human being, in which original emotional expressions are encoded as gestural configurations under movement-comprehending concepts that can be modified to increase drama, if necessary. The pathosformulas are anchored and fixed by those words which are conducive to motion, which is congruent with Semon's definition of the engram. According to Semon, as already mentioned, emotional impressions "coin" traces - engrams - in human memory, which can be recalled. They are still effective and capable of transformation, according to Darwin's evolutionary theory; their core, however, remains stable and can be carried on in memory, symbolically rather like the body of Daphne who turned into a tree. This is what Warburg calls "dynamoengramm", in accordance with his understanding of culture as being alive and in permanent movement (WIA III, 97.2, fol. 52-53). Daphne remains the female Nymph who, in the Ovidian narrative, can only preserve her identity through transformation.

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Ur-Words of the Affective Language of Gestures: The Hermeneutics of...

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Cet article étudie les relations entre mémoire visuelle et le transfert dans les domaines esthétique et littéraire de gestes particulièrement chargés émotionnellement, qui informent de façon immanente la créativité des artistes.

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The great art historian #AbyWarburg was born 150 years ago. John-Paul Stonard visits his famous library in Hamburg

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#Whitehead and #Bergson on #Creativity and Stagnation in Art

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Abstract

Miloš Ševčík considers the aesthetic difference between inertia and dynamism in art as presented by Whitehead and Bergson. Ševčík articulates how a comparison of these two process philosophers shows remarkable similarities in their emphasis not only on the importance of fundamental innovations in artistic development, but also in revealing key connections between these innovations and reality. For Ševčík, this comparison is particularly pronounced in the later work of both Whitehead and Bergson. In drawing Whitehead and Bergson together, Ševčík looks to artistic themes of attained perfection and creative joy; emotions and nature with respect to truthfulness; and the relationship of art to the future. Ševčík thus unveils striking mutual similarities between Whitehead and Bergson with respect to dynamism and stagnation in art.

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Notes

1. 1.

This chapter elaborates upon my previous research in Ševčík ( 2017), pp. 51-59; ( 2018), pp. 21-37.

2. 2.

This chapter was written as part of the grant-funded project no. GA16-13208S, "Process and Aesthetics: Explicit and Implicit Aesthetics in the Process Philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead."

References

Auxier, R. E. (1999). Influence as Confluence: Bergson and Whitehead. Process Studies, 38(3-4), 301-338.

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Gunter, P. A. Y. (1966). Whitehead, Bergson, Freud: Suggestions Toward a Theory of Laughter. The Southern Journal of Philosophy, 4(2), 55-60.

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Lowe, V. (1949). The Influence of Bergson, James and Alexander on Whitehead. Journal of the History of Ideas, 10(2), 267-296.

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Authors and Affiliations

Department of Aesthetics, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic

Miloš Ševčík

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Correspondence to Miloš Ševčík .

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1. The Center for Process Studies, Claremont School of Theology Willamette University, Salem, OR, USA

Andrew M. Davis

2. Instituto de Estudos Filosóficos, Universidade de Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal

Maria-Teresa Teixeira

3. The Center for Process Studies, Claremont School of Theology Willamette University, Salem, OR, USA

Wm. Andrew Schwartz

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Ševčík, M. (2022). Whitehead and Bergson on Creativity and Stagnation in Art. In: Davis, A.M., Teixeira, MT., Schwartz, W.A. (eds) Process Cosmology. Palgrave Perspectives on Process Philosophy . Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-81396-3_16

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Whitehead and Bergson on Creativity and Stagnation in Art

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Miloš Ševčík considers the aesthetic difference between inertia and dynamism in art as presented by Whitehead and Bergson. Ševčík articulates how a comparison of these two process philosophers shows remarkable similarities in their...

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#AlfredNorthWhitehead Alfred North #Whitehead

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Alfred North Whitehead (15 February 1861 - 30 December 1947) was an English mathematician and philosopher. He created the philosophical school known as process philosophy, which has been applied in a wide variety of disciplines, including ecology, theology, education, physics, biology, economics, and psychology.

In his early career Whitehead wrote primarily on mathematics, logic, and physics. He wrote the three-volume Principia Mathematica (1910-1913), with his former student Bertrand Russell. Principia Mathematica is considered one of the twentieth century's most important works in mathematical logic, and placed 23rd in a list of the top 100 English-language nonfiction books of the twentieth century by Modern Library.

Beginning in the late 1910s and early 1920s, Whitehead gradually turned his attention from mathematics to philosophy of science, and finally to metaphysics. He developed a comprehensive metaphysical system which radically departed from most of Western philosophy. Whitehead argued that reality consists of processes rather than material objects, and that processes are best defined by their relations with other processes, thus rejecting the theory that reality is fundamentally constructed by bits of matter that exist independently of one another. Whitehead's philosophical works - particularly Process and Reality - are regarded as the foundational texts of process philosophy.

Whitehead's process philosophy argues that "there is urgency in coming to see the world as a web of interrelated processes of which we are integral parts, so that all of our choices and actions have consequences for the world around us." For this reason, one of the most promising applications of Whitehead's thought in recent years has been in the area of ecological civilization and environmental ethics pioneered by John B. Cobb.

Whewell's Court north range at Trinity College, Cambridge. Whitehead spent thirty years at Trinity, five as a student and twenty-five as a senior lecturer.

Alfred North Whitehead was born in Ramsgate, Kent, England, in 1861. His father, Alfred Whitehead, became an Anglican minister after being headmaster of Chatham House Academy, a school for boys previously headed by Alfred's father, Thomas Whitehead. Whitehead himself recalled both of them as being very successful school masters, with his grandfather being the more "remarkable" man.

Whitehead's mother was Maria Sarah Buckmaster. Her maternal great-grandmother was Jane North (1776-1847), whose maiden surname was given to Whitehead, and several other members of his family over time. His mother, Maria Buckmaster had eleven siblings. The son of her brother Thomas, Walter Selby Buckmaster, was twice an Olympics silver medal winner for Polo (1900, 1908) for Britain, and is said to be "one of the finest polo players England has ever produced". Whitehead does not appear to have been close to his mother, although he and Evelyn (full name: Evelyn Ada Maud Rice Willoughby Wade), whom he married in 1890, are recorded in the English Census of 1891 as living with Alfred's mother and father. Lowe notes that there appears to have been mutual dislike between Whitehead's wife, Evelyn, and his mother, Maria.

Griffin relates how Bertrand Russell, a colleague and collaborator of Whitehead, was a very close friend of Whitehead and of his wife, Evelyn. Griffin retells Russell's story of how, one evening in 1901, "they found Evelyn Whitehead in the middle of what appeared to be a dangerous and acutely painful angina attack. ... [but] It seems that she suffered from a psychosomatic disorder ... [and] the danger was illusory." Griffin posits that Russell exaggerated the drama of her illness, and that both Evelyn and Russell were habitually given to melodrama. Intensity of emotion was encourgaged by their avant garde associates in the turbulent Bloomsbury Group which "discussed aesthetic and philosophical questions in a spirit of agnosticism and were strongly influenced by G.E. Moore's Principia Ethica (1903) and by A. N. Whitehead's and Bertrand Russell's Principia Mathematica (1910-13), in the light of which they searched for definitions of the good, the true, and the beautiful".

Alfred's brother Henry became Bishop of Madras and wrote the closely observed ethnographic account Village Gods of South-India (Calcutta: Association Press, 1921).

Whitehead was educated at Sherborne, a prominent English public school, where he excelled in sports and mathematics and was head prefect of his class.

In 1880, he began attending Trinity College, Cambridge, and studied mathematics. His academic advisor was Edward Routh. He earned his B.A. from Trinity in 1884, writing his dissertation on James Clerk Maxwell's A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, and graduated as fourth wrangler.

Elected a fellow of Trinity in 1884, Whitehead would teach and write on mathematics and physics at the college until 1910, spending the 1890s writing his Treatise on Universal Algebra (1898), and the 1900s collaborating with his former pupil, Bertrand Russell, on the first edition of Principia Mathematica. He was a Cambridge Apostle.

Bertrand Russell in 1907. Russell was a student of Whitehead's at Trinity College, and a longtime collaborator and friend.

In 1910, Whitehead resigned his senior lectureship in mathematics at Trinity and moved to London without first obtaining another job. After being unemployed for a year, he accepted a position as lecturer in applied mathematics and mechanics at University College London, but was passed over a year later for the Goldsmid Chair of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics, a position for which he had hoped to be seriously considered.

In 1918, Whitehead's academic responsibilities began to seriously expand as he accepted a number of high administrative positions within the University of London system, of which Imperial College London was a member at the time. He was elected dean of the Faculty of Science at the University of London in late 1918 (a post he held for four years), a member of the University of London's Senate in 1919, and chairman of the Senate's Academic (leadership) Council in 1920, a post which he held until he departed for America in 1924. Whitehead was able to exert his newfound influence to successfully lobby for a new history of science department, help establish a Bachelor of Science degree (previously only Bachelor of Arts degrees had been offered), and make the school more accessible to less wealthy students.

Toward the end of his time in England, Whitehead turned his attention to philosophy. Though he had no advanced training in philosophy, his philosophical work soon became highly regarded. After publishing The Concept of Nature in 1920, he served as president of the Aristotelian Society from 1922 to 1923.

Move to the United States, 1924

During his time at Harvard, Whitehead produced his most important philosophical contributions. In 1925, he wrote Science and the Modern World, which was immediately hailed as an alternative to the Cartesian dualism then prevalent in popular science. He was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences that same year. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1926. Lectures from 1927 to 1928, were published in 1929 as a book named Process and Reality, which has been compared to Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason.

In 1890, Whitehead married Evelyn Wade, an Irishwoman raised in France; they had a daughter, Jessie, and two sons, Thomas and Eric. Thomas followed his father to Harvard in 1931, to teach at the Business School. Eric died in action at the age of 19, while serving in the Royal Flying Corps during World War I.

From 1910, the Whiteheads had a cottage in the village of Lockeridge, near Marlborough, Wiltshire; from there he completed Principia Mathematica.

The Whiteheads remained in the United States after moving to Harvard in 1924. Alfred retired from Harvard in 1937 and remained in Cambridge, Massachusetts, until his death on 30 December 1947.

The two-volume biography of Whitehead by Victor Lowe is the most definitive presentation of the life of Whitehead. However, many details of Whitehead's life remain obscure because he left no (personal archive); his family carried out his instructions that all of his papers be destroyed after his death. Additionally, Whitehead was known for his "almost fanatical belief in the right to privacy," and for writing very few personal letters of the kind that would help to gain insight on his life. Wrote Lowe in his preface, "No professional biographer in his right mind would touch him."

Led by Executive Editor Brian G. Henning and General Editor George R. Lucas Jr., the Whitehead Research Project of the Center for Process Studies is currently working on a critical edition of Whitehead's published and unpublished works. The first volume of the Edinburgh Critical Edition of the Complete Works of Alfred North Whitehead was published in 2017 by Paul A. Bogaard and Jason Bell as The Harvard Lectures of Alfred North Whitehead, 1924-1925: The Philosophical Presuppositions of Science.

In addition to numerous articles on mathematics, Whitehead wrote three major books on the subject: A Treatise on Universal Algebra (1898), Principia Mathematica (co-written with Bertrand Russell and published in three volumes between 1910 and 1913), and An Introduction to Mathematics (1911). The former two books were aimed exclusively at professional mathematicians, while the latter book was intended for a larger audience, covering the history of mathematics and its philosophical foundations. Principia Mathematica in particular is regarded as one of the most important works in mathematical logic of the 20th century.

In addition to his legacy as a co-writer of Principia Mathematica, Whitehead's theory of "extensive abstraction" is considered foundational for the branch of ontology and computer science known as " mereotopology," a theory describing spatial relations among wholes, parts, parts of parts, and the boundaries between parts.

A Treatise on Universal Algebra

In A Treatise on Universal Algebra (1898), the term universal algebra had essentially the same meaning that it has today: the study of algebraic structures themselves, rather than examples ("models") of algebraic structures. Whitehead credits William Rowan Hamilton and Augustus De Morgan as originators of the subject matter, and James Joseph Sylvester with coining the term itself.

At the time, structures such as Lie algebras and hyperbolic quaternions drew attention to the need to expand algebraic structures beyond the associatively multiplicative class. In a review Alexander Macfarlane wrote: "The main idea of the work is not unification of the several methods, nor generalization of ordinary algebra so as to include them, but rather the comparative study of their several structures." In a separate review, G. B. Mathews wrote, "It possesses a unity of design which is really remarkable, considering the variety of its themes."

A Treatise on Universal Algebra sought to examine Hermann Grassmann's theory of extension ("Ausdehnungslehre"), Boole's algebra of logic, and Hamilton's quaternions (this last number system was to be taken up in Volume II, which was never finished due to Whitehead's work on Principia Mathematica). Whitehead wrote in the preface:

Whitehead, however, had no results of a general nature. His hope of "form[ing] a uniform method of interpretation of the various algebras" presumably would have been developed in Volume II, had Whitehead completed it. Further work on the subject was minimal until the early 1930s, when Garrett Birkhoff and Øystein Ore began publishing on universal algebras.

Principia Mathematica

The title page of the shortened version of the Principia Mathematica to *56

Principia Mathematica (1910-1913) is Whitehead's most famous mathematical work. Written with former student Bertrand Russell, Principia Mathematica is considered one of the twentieth century's most important works in mathematics, and placed 23rd in a list of the top 100 English-language nonfiction books of the twentieth century by Modern Library.

Principia Mathematica's purpose was to describe a set of axioms and inference rules in symbolic logic from which all mathematical truths could in principle be proven. Whitehead and Russell were working on such a foundational level of mathematics and logic that it took them until page 86 of Volume II to prove that 1+1=2, a proof humorously accompanied by the comment, "The above proposition is occasionally useful."

Whitehead and Russell had thought originally that Principia Mathematica would take a year to complete; it ended up taking them ten years. When it came time for publication, the three-volume work was so long (more than 2,000 pages) and its audience so narrow (professional mathematicians) that it was initially published at a loss of 600 pounds, 300 of which was paid by Cambridge University Press, 200 by the Royal Society of London, and 50 apiece by Whitehead and Russell themselves. Despite the initial loss, today there is likely no major academic library in the world which does not hold a copy of Principia Mathematica.

The ultimate substantive legacy of Principia Mathematica is mixed. It is generally accepted that Kurt Gödel's incompleteness theorem of 1931 definitively demonstrated that for any set of axioms and inference rules proposed to encapsulate mathematics, there would in fact be some truths of mathematics which could not be deduced from them, and hence that Principia Mathematica could never achieve its aims. However, Gödel could not have come to this conclusion without Whitehead and Russell's book. In this way, Principia Mathematica's legacy might be described as its key role in disproving the possibility of achieving its own stated goals. But beyond this somewhat ironic legacy, the book popularized modern mathematical logic and drew important connections between logic, epistemology, and metaphysics.

An Introduction to Mathematics

Unlike Whitehead's previous two books on mathematics, An Introduction to Mathematics (1911) was not aimed exclusively at professional mathematicians but was intended for a larger audience. The book covered the nature of mathematics, its unity and internal structure, and its applicability to nature. Whitehead wrote in the opening chapter:

The book can be seen as an attempt to understand the growth in unity and interconnection of mathematics as a whole, as well as an examination of the mutual influence of mathematics and philosophy, language, and physics. Although the book is little-read, in some ways it prefigures certain points of Whitehead's later work in philosophy and metaphysics.

Whitehead showed a deep concern for educational reform at all levels. In addition to his numerous individually written works on the subject, Whitehead was appointed by Britain's Prime Minister David Lloyd George as part of a 20-person committee to investigate the educational systems and practices of the UK in 1921 and recommend reform.

Whitehead's most complete work on education is the 1929 book The Aims of Education and Other Essays, which collected numerous essays and addresses by Whitehead on the subject published between 1912 and 1927. The essay from which Aims of Education derived its name was delivered as an address in 1916 when Whitehead was president of the London Branch of the Mathematical Association. In it, he cautioned against the teaching of what he called " inert ideas" - ideas that are disconnected scraps of information, with no application to real life or culture. He opined that "education with inert ideas is not only useless: it is, above all things, harmful."

Rather than teach small parts of a large number of subjects, Whitehead advocated teaching a relatively few important concepts that the student could organically link to many different areas of knowledge, discovering their application in actual life. For Whitehead, education should be the exact opposite of the multidisciplinary, value-free school model - it should be transdisciplinary, and laden with values and general principles that provide students with a bedrock of wisdom and help them to make connections between areas of knowledge that are usually regarded as separate.

In order to make this sort of teaching a reality, however, Whitehead pointed to the need to minimize the importance of (or radically alter) standard examinations for school entrance. Whitehead writes:

Whitehead argued that curriculum should be developed specifically for its own students by its own staff, or else risk total stagnation, interrupted only by occasional movements from one group of inert ideas to another.

Above all else in his educational writings, Whitehead emphasized the importance of imagination and the free play of ideas. In his essay "Universities and Their Function", Whitehead writes provocatively on imagination:

Whitehead's philosophy of education might adequately be summarized in his statement that "knowledge does not keep any better than fish." In other words, bits of disconnected knowledge are meaningless; all knowledge must find some imaginative application to the students' own lives, or else it becomes so much useless trivia, and the students themselves become good at parroting facts but not thinking for themselves.

Richard Rummell's 1906 watercolor landscape view of Harvard University, facing northeast.[80] Whitehead taught at Harvard from 1924 to 1937.

Whitehead did not begin his career as a philosopher. In fact, he never had any formal training in philosophy beyond his undergraduate education. Early in his life, he showed great interest in and respect for philosophy and metaphysics, but it is evident that he considered himself a rank amateur. In one letter to his friend and former student Bertrand Russell, after discussing whether science aimed to be explanatory or merely descriptive, he wrote: "This further question lands us in the ocean of metaphysic, onto which my profound ignorance of that science forbids me to enter." Ironically, in later life, Whitehead would become one of the 20th century's foremost metaphysicians.

Whitehead was unimpressed by this objection. In the notes of one of his students for a 1927 class, Whitehead was quoted as saying: "Every scientific man in order to preserve his reputation has to say he dislikes metaphysics. What he means is he dislikes having his metaphysics criticized." In Whitehead's view, scientists and philosophers make metaphysical assumptions about how the universe works all the time, but such assumptions are not easily seen precisely because they remain unexamined and unquestioned. While Whitehead acknowledged that "philosophers can never hope finally to formulate these metaphysical first principles," he argued that people need to continually reimagine their basic assumptions about how the universe works if philosophy and science are to make any real progress, even if that progress remains permanently asymptotic. For this reason, Whitehead regarded metaphysical investigations as essential to both good science and good philosophy.

Perhaps foremost among what Whitehead considered faulty metaphysical assumptions was the Cartesian idea that reality is fundamentally constructed of bits of matter that exist totally independently of one another, which he rejected in favour of an event-based or "process" ontology in which events are primary and are fundamentally interrelated and dependent on one another. He also argued that the most basic elements of reality can all be regarded as experiential, indeed that everything is constituted by its experience. He used the term "experience" very broadly so that even inanimate processes such as electron collisions are said to manifest some degree of experience. In this, he went against Descartes' separation of two different kinds of real existence, either exclusively material or else exclusively mental. Whitehead referred to his metaphysical system as "philosophy of organism," but it would become known more widely as " process philosophy."

Whitehead's philosophy was highly original, and soon garnered interest in philosophical circles. After publishing The Concept of Nature in 1920, he served as president of the Aristotelian Society from 1922 to 1923, and Henri Bergson was quoted as saying that Whitehead was "the best philosopher writing in English." So impressive and different was Whitehead's philosophy that in 1924 he was invited to join the faculty at Harvard University as a professor of philosophy at 63 years of age.

Eckhart Hall at the University of Chicago. Beginning with the arrival of Henry Nelson Wieman in 1927, Chicago's Divinity School become closely associated with Whitehead's thought for about thirty years.[89]

This is not to say that Whitehead's thought was widely accepted or even well understood. His philosophical work is generally considered to be among the most difficult to understand in all of the Western canon. Even professional philosophers struggled to follow Whitehead's writings. One famous story illustrating the level of difficulty of Whitehead's philosophy centres around the delivery of Whitehead's Gifford lectures in 1927-28 - following Arthur Eddington's lectures of the year previous - which Whitehead would later publish as Process and Reality:

It may not be inappropriate to speculate that some fair portion of the respect generally shown to Whitehead by his philosophical peers at the time arose from their sheer bafflement. The Chicago theologian Shailer Mathews once remarked of Whitehead's 1926 book Religion in the Making: "It is infuriating, and I must say embarrassing as well, to read page after page of relatively familiar words without understanding a single sentence."

However, Mathews' frustration with Whitehead's books did not negatively affect his interest. In fact, there were numerous philosophers and theologians at Chicago's Divinity School that perceived the importance of what Whitehead was doing without fully grasping all of the details and implications. In 1927, they invited one of America's only Whitehead experts, Henry Nelson Wieman, to Chicago to give a lecture explaining Whitehead's thoughts. Wieman's lecture was so brilliant that he was promptly hired to the faculty and taught there for twenty years, and for at least thirty years afterwards Chicago's Divinity School was closely associated with Whitehead's thought.

Shortly after Whitehead's book Process and Reality appeared in 1929, Wieman famously wrote in his 1930 review:

Wieman's words proved prophetic. Though Process and Reality has been called "arguably the most impressive single metaphysical text of the twentieth century," it has been little-read and little-understood, partly because it demands - as Isabelle Stengers puts it - "that its readers accept the adventure of the questions that will separate them from every consensus." Whitehead questioned Western philosophy's most dearly held assumptions about how the universe works - but in doing so, he managed to anticipate a number of 21st century scientific and philosophical problems and provide novel solutions.

Whitehead's conception of reality

Whitehead was convinced that the scientific notion of matter was misleading as a way of describing the ultimate nature of things. In his 1925 book Science and the Modern World, he wrote that:

There persists ... [a] fixed scientific cosmology which presupposes the ultimate fact of an irreducible brute matter, or material, spread through space in a flux of configurations. In itself, such a material is senseless, valueless, purposeless. It just does what it does do, following a fixed routine imposed by external relations which do not spring from the nature of its being. It is this assumption that I call "scientific materialism." Also, it is an assumption which I shall challenge as being entirely unsuited to the scientific situation at which we have now arrived.

In Whitehead's view, there are a number of problems with this notion of "irreducible brute matter." First, it obscures and minimizes the importance of change. By thinking of any material thing (like a rock, or a person) as being fundamentally the same thing throughout time, with any changes to it being secondary to its " nature," scientific materialism hides the fact that nothing ever stays the same. For Whitehead, change is fundamental and inescapable; he emphasizes that "all things flow."

In Whitehead's view, then, concepts such as "quality," "matter," and "form" are problematic. These "classical" concepts fail to adequately account for change, and overlook the active and experiential nature of the most basic elements of the world. They are useful abstractions but are not the world's basic building blocks. What is ordinarily conceived of as a single person, for instance, is philosophically described as a continuum of overlapping events. After all, people change all the time, if only because they have aged by another second and had some further experience. These occasions of experience are logically distinct but are progressively connected in what Whitehead calls a "society" of events. By assuming that enduring objects are the most real and fundamental things in the universe, materialists have mistaken the abstract for the concrete (what Whitehead calls the " fallacy of misplaced concreteness").

To put it another way, a thing or person is often seen as having a "defining essence" or a "core identity" that is unchanging, and describes what the thing or person really is. In this way of thinking, things and people are seen as fundamentally the same through time, with any changes being qualitative and secondary to their core identity (e.g., "Mark's hair has turned grey as he has gotten older, but he is still the same person"). But in Whitehead's cosmology, the only fundamentally existent things are discrete "occasions of experience" that overlap one another in time and space, and jointly make up the enduring person or thing. On the other hand, what ordinary thinking often regards as "the essence of a thing" or "the identity/core of a person" is an abstract generalization of what is regarded as that person or thing's most important or salient features across time. Identities do not define people; people define identities. Everything changes from moment to moment and to think of anything as having an "enduring essence" misses the fact that "all things flow," though it is often a useful way of speaking.

Whitehead pointed to the limitations of language as one of the main culprits in maintaining a materialistic way of thinking and acknowledged that it may be difficult to ever wholly move past such ideas in everyday speech. After all, every moment of each person's life can hardly be given a different proper name, and it is easy and convenient to think of people and objects as remaining fundamentally the same things, rather than constantly keeping in mind that each thing is a different thing from what it was a moment ago. Yet the limitations of everyday living and everyday speech should not prevent people from realizing that "material substances" or "essences" are a convenient generalized description of a continuum of particular, concrete processes. No one questions that a ten-year-old person is quite different by the time he or she turns thirty years old, and in many ways is not the same person at all; Whitehead points out that it is not philosophically or ontologically sound to think that a person is the same from one second to the next.

John Locke was one of Whitehead's primary influences. In the preface to Process and Reality, Whitehead wrote: "The writer who most fully anticipated the main positions of the philosophy of organism is John Locke in his Essay."[5]

A second problem with materialism is that it obscures the importance of relations. It sees every object as distinct and discrete from all other objects. Each object is simply an inert clump of matter that is only externally related to other things. The idea of matter as primary makes people think of objects as being fundamentally separate in time and space, and not necessarily related to anything. But in Whitehead's view, relations take a primary role, perhaps even more important than the relata themselves. A student taking notes in one of Whitehead's fall 1924 classes wrote that, "Reality applies to connections, and only relatively to the things connected. (A) is real for (B), and (B) is real for (A), but [they are] not absolutely real independent of each other." In fact, Whitehead describes any entity as in some sense nothing more and nothing less than the sum of its relations to other entities - its synthesis of and reaction to the world around it. A real thing is just that which forces the rest of the universe to in some way conform to it; that is to say, if theoretically, a thing made strictly no difference to any other entity (i.e., it was not related to any other entity), it could not be said to really exist. Relations are not secondary to what a thing is; they are what the thing is.

It must be emphasized,[why? ] however, that an entity is not merely a sum of its relations, but also a valuation of them and reaction to them. For Whitehead, creativity is the absolute principle of existence, and every entity (whether it is a human being, a tree, or an electron) has some degree of novelty in how it responds to other entities and is not fully determined by causal or mechanistic laws. Most entities do not have consciousness. As a human being's actions cannot always be predicted, the same can be said of where a tree's roots will grow, or how an electron will move, or whether it will rain tomorrow. Moreover, the inability to predict an electron's movement (for instance) is not due to faulty understanding or inadequate technology; rather, the fundamental creativity/freedom of all entities means that there will always remain phenomena that are unpredictable.

The other side of creativity/freedom as the absolute principle is that every entity is constrained by the social structure of existence (i.e., its relations); each actual entity must conform to the settled conditions of the world around it. Freedom always exists within limits. But an entity's uniqueness and individuality arise from its own self-determination as to just how it will take account of the world within the limits that have been set for it.

In summary, Whitehead rejects the idea of separate and unchanging bits of matter as the most basic building blocks of reality, in favour of the idea of reality as interrelated events in the process. He conceives of reality as composed of processes of dynamic "becoming" rather than static "being," emphasizing that all physical things change and evolve and that changeless "essences" such as matter are mere abstractions from the interrelated events that are the final real things that make up the world.

Since Whitehead's metaphysics described a universe in which all entities experience, he needed a new way of describing perception that was not limited to living, self-conscious beings. The term he coined was "prehension," which comes from the Latin prehensio, meaning "to seize". The term is meant to indicate a kind of perception that can be conscious or unconscious, applying to people as well as electrons. It is also intended to make clear Whitehead's rejection of the theory of representative perception, in which the mind only has private ideas about other entities. For Whitehead, the term "prehension" indicates that the perceiver actually incorporates aspects of the perceived thing into itself. In this way, entities are constituted by their perceptions and relations, rather than being independent of them. Further, Whitehead regards perception as occurring in two modes, causal efficacy (or "physical prehension") and presentational immediacy (or "conceptual prehension").

Whitehead describes causal efficacy as "the experience dominating the primitive living organisms, which have a sense for the fate from which they have emerged, and the fate towards which they go." It is, in other words, the sense of causal relations between entities, a feeling of being influenced and affected by the surrounding environment, unmediated by the senses. Presentational immediacy, on the other hand, is what is usually referred to as "pure sense perception," unmediated by any causal or symbolic interpretation, even unconscious interpretation. In other words, it is pure appearance, which may or may not be delusive (e.g., mistaking an image in a mirror for "the real thing").

In higher organisms (like people), these two modes of perception combine into what Whitehead terms "symbolic reference," which links appearance with causation in a process that is so automatic that both people and animals have difficulty refraining from it. By way of illustration, Whitehead uses the example of a person's encounter with a chair. An ordinary person looks up, sees a coloured shape, and immediately infers that it is a chair. However, an artist, Whitehead supposes, "might not have jumped to the notion of a chair," but instead "might have stopped at the mere contemplation of a beautiful colour and a beautiful shape." This is not the normal human reaction; most people place objects in categories by habit and instinct, without even thinking about it. Moreover, animals do the same thing. Using the same example, Whitehead points out that a dog "would have acted immediately on the hypothesis of a chair and would have jumped onto it by way of using it as such." In this way, symbolic reference is a fusion of pure sense perceptions on the one hand and causal relations on the other, and that it is in fact the causal relationships that dominate the more basic mentality (as the dog illustrates), while it is the sense perceptions which indicate a higher grade mentality (as the artist illustrates).

Whitehead believed that when asking questions about the basic facts of existence, questions about value and purpose can never be fully escaped. This is borne out in his thoughts on abiogenesis, or the hypothetical natural process by which life arises from simple organic compounds.

Whitehead makes the startling observation that "life is comparatively deficient in survival value." If humans can only exist for about a hundred years, and rocks for eight hundred million, then one is forced to ask why complex organisms ever evolved in the first place; as Whitehead humorously notes, "they certainly did not appear because they were better at that game than the rocks around them." He then observes that the mark of higher forms of life is that they are actively engaged in modifying their environment, an activity which he theorizes is directed toward the three-fold goal of living, living well, and living better. In other words, Whitehead sees life as directed toward the purpose of increasing its own satisfaction. Without such a goal, he sees the rise of life as totally unintelligible.

For Whitehead, there is no such thing as wholly inert matter. Instead, all things have some measure of freedom or creativity, however small, which allows them to be at least partly self-directed. The process philosopher David Ray Griffin coined the term " panexperientialism" (the idea that all entities experience) to describe Whitehead's view, and to distinguish it from panpsychism (the idea that all matter has consciousness).

Whitehead's idea of God differs from traditional monotheistic notions. Perhaps his most famous and pointed criticism of the Christian conception of God is that "the Church gave unto God the attributes which belonged exclusively to Caesar." Here, Whitehead is criticizing Christianity for defining God as primarily a divine king who imposes his will on the world, and whose most important attribute is power. As opposed to the most widely accepted forms of Christianity, Whitehead emphasized an idea of God that he called "the brief Galilean vision of humility":

It does not emphasize the ruling Caesar, or the ruthless moralist, or the unmoved mover. It dwells upon the tender elements in the world, which slowly and in quietness operates by love; and it finds purpose in the present immediacy of a kingdom not of this world. Love neither rules, nor is it unmoved; also it is a little oblivious as to morals. It does not look to the future; for it finds its own reward in the immediate present.

For Whitehead, God is not necessarily tied to religion. Rather than springing primarily from religious faith, Whitehead saw God as necessary for his metaphysical system. His system required that an order exist among possibilities, an order that allowed for novelty in the world and provided an aim to all entities. Whitehead posited that these ordered potentials exist in what he called the primordial nature of God. However, Whitehead was also interested in religious experience. This led him to reflect more intensively on what he saw as the second nature of God, the consequent nature. Whitehead's conception of God as a "dipolar" entity has called for fresh theological thinking.

The primordial nature he described as "the unlimited conceptual realization of the absolute wealth of potentiality" - i.e., the unlimited possibility of the universe. This primordial nature is eternal and unchanging, providing entities in the universe with possibilities for realization. Whitehead also calls this primordial aspect "the lure for feeling, the eternal urge of desire," pulling the entities in the universe toward as-yet unrealized possibilities.

God's consequent nature, on the other hand, is anything but unchanging; it is God's reception of the world's activity. As Whitehead puts it, "[God] saves the world as it passes into the immediacy of his own life. It is the judgment of a tenderness which loses nothing that can be saved." In other words, God saves and cherishes all experiences forever, and those experiences go on to change the way God interacts with the world. In this way, God is really changed by what happens in the world and the wider universe, lending the actions of finite creatures an eternal significance.

Whitehead thus sees God and the world as fulfilling one another. He sees entities in the world as fluent and changing things that yearn for a permanence which only God can provide by taking them into God's self, thereafter changing God and affecting the rest of the universe throughout time. On the other hand, he sees God as permanent but as deficient in actuality and change: alone, God is merely eternally unrealized possibilities and requires the world to actualize them. God gives creatures permanence, while the creatures give God actuality and change. Here it is worthwhile to quote Whitehead at length:

"In this way God is completed by the individual, fluent satisfactions of finite fact, and the temporal occasions are completed by their everlasting union with their transformed selves, purged into conformation with the eternal order which is the final absolute 'wisdom.' The final summary can only be expressed in terms of a group of antitheses, whose apparent self-contradictions depend on neglect of the diverse categories of existence. In each antithesis there is a shift of meaning which converts the opposition into a contrast.

"It is as true to say that God is permanent and the World fluent, as that the World is permanent and God is fluent.

"It is as true to say that God is one and the World many, as that the World is one and God many.

"It is as true to say that, in comparison with the World, God is actual eminently, as that, in comparison with God, the World is actual eminently.

"It is as true to say that the World is immanent in God, as that God is immanent in the World.

"It is as true to say that God transcends the World, as that the World transcends God.

"It is as true to say that God creates the World, as that the World creates God...

"What is done in the world is transformed into a reality in heaven, and the reality in heaven passes back into the world... In this sense, God is the great companion - the fellow-sufferer who understands."

The above is some of Whitehead's most evocative writing about God, and was powerful enough to inspire the movement known as process theology, a vibrant theological school of thought that continues to thrive today.

For Whitehead, the core of religion was individual. While he acknowledged that individuals cannot ever be fully separated from their society, he argued that life is an internal fact for its own sake before it is an external fact relating to others. His most famous remark on religion is that "religion is what the individual does with his own solitariness ... and if you are never solitary, you are never religious." Whitehead saw religion as a system of general truths that transformed a person's character. He took special care to note that while religion is often a good influence, it is not necessarily good - an idea which he called a "dangerous delusion" (e.g., a religion might encourage the violent extermination of a rival religion's adherents).

However, while Whitehead saw religion as beginning in solitariness, he also saw religion as necessarily expanding beyond the individual. In keeping with his process metaphysics in which relations are primary, he wrote that religion necessitates the realization of "the value of the objective world which is a community derivative from the interrelations of its component individuals." In other words, the universe is a community which makes itself whole through the relatedness of each individual entity to all the others; meaning and value do not exist for the individual alone, but only in the context of the universal community. Whitehead writes further that each entity "can find no such value till it has merged its individual claim with that of the objective universe. Religion is world loyalty. The spirit at once surrenders itself to this universal claim and appropriates it for itself." In this way, the individual and universal/social aspects of religion are mutually dependent. A connection between the works of William DeWitt Hyde and Whitehead further elucidates this necessary duality of social and individual roles in religious experience. Whitehead also described religion more technically as "an ultimate craving to infuse into the insistent particularity of emotion that non-temporal generality which primarily belongs to conceptual thought alone." In other words, religion takes deeply felt emotions and contextualizes them within a system of general truths about the world, helping people to identify their wider meaning and significance. For Whitehead, religion served as a kind of bridge between philosophy and the emotions and purposes of a particular society. It is the task of religion to make philosophy applicable to the everyday lives of ordinary people.

Isabelle Stengers wrote that "Whiteheadians are recruited among both philosophers and theologians, and the palette has been enriched by practitioners from the most diverse horizons, from ecology to feminism, practices that unite political struggle and spirituality with the sciences of education." In recent decades, attention to Whitehead's work has become more widespread, with interest extending to intellectuals in Europe and China, and coming from such diverse fields as ecology, physics, biology, education, economics, and psychology. One of the first theologians to attempt to interact with Whitehead's thought was the future Archbishop of Canterbury, William Temple. In Temple's Gifford Lectures of 1932-1934 (subsequently published as "Nature, Man and God"), Whitehead is one of a number of philosophers of the emergent evolution approach with which Temple interacts. However, it was not until the 1970s and 1980s that Whitehead's thought drew much attention outside of a small group of philosophers and theologians, primarily Americans, and even today he is not considered especially influential outside of relatively specialized circles.

Early followers of Whitehead were found primarily at the University of Chicago Divinity School, where Henry Nelson Wieman initiated an interest in Whitehead's work that would last for about thirty years. Professors such as Wieman, Charles Hartshorne, Bernard Loomer, Bernard Meland, and Daniel Day Williams made Whitehead's philosophy arguably the most important intellectual thread running through the divinity school. They taught generations of Whitehead scholars, the most notable of whom is John B. Cobb.

Although interest in Whitehead has since faded at Chicago's divinity school, Cobb effectively grabbed the torch and planted it firmly in Claremont, California, where he began teaching at Claremont School of Theology in 1958 and founded the Center for Process Studies with David Ray Griffin in 1973. Largely due to Cobb's influence, today Claremont remains strongly identified with Whitehead's process thought.

But while Claremont remains the most concentrated hub of Whiteheadian activity, the place where Whitehead's thought currently seems to be growing the most quickly is in China. In order to address the challenges of modernization and industrialization, China has begun to blend traditions of Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism with Whitehead's "constructive post-modern" philosophy in order to create an "ecological civilization". To date, the Chinese government has encouraged the building of twenty-three university-based centres for the study of Whitehead's philosophy, and books by process philosophers John Cobb and David Ray Griffin are becoming required reading for Chinese graduate students. Cobb has attributed China's interest in process philosophy partly to Whitehead's stress on the mutual interdependence of humanity and nature, as well as his emphasis on an educational system that includes the teaching of values rather than simply bare facts.

Overall, however, Whitehead's influence is very difficult to characterize. In English-speaking countries, his primary works are little-studied outside of Claremont and a select number of liberal graduate-level theology and philosophy programs. Outside of these circles, his influence is relatively small and diffuse and has tended to come chiefly through the work of his students and admirers rather than Whitehead himself. For instance, Whitehead was a teacher and long-time friend and collaborator of Bertrand Russell, and he also taught and supervised the dissertation of Willard Van Orman Quine, both of whom are important figures in analytic philosophy - the dominant strain of philosophy in English-speaking countries in the 20th century. Whitehead has also had high-profile admirers in the continental tradition, such as French post-structuralist philosopher Gilles Deleuze, who once dryly remarked of Whitehead that "he stands provisionally as the last great Anglo-American philosopher before Wittgenstein's disciples spread their misty confusion, sufficiency, and terror." French sociologist and anthropologist Bruno Latour even went so far as to call Whitehead "the greatest philosopher of the 20th century."

Deleuze's and Latour's opinions, however, are minority ones, as Whitehead has not been recognized as particularly influential within the most dominant philosophical schools. It is impossible to say exactly why Whitehead's influence has not been more widespread, but it may be partly due to his metaphysical ideas seeming somewhat counterintuitive (such as his assertion that matter is an abstraction), or his inclusion of theistic elements in his philosophy, or the perception of metaphysics itself as passé, or simply the sheer difficulty and density of his prose.

Philosopher Nicholas Rescher. Rescher is a proponent of both Whiteheadian process philosophy and American pragmatism.

Historically, Whitehead's work has been most influential in the field of American progressive theology. The most important early proponent of Whitehead's thought in a theological context was Charles Hartshorne, who spent a semester at Harvard as Whitehead's teaching assistant in 1925, and is widely credited with developing Whitehead's process philosophy into a full-blown process theology. Other notable process theologians include John B. Cobb, David Ray Griffin, Marjorie Hewitt Suchocki, C. Robert Mesle, Roland Faber, and Catherine Keller.

Process theology typically stresses God's relational nature. Rather than seeing God as impassive or emotionless, process theologians view God as "the fellow sufferer who understands," and as the being who is supremely affected by temporal events. Hartshorne points out that people would not praise a human ruler who was unaffected by either the joys or sorrows of his followers - so why would this be a praiseworthy quality in God? Instead, as the being who is most affected by the world, God is the being who can most appropriately respond to the world. However, process theology has been formulated in a wide variety of ways. C. Robert Mesle, for instance, advocates a "process naturalism" - i.e., a process theology without God.

In fact, process theology is difficult to define because process theologians are so diverse and transdisciplinary in their views and interests. John B. Cobb is a process theologian who has also written books on biology and economics. Roland Faber and Catherine Keller integrate Whitehead with poststructuralist, postcolonialist, and feminist theory. Charles Birch was both a theologian and a geneticist. Franklin I. Gamwell writes on theology and political theory. In Syntheism - Creating God in The Internet Age, futurologists Alexander Bard and Jan Söderqvist repeatedly credit Whitehead for the process theology they see rising out of the participatory culture expected to dominate the digital era.

One philosophical school which has historically had a close relationship with process philosophy is American pragmatism. Whitehead himself thought highly of William James and John Dewey, and acknowledged his indebtedness to them in the preface to Process and Reality. Charles Hartshorne (along with Paul Weiss) edited the collected papers of Charles Sanders Peirce, one of the founders of pragmatism. Noted neopragmatist Richard Rorty was in turn a student of Hartshorne. Today, Nicholas Rescher is one example of a philosopher who advocates both process philosophy and pragmatism.

In addition, while they might not properly be called process philosophers, Whitehead has been influential in the philosophy of Gilles Deleuze, Milič Čapek, Isabelle Stengers, Bruno Latour, Susanne Langer, and Maurice Merleau-Ponty.[citation needed ]

Theoretical physicist David Bohm. Bohm is one example of a scientist influenced by Whitehead's philosophy.[159]

Scientists of the early 20th century for whom Whitehead's work has been influential include physical chemist Ilya Prigogine, biologist Conrad Hal Waddington, and geneticists Charles Birch and Sewall Wright. Henry Murray dedicated his "Explorations in Personality" to Whitehead, a contemporary at Harvard.

In physics, Whitehead's theory of gravitation articulated a view that might perhaps be regarded as dual to Albert Einstein's general relativity. It has been severely criticized. Yutaka Tanaka suggested that the gravitational constant disagrees with experimental findings, and proposed that Einstein's work does not actually refute Whitehead's formulation. Whitehead's view has now been rendered obsolete, with the discovery of gravitational waves, phenomena observed locally that largely violate the kind of local flatness of space that Whitehead assumes. Consequently, Whitehead's cosmology must be regarded as a local approximation, and his assumption of a uniform spatio-temporal geometry, Minkowskian in particular, as an often-locally-adequate approximation. An exact replacement of Whitehead's cosmology would need to admit a Riemannian geometry. Also, although Whitehead himself gave only secondary consideration to quantum theory, his metaphysics of processes has proved attractive to some physicists in that field. Henry Stapp and David Bohm are among those whose work has been influenced by Whitehead.

In the 21st century, Whiteheadian thought is still a stimulating influence: Timothy E. Eastman and Hank Keeton's Physics and Whitehead (2004) and Michael Epperson's Quantum Mechanics and the Philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead (2004) and Foundations of Relational Realism: A Topological Approach to Quantum Mechanics and the Philosophy of Nature (2013), aim to offer Whiteheadian approaches to physics. Brian G. Henning, Adam Scarfe, and Dorion Sagan's Beyond Mechanism (2013) and Rupert Sheldrake's Science Set Free (2012) are examples of Whiteheadian approaches to biology.

Ecology, economy, and sustainability

Theologian, philosopher, and environmentalist John B. Cobb founded the Center for Process Studies in Claremont, California with David Ray Griffin in 1973, and is often regarded as the preeminent scholar in the field of process philosophy and process theology.[166][167][168][169]

One of the most promising applications of Whitehead's thought in recent years has been in the area of ecological civilization, sustainability, and environmental ethics.

This work has been pioneered by John B. Cobb, whose book Is It Too Late? A Theology of Ecology (1971) was the first single-authored book in environmental ethics. Cobb also co-authored a book with leading ecological economist and steady-state theorist Herman Daly entitled For the Common Good: Redirecting the Economy toward Community, the Environment, and a Sustainable Future (1989), which applied Whitehead's thought to economics, and received the Grawemeyer Award for Ideas Improving World Order. Cobb followed this with a second book, Sustaining the Common Good: A Christian Perspective on the Global Economy (1994), which aimed to challenge "economists' zealous faith in the great god of growth."

Whitehead is widely known for his influence in education theory. His philosophy inspired the formation of the Association for Process Philosophy of Education (APPE), which published eleven volumes of a journal titled Process Papers on process philosophy and education from 1996 to 2008. Whitehead's theories on education also led to the formation of new modes of learning and new models of teaching.

One such model is the ANISA model developed by Daniel C. Jordan, which sought to address a lack of understanding of the nature of people in current education systems. As Jordan and Raymond P. Shepard put it: "Because it has not defined the nature of man, education is in the untenable position of having to devote its energies to the development of curricula without any coherent ideas about the nature of the creature for whom they are intended."

Another model is the FEELS model developed by Xie Bangxiu and deployed successfully in China. "FEELS" stands for five things in curriculum and education: Flexible-goals, Engaged-learner, Embodied-knowledge, Learning-through-interactions, and Supportive-teacher. It is used for understanding and evaluating educational curriculum under the assumption that the purpose of education is to "help a person become whole." This work is in part the product of cooperation between Chinese government organizations and the Institute for the Postmodern Development of China.

Whitehead's philosophy of education has also found institutional support in Canada, where the University of Saskatchewan created a Process Philosophy Research Unit and sponsored several conferences on process philosophy and education. Howard Woodhouse at the University of Saskatchewan remains a strong proponent of Whiteheadian education.

Three recent books which further develop Whitehead's philosophy of education include: Modes of Learning: Whitehead's Metaphysics and the Stages of Education (2012) by George Allan; The Adventure of Education: Process Philosophers on Learning, Teaching, and Research (2009) by Adam Scarfe; and "Educating for an Ecological Civilization: Interdisciplinary, Experiential, and Relational Learning" (2017) edited by Marcus Ford and Stephen Rowe. "Beyond the Modern University: Toward a Constructive Postmodern University," (2002) is another text that explores the importance of Whitehead's metaphysics for thinking about higher education.

Whitehead has had some influence on philosophy of business administration and organizational theory. This has led in part to a focus on identifying and investigating the effect of temporal events (as opposed to static things) within organizations through an "organization studies" discourse that accommodates a variety of 'weak' and 'strong' process perspectives from a number of philosophers. One of the leading figures having an explicitly Whiteheadian and panexperientialist stance towards management is Mark Dibben, who works in what he calls "applied process thought" to articulate a philosophy of management and business administration as part of a wider examination of the social sciences through the lens of process metaphysics. For Dibben, this allows "a comprehensive exploration of life as perpetually active experiencing, as opposed to occasional - and thoroughly passive - happening." Dibben has published two books on applied process thought, Applied Process Thought I: Initial Explorations in Theory and Research (2008), and Applied Process Thought II: Following a Trail Ablaze (2009), as well as other papers in this vein in the fields of philosophy of management and business ethics.

Margaret Stout and Carrie M. Staton have also written recently on the mutual influence of Whitehead and Mary Parker Follett, a pioneer in the fields of organizational theory and organizational behavior. Stout and Staton see both Whitehead and Follett as sharing an ontology that "understands becoming as a relational process; difference as being related, yet unique; and the purpose of becoming as harmonizing difference." This connection is further analyzed by Stout and Jeannine M. Love in Integrative Process: Follettian Thinking from Ontology to Administration

Whitehead's political views sometimes appear to be libertarian without the label. He wrote:

Now the intercourse between individuals and between social groups takes one of two forms, force or persuasion. Commerce is the great example of intercourse by way of persuasion. War, slavery, and governmental compulsion exemplify the reign of force.

On the other hand, many Whitehead scholars read his work as providing a philosophical foundation for the social liberalism of the New Liberal movement that was prominent throughout Whitehead's adult life. Morris wrote that "... there is good reason for claiming that Whitehead shared the social and political ideals of the new liberals."

Books written by Whitehead, listed by date of publication.

A Treatise on Universal Algebra. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1898. ISBN 1-4297-0032-7. Available online at http://projecteuclid.org/euclid.chmm/1263316509 Archived 3 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine.

The Axioms of Descriptive Geometry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1907. Available online at http://quod.lib.umich.edu/u/umhistmath/ABN2643.0001.001.

with Bertrand Russell. Principia Mathematica, Volume I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1910. Available online at http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/b/bib/bibperm?q1=AAT3201.0001.001. Vol. 1 to *56 is available as a CUP paperback.

An Introduction to Mathematics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1911. Available online at http://quod.lib.umich.edu/u/umhistmath/AAW5995.0001.001. Vol. 56 of the Great Books of the Western World series.

with Bertrand Russell. Principia Mathematica, Volume II. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1912. Available online at http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/b/bib/bibperm?q1=AAT3201.0002.001.

with Bertrand Russell. Principia Mathematica, Volume III. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1913. Available online at http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/b/bib/bibperm?q1=AAT3201.0003.001.

The Organization of Thought Educational and Scientific. London: Williams & Norgate, 1917. Available online at https://archive.org/details/organisationofth00whit.

An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Natural Knowledge. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1919. Available online at https://archive.org/details/enquiryconcernpr00whitrich.

The Concept of Nature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1920. Based on the November 1919 Tarner Lectures delivered at Trinity College. Available online at https://archive.org/details/cu31924012068593.

The Principle of Relativity with Applications to Physical Science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1922. Available online at https://archive.org/details/theprincipleofre00whituoft.

Science and the Modern World. New York: Macmillan Company, 1925. Vol. 55 of the Great Books of the Western World series.

Religion in the Making. New York: Macmillan Company, 1926. Based on the 1926 Lowell Lectures.

Symbolism, Its Meaning and Effect. New York: Macmillan Co., 1927. Based on the 1927 Barbour-Page Lectures delivered at the University of Virginia.

Process and Reality: An Essay in Cosmology. New York: Macmillan Company, 1929. Based on the 1927-28 Gifford Lectures delivered at the University of Edinburgh. The 1978 Free Press "corrected edition" edited by David Ray Griffin and Donald W. Sherburne corrects many errors in both the British and American editions, and also provides a comprehensive index.

The Aims of Education and Other Essays. New York: Macmillan Company, 1929.

The Function of Reason. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1929. Based on the March 1929 Louis Clark Vanuxem Foundation Lectures delivered at Princeton University.

Adventures of Ideas. New York: Macmillan Company, 1933. Also published by Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1933.

Nature and Life. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1934.

Modes of Thought. New York: MacMillan Company, 1938.

"Mathematics and the Good." In The Philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead, edited by Paul Arthur Schilpp, 666-681. Evanston and Chicago: Northwestern University Press, 1941.

"Immortality." In The Philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead, edited by Paul Arthur Schilpp, 682-700. Evanston and Chicago: Northwestern University Press, 1941.

Essays in Science and Philosophy. London: Philosophical Library, 1947.

with Allison Heartz Johnson, ed. The Wit and Wisdom of Whitehead. Boston: Beacon Press, 1948.

Paul A. Bogaard and Jason Bell, eds. The Harvard Lectures of Alfred North Whitehead, 1924-1925: Philosophical Presuppositions of Science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017.

1. Alfred North Whitehead at the Mathematics Genealogy Project

2. Alfred North Whitehead, Process and Reality (New York: The Free Press, 1978), xii.

3. ^ Michel Weber and Will Desmond, eds., Handbook of Whiteheadian Process Thought, Volume 1 (Frankfurt: Ontos Verlag, 2008), 17.

4. John B. Cobb Jr. and David Ray Griffin, Process Theology: An Introductory Exposition (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1976), 174.

5. ^ Michel Weber and Will Desmond, eds., Handbook of Whiteheadian Process Thought, Volume 1 (Frankfurt: Ontos Verlag, 2008), 26.

6. ^ "Alfred North Whitehead - Biography". European Graduate School. Archived from the original on 3 September 2013.

7. "The Modern Library's Top 100 Nonfiction Books of the Century". 30 April 1999. The New York Times. Accessed 21 November 2013.

8. Philip Rose, On Whitehead (Belmont: Wadsworth, 2002), preface.

9. ^ Cobb, John B., Jr.; Schwartz, Wm. Andrew (2018). Putting Philosophy to Work: Toward an Ecological Civilization. Process Century Press. ISBN 978-1-940447-33-9.

10. ^ Griffin Ed., Nicholas (1992). The Selected Letters of Bertrand Russell, Volume 1, pp.215-217. New York: Houghton Miffin. ISBN 0-395-56269-4.

11. On Whitehead the mathematician and logician, see ^ Ivor Grattan-Guinness, The Search for Mathematical Roots 1870-1940: Logics, Set Theories, and the Foundations of Mathematics from Cantor through Russell to Gödel (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000), and Quine's chapter in Paul Schilpp, The Philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead (New York: Tudor Publishing Company, 1941), 125-163.

12. ^ Lowe, Victor (31 March 1974). "Whitehead's 1911 Criticism of The Problems of Philosophy". Journal of Bertrand Russell Studies. 13: 1-28.

13. ^ "The Edinburgh Critical Edition of the Complete Works of Alfred North Whitehead". Edinburgh University Press Books.

14. Christoph Wassermann, "The Relevance of An Introduction to Mathematics to Whitehead's Philosophy", Process Studies 17 (1988): 181. Available online at

15. Cf. ^ Michel Weber and Will Desmond (eds.). Handbook of Whiteheadian Process Thought (Frankfurt / Lancaster, Ontos Verlag, Process Thought X1 & X2, 2008) and Ronny Desmet & Michel Weber (edited by), Whitehead. The Algebra of Metaphysics. Applied Process Metaphysics Summer Institute Memorandum, Louvain-la-Neuve, Les Éditions Chromatika, 2010.

16. Alfred North Whitehead, ^ A Treatise on Universal Algebra (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1898), v. Available online at http://projecteuclid.org/DPubS/Repository/1.0/Disseminate?handle=euclid.chmm/1263316510&view=body&content-type=pdf_1

17. Barron Brainerd, "Review of ^ Universal Algebra by P. M. Cohn", American Mathematical Monthly, 74 (1967): 878-880.

18. Hal Hellman, Great Feuds in Mathematics: Ten of the Liveliest Disputes Ever (Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, 2006). Available online at https://books.google.com/books?id=ft8bEGf_OOcC&pg=PT12

19. "^ Principia Mathematica", last modified 3 December 2013, Andrew David Irvine, ed. Edward N. Zalta, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2013 Edition), accessed 5 December 2013, http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/principia-mathematica/#HOPM.

20. "^ Principia Mathematica", last modified 3 December 2013, Andrew David Irvine, ed. Edward N. Zalta, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2013 Edition), accessed 5 December 2013, http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/principia-mathematica/#SOPM.

21. Christoph Wassermann, "The Relevance of An Introduction to Mathematics to Whitehead's Philosophy", ^ Process Studies 17 (1988): 181-182. Available online at

22. Christoph Wassermann, "The Relevance of An Introduction to Mathematics to Whitehead's Philosophy", ^ Process Studies 17 (1988): 182. Available online at

23. Committee To Inquire into the Position of Classics in the Educational System of the United Kingdom, ^ Report of the Committee Appointed by the Prime Minister to Inquire into the Position of Classics in the Educational System of the United Kingdom, (London: His Majesty's Stationery Office, 1921), 1, 282. Available online at https://archive.org/details/reportofcommitt00grea.

24. "China embraces Alfred North Whitehead", last modified 10 December 2008, Douglas Todd, The Vancouver Sun, accessed 5 December 2013, http://blogs.vancouversun.com/2008/12/10/china-embraces-alfred-north-whitehead/ Archived 10 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine.

25. ^ Alfred North Whitehead to Bertrand Russell, 13 February 1895, Bertrand Russell Archives, Archives and Research Collections, McMaster Library, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.

26. ^ George P. Conger, "Whitehead lecture notes: Seminary in Logic: Logical and Metaphysical Problems", 1927, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut.

27. ^ Alfred North Whitehead, Process and Reality (New York: The Free Press, 1978), 18.

28. ^ Louise R. Heath, "Notes on Whitehead's Philosophy 3b: Philosophical Presuppositions of Science", 27 September 1924, Whitehead Research Project, Center for Process Studies, Claremont, California.

29. ^ George Garin, "Theistic Evolution in a Sacramental Universe: The Theology of William Temple Against the Background of Process Thinkers (Whitehead, Alexander, Etc.)," (Protestant University Press, Kinshasa, The Congo, 1991).

30. ^ David Ray Griffin, "John B. Cobb, Jr.: A Theological Biography", in Theology and the University: Essays in Honor of John B. Cobb, Jr., ed. David Ray Griffin and Joseph C. Hough, Jr. (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991), 229.

31. "Quine Biography", last modified October 2003, John J. O'Connor and ^ Edmund F. Robertson, MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews, accessed 5 December 2013, http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Quine.html.

32. ^ Bruno Latour, preface to Thinking with Whitehead: A Free and Wild Creation of Concepts, by Isabelle Stengers, trans. Michael Chase (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2011), x.

33. ^ Will, C.M. (1981/1993). Theory and Experiment in Gravitational Physics, revised edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK, ISBN 978-0-521-43973-2, p. 139.

34. ^ Monica Coleman, Nancy R. Howell, and Helene Tallon Russell, Creating Women's Theology: A Movement Engaging Process Thought (Wipf and Stock, 2011), 13.

35. Mark Dibben, "Exploring the Processual Nature of Trust and Cooperation in Organisations: A Whiteheadian Analysis," in ^ Philosophy of Management 4 (2004): 25-39; Mark Dibben, "Organisations and Organising: Understanding and Applying Whitehead's Processual Account," in Philosophy of Management 7 (2009); Cristina Neesham and Mark Dibben, "The Social Value of Business: Lessons from Political Economy and Process Philosophy," in Applied Ethics: Remembering Patrick Primeaux (Research in Ethical Issues in Organizations, Volume 8), ed. Michael Schwartz and Howard Harris (Emerald Group Publishing Limited, 2012): 63-83.

For the most comprehensive list of resources related to Whitehead, see the thematic bibliography of the Center for Process Studies.

Casati, Roberto, and Achille C. Varzi. Parts and Places: The Structures of Spatial Representation. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1999.

Ford, Lewis. Emergence of Whitehead's Metaphysics, 1925-1929. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1985.

Hartshorne, Charles. Whitehead's Philosophy: Selected Essays, 1935-1970. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1972.

Henning, Brian G. The Ethics of Creativity: Beauty, Morality, and Nature in a Processive Cosmos. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2005.

Holtz, Harald and Ernest Wolf-Gazo, eds. Whitehead und der Prozeßbegriff / Whitehead and The Idea of Process. Proceedings of the First International Whitehead-Symposion. Verlag Karl Alber, Freiburg i. B. / München, 1984. ISBN 3-495-47517-6

Jones, Judith A. Intensity: An Essay in Whiteheadian Ontology. Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1998.

Kraus, Elizabeth M. The Metaphysics of Experience. New York: Fordham University Press, 1979.

Malik, Charles H. The Systems of Whitehead's Metaphysics. Zouq Mosbeh, Lebanon: Notre Dame Louaize, 2016. 436 pp.

McDaniel, Jay. What is Process Thought?: Seven Answers to Seven Questions. Claremont: P&F Press, 2008.

McHenry, Leemon. The Event Universe: The Revisionary Metaphysics of Alfred North Whitehead. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2015.

Nobo, Jorge L. Whitehead's Metaphysics of Extension and Solidarity. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1986.

Price, Lucien. Dialogues of Alfred North Whitehead. New York: Mentor Books, 1956.

Quine, Willard Van Orman. "Whitehead and the rise of modern logic." In The Philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead, edited by Paul Arthur Schilpp, 125-163. Evanston and Chicago: Northwestern University Press, 1941.

Rapp, Friedrich and Reiner Wiehl, eds. Whiteheads Metaphysik der Kreativität. Internationales Whitehead-Symposium Bad Homburg 1983. Verlag Karl Alber, Freiburg i. B. / München, 1986. ISBN 3-495-47612-1

Rescher, Nicholas. Process Metaphysics. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995.

Rescher, Nicholas. Process Philosophy: A Survey of Basic Issues. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2001.

Roelker, Nancy Lyman. An Application Of Whitehead's Concepts Of Conformity and Novelty to the Philosophy of History. Unpublished dissertation, 1940, Harvard University. Held in John Hay Library's Special Collections at Brown University.

Schilpp, Paul Arthur, ed. The Philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead. Evanston and Chicago: Northwestern University Press, 1941. Part of the Library of Living Philosophers series.

Siebers, Johan. The Method of Speculative Philosophy: An Essay on the Foundations of Whitehead's Metaphysics. Kassel: Kassel University Press GmbH, 2002. ISBN 3-933146-79-8

Smith, Olav Bryant. Myths of the Self: Narrative Identity and Postmodern Metaphysics. Lanham: Lexington Books, 2004. ISBN 0-7391-0843-3

- Contains a section called "Alfred North Whitehead: Toward a More Fundamental Ontology" that is an overview of Whitehead's metaphysics.

Weber, Michel. Whitehead's Pancreativism - The Basics. Frankfurt: Ontos Verlag, 2006.

Weber, Michel. Whitehead's Pancreativism - Jamesian Applications, Frankfurt / Paris: Ontos Verlag, 2011.

Weber, Michel and Will Desmond (eds.). Handbook of Whiteheadian Process Thought, Frankfurt / Lancaster: Ontos Verlag, 2008.

Alan Van Wyk and Michel Weber (eds.). Creativity and Its Discontents. The Response to Whitehead's Process and Reality, Frankfurt / Lancaster: Ontos Verlag, 2009.

Will, Clifford. Theory and Experiment in Gravitational Physics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.

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Alfred North Whitehead (15 February 1861 - 30 December 1947) was an English mathematician and philosopher. He created the philosophical school known as process philosophy, which has been applied in a wide variety of disciplines, including ecology, theology, education, physics, biology, economics, and psychology. In his early career Whitehead wrote primarily on mathematics, logic, and physics.

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#Bergson

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#Bergson #Time, #Creativity and Culture: Introducing Bergson

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Dear Noami,

We came to the conclusion to take process (fluidity) as the focus point of the thesis. In this context, we can take the keywords process and fluidity, literarily and figuratively. We talked about Bergson who was quite busy understanding process and fluidity (see post 1). Another philosopher who was very intrigued about the process is Alfred North Whitehead (see post 2). We thought about doing maybe the end product of the thesis in the form of a three-dimensional mind map that shows the process of research to which eventually other people can add stuff. So instead of a writing piece, a three-dimensional mind map which you could document by taking pictures. Aby Warburg was addicted to three-dimensional mind maps (post 3).

You also brought alchemy (see post 4 ) in relation to the concept of process and fluidity. And in our talk about alchemy, we also stumbled again onto the word utopia (a keyword which already in the first year occupied your mind). You pointed out the alchemical terms (4 stages in alchemy): Nigredo, Albedo, Citrinitas, and Rubedo. It is also interesting to delve into the alchemical terms Solve and coagula. Solve et coagula is a principle of alchemy meaning "dissolve and coagulate". According to this principle, a substance must be broken down before it can be built up into something new. Solve refers to this breaking down of elements and coagula refers to their coming together. Alan Moore (see post 5) relates to Solve to postmodernism (deconstruction) and coagula to Modernism (construction/utopia). He believes it’s time again for coagula after a time of postmodernism. This brought us to a talk about metamodernism (post 6), it's a school of thought in the artistic world that tries to place itself between Solve (modernism) and Coagula (postmodernism) (see post 4), like a pendulum it bounces back and forth between sincerity and irony.  They want something of the belief of modernism (utopia) but at the same time something of the irony of postmodernism in order to not fall into the trap of fanaticism and a short-minded belief in one idea, at the same time the irony must also not take over control until it reaches the point of nothingness/cynicism (undermining everything with nothing left to believe in). They believe that being in the process captures both (solve and Coagula). This made me also think of the term magnum opus that you came up with, instead of an end product you brought the concept in relation to process. In this context the text of Duchamp (post 7) might be interesting, he talks a lot about the importance of process. Besides that, he believed that the judgment of an artwork depends on the taste of generations later, they decide if an artwork will be part of the canon of the history of Art or not. The way you described the word magnum opus made me also think about the way Kant (post 8) thought about beauty. He believed that an artist is drawn by an idea of a higher coherence which the artist can never know or achieve, every last work can be felt as the best, but there’s always more. The philosopher's stone is unachievable, what we can also find in the mindset of metamodernism.

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How is the concept of 'fame' affecting our culture?

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How is the concept of 'fame' affecting our culture?

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1. Famous people can't do things that the average person can.

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Being a Famous person Has its Ups and Downs

Being a celebrity or simply being famous has its own advantages and disadvantages. The common perception is that celebrities and famous personalities have everything in life. After all, the grass is always greener on the other side, isn't it?

The truth is that there are as many downsides and disadvantages of being a celebrity as there are the number of benefits. Who said being famous was always fun? Decide for yourself-read on in this article for for five advantages and five disadvantages of being a celebrity.

Five Major Advantages of Being a Celebrity

1. Celebrities get special treatment wherever they go. It is a no-brainer to assume that someone like Selena Gomez or Justin Bieber will get preferential treatment over other customers at a restaurant, don't you think? From special seats at theaters to special tables at restaurants, celebrities are given the advantage of being the preferred customers everywhere they go. Wouldn't you love it if you were given preferred entry at nightclubs, or given the first row seats at award functions? Of course you would-that is exactly why this perk of being famous is just too tempting.

2. Being famous generally means being richer. One of the very obvious advantages of being famous is that fame generally brings lots of fortune. Celebrities and other famous people are generally richer than the average Joe. Luxurious homes and cars, fancy gifts, expensive clothes and other such materialistic pleasures of life convert from a dream to a reality when people become famous celebrities. Forget homes-celebrities are also known to own entire islands. If you have a single ounce of doubt whether celebrities are actually rich, check out an episode of MTV Cribs, and all your doubts will magically disappear. In particular, watch the episode which showcases the home, cars, and lifestyle of 50 Cent.

3. Celebrities are recognized everywhere they go. Celebrities are recognized everywhere they go. This is an advantage because people often experience a massive ego boost when random bystanders recognize them. It can be a great opportunity to boast to a friend and say: "Gee, I'm so famous. Everyone recognizes me." Most seasoned celebrities get over this initial ego boost quickly, of course. However, being recognized, spotted, and pictured is quite a rush and a nice massage to the egos of some famous people, still.

4. Celebrities and famous people have fans. Fans are the people who adore their celebrity idols. They can have celebrity crushes or even real life admiration for their idols. Fan mail and other forms of appreciation that celebrities receive can be inspirational, motivational, and very humbling. After all, who wouldn't like to have their own fans, followers, and worshipers?

5. Many opportunities arise when people become famous. When people become famous, more opportunities arise in life, whether they are career related or not. For example, someone like Michael Jordan made a living not only from playing ball. He was also the face of Nike and promoted many other brands. Also, someone like Kim Kardashian can afford to dwell into newer businesses like fashion apparel and perfumes simply because she is famous and can afford to sustain and promote them. Being famous definitely opens many doors in life which would have remained shut had fame not been achieved. Many celebrities tend to embark upon the entrepreneurship path as soon as they achieve stardom. After all, if Kim Kardashian can reportedly charge in upwards of $8,000 for doing nothing but sending one tweet from her twitter account, then anything is possible!

Five Major Disadvantages of Being a Celebrity

1. Famous people can't do things that the average person can. What do you think would happen if Paris Hilton walked down to the supermarket on a regular day? She would be mobbed and hounded for autographs and pictures. Celebrities and other famous people cannot lead lives of normal people. They may be forced to live in their own little secluded world, and will generally be unable to do things that the average Joe can. This disadvantage of being famous can stop celebrities from indulging in the little pleasures of life, which can be very frustrating indeed. Some of these simple pleasures of life include:

2. Being famous or a celebrity can attract stalkers. We've all heard about those nasty cases of celebrity stalking that have gone out of control. Famous people are often followed or harassed by phone, email, or mail by fans or followers who cross the line and become obsessed. Obsession can turn into threats and even physical harm.

3. A celebrity status can attract too many fake friends. From a celebrity's perspective, it'd become very hard to separate a genuine person who wants to be friends from many of the million wannabe friends who may want to befriend them for personal gain. As one would imagine, it'd be a nerve wracking experience to scrutinize each and every individual that comes into their lives. It would literally translate to being on-guard every single hour, minute and second of the day.

4. People constantly judge celebrities. Tabloids, magazines, newspapers, blogs, and other forms of media constantly judge celebrities on their personalities, habits, bodies, and a lot more. Reading demeaning, rude, nasty, insulting, and derogatory lies about one's own self is a part and parcel of a celebrity's daily routine. From a layperson's point of view, it's like having a million people talk behind your back on a daily basis. Imagine how hard-hitting this would it be if a tabloid talked about how fat you are or how sleazy you are.

5. Celebrities have no privacy. If Kim Kardashian wears a bikini and steps out on the beaches of Miami to catch some sun, the entire world is going to know about it. If Arnold Schwarzenegger heads out for a ride on his motorcycle on a sunny day, pictures of him are going to be splashed in the tabloids. If Paris Hilton and her beau have an argument or a fight in a nightclub, the whole world will know about it. Get the point? Lack of privacy is one of the biggest disadvantages of being a celebrity

In conclusion. Fame should be a blessing, but if not properly handled might become a burden. Maturity and exposure to a great extent determines what you make of fame, and what you get out of it. It can be like a two edged sword really.

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Being a Famous person Has its Ups and Downs Being a celebrity or simply being famous has its own advantages and disadvantages. The common perception is that celebrities and famous personalities have everything in life.

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Is there a cultural difference in fame around the world?

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Is there a cultural difference in fame around the world?

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Fame definition is - public estimation : reputation. How to use fame in a sentence.

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I am interested in learning more about them because I am researching fame and effect of fame

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''Veel ontwerpers, sierkunstenaars en kunstcritici wijzen de flamboyante vormentaal van omringende landen af. Een ‘nieuwe kunst’, zo menen zij, moet aansluiten bij de nationale volksaard en de zwierige, losbandige zweepslaglijn zou niet passen niet bij de vermeend nuchtere Hollandse inborst. In felle bewoordingen, zoals de ‘kant-nog-wal-rakende wulpschheid’ van de Belgen of de ‘opdirkingskunst’ van de Duitsers, wordt de sierkunst van omringende landen weggezet als iets waar de Nederlandse kunstenaars verre van dienden te blijven. Toch blijken veel ontwerpers en kunstenaars niet ongevoelig voor de internationale vormgeving. Wie goed kijkt, ziet dat de sierlijke zweepslaglijnen rond de eeuwwisseling ook in Nederland zijn sporen hebben nagelaten, met name in Den Haag. Niet alleen in de architectuur, ook in de toegepaste kunsten.

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Art Nouveau in Nederland

Een nieuwe kunst voor een nieuwe en betere samenleving. Dat is waar veel kunstenaars en ontwerpers rond 1900 naar op zoek zijn. Na een eeuw van stijlen die het verleden citeren, ontstaat een nieuwe vormentaal van asymmetrie, gebogen lijnen en organische decoratiemotieven. Nederland neemt in deze artistieke zoektocht een geheel eigen plek in. Art nouveau sprankelt in ons land van vernieuwingsdrift en idealisme, maar er wordt evengoed gezocht naar het authentieke. Met een interdisciplinaire presentatie zet het Gemeentemuseum de toegepaste kunsten uit het fin de siècle in een brede context. Zo maakt de tentoonstelling de dynamiek van die tijd (1884-1914) inzichtelijk, voelbaar én herkenbaar in onze tijd waarin authenticiteit en vakmanschap opnieuw hoog in het vaandel staan.

De vernieuwingsdrift in de kunstwereld rond 1900 valt samen met grote veranderingen in de samenleving. Voor het eerst groeit de bevolking in de steden sneller dan op het platteland. Nieuwe communicatiemiddelen bevorderen de internationaliserende wereld. De eerste voorzichtige stappen naar kiesrechtuitbreidingen zorgen voor de opkomst van emancipatiebewegingen. En dankzij de industrialisering en een groeiende welvaart worden luxe en vermaak bereikbaar voor bredere lagen van de bevolking. In de kunstwereld, met name bij ontwerpers en sierkunstenaars, leiden de veranderingen tot tegenreacties, zoals een (her)waardering van de natuur, het platteland en het ambachtelijke.

Net als in omringende landen wordt in Nederland de nieuwe industriële samenleving verantwoordelijk gehouden voor 'het verval der kunsten'. "We zijn kinderen van de eeuw der stoommachine, der telegraaf en der elektriciteit. We hebben ons afgewend van het schoone en daarom begrijpen we het niet meer", betoogde sierkunstenaar Johannes Ros melancholisch.

Er zijn wel grote verschillen met buurlanden als België en Duitsland. Een nieuwe expressieve vormentaal moet daar vooral appelleren aan het vonkende levensgevoel van een wereld die in stroomversnelling raakt, terwijl de art nouveau in Nederland juist streeft naar het 'ware', het 'echte', het oorspronkelijke. De herwaardering van het ambacht, de hervorming van het tekenonderwijs, de grote waardering voor het volmaakte en ongerepte van de natuur, en de fascinatie voor exotische, 'onbedorven' culturen; de drang naar vernieuwing en het idealisme gaan hand-in-hand met het zoeken naar authenticiteit.

Schoonheid als levensnoodzaak

Veel ontwerpers, sierkunstenaars en kunstcritici wijzen de flamboyante vormentaal van omringende landen af. Een 'nieuwe kunst', zo menen zij, moet aansluiten bij de nationale volksaard en de zwierige, losbandige zweepslaglijn zou niet passen niet bij de vermeend nuchtere Hollandse inborst. In felle bewoordingen, zoals de 'kant-nog-wal-rakende wulpschheid' van de Belgen of de 'opdirkingskunst' van de Duitsers, wordt de sierkunst van omringende landen weggezet als iets waar de Nederlandse kunstenaars verre van dienden te blijven. Toch blijken veel ontwerpers en kunstenaars niet ongevoelig voor de internationale vormgeving. Wie goed kijkt, ziet dat de sierlijke zweepslaglijnen rond de eeuwwisseling ook in Nederland zijn sporen hebben nagelaten, met name in Den Haag. Niet alleen in de architectuur, ook in de toegepaste kunsten.

Hoe fel sierkunstenaars en kunstcritici in theoretisch opzicht soms ook naar elkaar uithalen, in de praktijk bestonden velerlei smaakrichtingen naast elkaar en werden elementen uit verschillende stromingen gecombineerd. Dit heeft de art nouveau in Nederland een zeer pluriform uiterlijk gegeven. Wat al deze kunstenaars bond was de overtuiging dat goede vormgeving een belangrijke voorwaarde was voor een betere maatschappij: schoonheid was voor hen een 'levensnoodzaak'.

Interdisciplinaire opzet

Na de succesvolle tentoonstelling Art Deco - Paris, waarin het werk van de Franse couturier Paul Poiret in een brede context werd geplaatst, staat nu de periode voorafgaand aan de art deco centraal. Art Nouveau in Nederland legt de focus op de periode tussen 1884 - 1914 en zoomt in op de ontwikkelingen in ons land. De grote selectie van meer dan 350 werken, waaronder affiches en boekbanden van Jan Toorop, kamerschermen van Jac. van den Bosch, kalenderbladen van Anna Sipkema, verfijnde natuurstudies van Theo Nieuwenhuis, metaalwerk van Jan Eisenloeffel, meubels van Johan Thorn Prikker en complete interieurs van Karel de Bazel en Hendrik Petrus Berlage, biedt een rijk beeld van deze tijd. De insteek van de tentoonstelling is interdisciplinair en duidt de stroming in overkoepelende thema's als 'Terug naar de natuur' en 'Verlangen naar het Oosten'.

Naast het accent op de versmelting van de kunsten, is er aandacht voor afzonderlijke ontwerpers, waaronder een aantal tot nu toe onbekende (vrouwelijke) kunstenaars. Verder is er aandacht voor specifieke motieven en details, voor de invloed van het ontwerponderwijs en de band met Den Haag, een belangrijk centrum van de art nouveau in Nederland.

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Na de succesvolle tentoonstelling Art Deco - Paris, waarin het werk van de Franse couturier Paul Poiret in een brede context werd geplaatst, staat nu de periode voorafgaand aan de art deco centraal. Art Nouveau in Nederland legt de focus op de periode tussen 1884 - 1914 en zoomt in op de ontwikkelingen in ons land.

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#clowns #artists #flowers #growth

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Beauty is Blind - On the chase for 'utopian beauty'

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Beauty is Blind - On the chase for 'utopian beauty'

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This is the essay that I wrote for Hille's Studio Classroom class during Year 3 Semester 1 Block 1.

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(PDF) Naomi Arnaudova - Studio Classroom Essay Semester 5

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Utopianism philosophy and the search for a perfect world | A-Z of ISMs Episode 21 - BBC Ideas

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The Shock of the New - Ep  4 - Trouble in Utopia

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(CA) The figures' gentle interactions with the environment around them

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(CA) The figures' gentle interactions with the environment around them

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(CA) Loving and sweet gaze of the depicted figures

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(CA) Loving and sweet gaze of the depicted figures

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(CA) The laid back body language of the depicted figures

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(CA) The laid back body language of the depicted figures

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(EF) The feeling that there is no danger around - nothing can hurt you

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(EF) The feeling that there is no danger around - nothing can hurt you

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(CA) The depiction of flowers and nature in bloom

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(CA) The depiction of flowers and nature in bloom

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Boats and boating--Equipment and supplies