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this kind of dessert has been deep-fried so it has much better Taste.
https://www.tasteatlas.com/most-popular-deep-fried-desserts-in-maghreb

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3 Most Popular Maghrebi Deep-fried Desserts

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is the food that Tunisian eat with the Sauce is easy to make and can fill their hunger. https://www.ourtunisiantable.com/home/2018/3/11/tunisian-bread-rougag

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5 cups flour

2 cups water (you may end up only using 1.5)

1tsp salt

Vegetable oil
Preparation:
In a food processor or bread maker, start by adding the flour and 1.5 cups of water. Top with salt and turn the appliance on. If you're mixing by hand, make sure all the ingredients are combined but don't over-mix. Once the dough is mixed well and comes together, feel it to see if it's too dry or too wet. You want it to be smooth and soft but not overly dry or overly wet and sticky. If it is on the dryer side add another half cup of water and feel again. The dough will vary depending on location and weather.

Once the dough has formed, roll it out by hand into a log shape and cut it into smaller pieces, we found with this amount of flour you should be able to get 8 balls or breads. Roll each small piece into a ball and cover well with oil turning the prices every so often as not to dry out. Let rest for 10-20 minutes or until rested enough that the dough fills out easily.

On a flat surface, start to stretch the dough out into a thin circle, like a pizza (but with no crust). Pull the top part of the dough down to the center (it should be quite stretchy/malleable). Then pull the bottom part of the dough up to the center making a long rectangle-ish. Then pull the right side of the dough to the center and repeat with the left, making a square. (This folding creates the layers.) this folding takes a little practice and patience, you will need to gently tug and pull at the dough to make it the shape you want.

Alternatively, you can make triangle rougag instead. This folding method is slightly easier. Start off the same as the rectangle bread by creating a large thin circle of dough. Then fold the circle in half, then in half again.

Once all the prices have been folded to the desired shape, they must be flattened again before cooking. Use your hands or a rolling pin and flatten to the desired size, about the size of a dinner plate. It's easiest to flatten one or two at a time, and while one cooks, flatten another.

Heat a grill pan on the stove and let it get hot. Place one of the pieces of dough on the pan and let it start to cook. It may form little bubbles like a pancake. Check the other side with a spatula by flipping the corner to see if it's browned. Once it's got brown spots all over, flip and cook on other side. Depending on your taste preferences, you can have it doughier or cooked. Serve hot and enjoy!
Note: Rougag goes great with savory or sweet ingredients such as harissa & olive oil or jam & butter.

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Tunisian bread: rougag - Our Tunisian Table

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There are few things that taste better than home made bread. And there is nothing that tastes better than our grandmother's homemade bread. Our family came from a very poor background in Tunisia and Algeria and most everything was done off the land.

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the traditional food of bedouin is been exclusion to other people and is also because it doesn't taste good

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this festival is in tunisai they will have camal race and also some music performance.
https://www.iexplore.com/articles/travel-guides/africa/tunisia/festivals-and-events#:~:text=extends%20into%20December.-,International%20Festival%20of%20the%20Sahara,Tunisia's%20nomadic%20cultures%20and%20traditions.

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Discover Tunisia Holidays, Festivals and Traditions

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festival in tunisia is dissapearing because of the COVID and also the attention are getting lower there are no news comes out after 2015

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is kind of like bedouin but is more grand tos show how they think it is important,
https://www.ostinellicristiano.com/weddings/wedding-in-tunis-tunisia/

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tunisia is most about the wall paint and pottery but is special to said the Color coordination.
https://artsandculture.google.com/theme/how-street-artists-in-tunisia-turned-the-arab-spring-into-art/RwJyb-PKnGesIA?hl=en

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EDITORIAL FEATURE

The island of Djerba's open-air street art museum

In July and August of 2014, the Tunisian island of Djerba, known as the "Island of Dreams," was literally a dream come true for 150 street artists from 30 different countries. An invitation to make a canvas out of the walls of a quaint Tunisian village might sound strange, but these artists were not about to pass on one of the most prominent moments in street art history.

The event followed in the wake of the 2011 Tunisian Revolution against the authoritarian rule of then president Zine El Abidine Ben Ali. Among the many activists involved in the movement were artists, whose freedom of expression were strictly censored under the regime's rule. With the first democratic election post-revolution, 2014 saw a rise in artistic expression in even the most public of places. Here are some of the street artists who tell this tale on the city walls.

1. Uniting through acceptance: eL Seed

Tunisian artist el Seed used street art to peacefully embrace unity and fight intolerance. Decorating the tallest minaret in Tunisia with a verse from the Quran, he told CNN, "My goal was to bring people together, which is why I chose these words," said eL Seed. "I like graffiti because it brings art to everyone. I like the fact of democratizing art."

2. Finding inspiration in struggle: Vajo

Although the 2011 street art revolution began to give a younger Tunisian generation a voice, the country still struggles with poverty, unemployment, and political corruption. Street artists, such as Vajo, have chosen to find creativity in the darkness and use hardship as artistic inspiration. "If there are no problems, there is no art," he told Citylab. Vajo's work features multiple, shifting geometric designs to represent how objects and concepts can be flexible and open to change.

3. Creating a melting pot: Saner

The summer of 2014 put local street artists' work on display, but also saw the fellowship of artists abroad come together to share in the post-revolution message of freedom. Tunisian street art didn't just look inwards to Tunisian culture, but included and involved the work of people from different heritages and cultures. Mexican artist Saner added a sprinkle of his own culture throughout his works in Tunisia. As he describes to Street Art News, his pieces incorporated "the South American folklore and culture while exploring powerful folkloric narratives with his signature imagery."

Saner's contribution to the Djerba's street art was a blend of his own Mexican heritage, patterns, and colors with local, traditional imagery. The result is a statement of cross-cultural collaboration and love.

4. Promoting freedom of speech: Roa

During the Arab Sprint, street art was used as an outlet to express independent thought. Street artist Roa says, "Graffiti is one of the most liberating art expressions of the world - you don't do it for money nor for an institution, it's a free expression and it frees you creatively from a lot of restrictions."

Roa often painted large scale and unique portrayal of animals, usually reflective of a particular location's flora and fauna. However, he also twists these, and makes them dark or disturbing, here acting as a critique of society and censorship.

5. Creating beauty: Wisetwo

Not everyone used their art as a form of activism, or to make political statements. Kenyan artist Wisetwo avoids controversy and uses street art to make something he deems beautiful. "Trying to merge [politics and art] is not an easy task," Wisetwo says, "That's not the concept of my expression. This world has too many problems. Trying to fix them is not my thing. I just paint, make places look beautiful."

Wisetwo's work aims at displaying cultural symbols as an aid towards personal growth, relaying the message of the complexities of humanity, and offering the solution of spiritual release.

The artists who took over Djerba were committed to making a statement, while also respecting the local culture, beliefs and values. Their graffiti and murals are a perfect example of using a place as your canvas.

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How Street Artists in Tunisia Turned the Arab Spring into Art - Google Arts & Culture

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EDITORIAL FEATURE The island of Djerba's open-air street art museum In July and August of 2014, the Tunisian island of Djerba, known as the "Island of Dreams," was literally a dream come true for 150 street artists from 30 different countries.

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is about there culture and the color in the city building
http://www.thr3escapes.ca/social_studies/WorldCommunities/Tunisia_Profile/Homes2.html

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the shepherding lifestyle is not normal in the modern world and it is slowly disappearing today because of the urbanization and the change of the world makes shepherd lifestyle be much harder than before.

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is a holiday that cellebrate in sahara to memerize the lifestyle before.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Festival_of_the_Sahara

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International Festival of the Sahara

Frequency

Annually

Location(s)

Douz, Tunisia

Founded

1910

Area

International

Website

www.festivaldouz.org.tn[dead link ]

The International Festival of the Sahara is an annual festival held in Douz, Tunisia.

The festival, called the Camel festival, began in 1910 when Tunisia was under French rule. In 1967 it took on its modern identity according to the will of Habib Bourguiba, Tunisia's first president of the new republic, to become the country's oldest and best-known festival. M'hammed Marzougui, who dedicated his life to make people aware of and appreciate nomadic way of life and traditions, was mainly responsible for the festival's foundation. Since then, every year at the end of December for four days, thousands of people, mostly from all over Tunisia and other Maghrebien countries, flock to Douz.

After the opening ceremony, the main events take place in the H'naiech stadium in front of the desert surrounded by Bedouin tents. Camel marathons, fantasia- galloping Arab horses ridden by daring riders, a Bedouin marriage, sloughi desert hunting dogs - catching rabbits are the principal features.

In the evening, groups from visiting countries perform songs and dances. The central event is the poetry contest run by the desert poet, Abdellatif Belgacem.

The festival has become an important media and touristic event followed by cameramen and journalists from all over the world.

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International Festival of the Sahara - Wikipedia

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International Festival of the Sahara Frequency Annually Location(s) Douz, Tunisia Founded 1910 Area International Website www.festivaldouz.org.tn[dead link ] The International Festival of the Sahara is an annual festival held in Douz, Tunisia. The festival, called the Camel festival, began in 1910 when Tunisia was under French rule.

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he is an old soccer player and is very famous and changed a lot of thing in Tunisia
https://pantheon.world/profile/person/Sadok_Sassi

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Sadok Sassi

Sadok Sassi (Arabic: الصادق ساسي), nicknamed "Attouga" (born 15 November 1945 in Tunis) is a former Tunisian footballer. He was a goalkeeper and played for Club Africain and the Tunisian national team.He played both matches for the Tunisian national team at the 1963 African Cup of Nations.In a sixteen-years career, Sassi earned an impressive five league titles, eight cups, including three for Tunisia and the Maghreb. In 1972, he was goalkeeper for the African team at the mini-World Cup, hosted by Brazil.The national team's undisputed first-choice goalkeeper for many years, he missed Tunisia's first World Cup appearance in 1978 through injury, and was replaced by Mokhtar Naili. Sassi earned a total of 116 international caps; however, only 87 matches were considered as A-international by FIFA. Read more on Wikipedia

Since 2007, the English Wikipedia page of Sadok Sassi has received more than 35,614 page views. His biography is available in 15 different languages on Wikipedia. Sadok Sassi is the 1,927th most popular , the 69th most popular biography from and the most popular soccer player Tunisia Tunisian Soccer Player.

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Sadok Sassi Biography - Tunisian footballer

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Sadok Sassi (Arabic: الصادق ساسي), nicknamed "Attouga" (born 15 November 1945 in Tunis) is a former Tunisian footballer. He was a goalkeeper and played for Club Africain and the Tunisian national team.He played both matches for the Tunisian national team at the 1963 African Cup of Nations.In a sixteen-years career, Sassi earned an impressive five league titles, eight cups, including three for Tunisia and the Maghreb.

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is a person who has save and attact from other country.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hannibal

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Hannibal (; Punic: 𐤇𐤍𐤁𐤏𐤋, Ḥannibaʿl; 247 - between 183 and 181 BC) was a Carthaginian general and statesman who commanded the forces of Carthage in their battle against the Roman Republic during the Second Punic War. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest military commanders in history.

Hannibal's father, Hamilcar Barca, was a leading Carthaginian general during the First Punic War. His younger brothers were Mago and Hasdrubal; his brother-in-law was Hasdrubal the Fair, who commanded other Carthaginian armies. Hannibal lived during a period of great tension in the Mediterranean Basin, triggered by the emergence of the Roman Republic as a great power with its defeat of Carthage in the First Punic War. Revanchism prevailed in Carthage, symbolized by the pledge that Hannibal made to his father to "never be a friend of Rome".

In 218 BC, Hannibal attacked Saguntum (modern Sagunto, Spain), an ally of Rome, in Hispania, sparking the Second Punic War. Hannibal invaded Italy by crossing the Alps with North African war elephants. In his first few years in Italy, he won a succession of victories at the Battle of the Trebia, Lake Trasimene, and Cannae, inflicting heavy losses on the Romans. Hannibal was distinguished for his ability to determine both his and his opponent's respective strengths and weaknesses, and to plan battles accordingly. His well-planned strategies allowed him to conquer and ally with several Italian cities that were previously allied to Rome. Hannibal occupied most of southern Italy for 15 years. The Romans, led by Fabius Maximus, avoided heavy confrontation with him, instead waging a war of attrition. Carthaginian defeats in Hispania prevented Hannibal from being reinforced, and he was unable to win a decisive victory. A counter-invasion of North Africa, led by Roman General Scipio Africanus, forced him to return to Carthage. Hannibal was eventually defeated at the Battle of Zama, ending the war in a Roman victory.

After the war, Hannibal successfully ran for the office of sufet. He enacted political and financial reforms to enable the payment of the war indemnity imposed by Rome; however, those reforms were unpopular with members of the Carthaginian aristocracy and in Rome, and he fled into voluntary exile. During this time, he lived at the Seleucid court, where he acted as military advisor to Antiochus III the Great in his war against Rome. Antiochus met defeat at the Battle of Magnesia and was forced to accept Rome's terms, and Hannibal fled again, making a stop in the Kingdom of Armenia. His flight ended in the court of Bithynia. He was betrayed to the Romans and died by suicide with poison.

Hannibal is considered one of the greatest military tacticians and generals of antiquity, alongside Philip of Macedon, Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar, Scipio Africanus and Pyrrhus. According to Plutarch, Scipio asked Hannibal "who the greatest general was", to which Hannibal replied "either Alexander or Pyrrhus, then himself".

Hannibal was a common Semitic Phoenician-Carthaginian personal name. It is recorded in Carthaginian sources as ( Punic: 𐤇𐤍𐤁𐤏𐤋). It is a combination of the common Phoenician masculine given name Hanno with the Northwest Semitic Canaanite deity Baal (lit, "lord") a major god of the Carthaginians ancestral homeland of Phoenicia in Western Asia. Its precise vocalization remains a matter of debate. Suggested readings include Ḥannobaʿal, Ḥannibaʿl, or Ḥannibaʿal, meaning "Baʿal/The lord is gracious", "Baʿal Has Been Gracious", or "The Grace of Baʿal". It is equivalent to the fellow Semitic Hebrew name Haniel. Greek historians rendered the name as Anníbas ().

The Phoenicians and Carthaginians, like many West Asian Semitic peoples, did not use hereditary surnames, but were typically distinguished from others bearing the same name using patronymics or epithets. Although he is by far the most famous Hannibal, when further clarification is necessary he is usually referred to as "Hannibal, son of Hamilcar", or "Hannibal the Barcid", the latter term applying to the family of his father, Hamilcar Barca. ( Punic: 𐤁𐤓𐤒, ) is a Semitic cognomen meaning "lightning" or "thunderbolt", a surname acquired by Hamilcar on account of the swiftness and ferocity of his attacks. Barca is cognate with similar names for lightning found among the Israelites, Assyrians, Babylonians, Arameans, Amorites, Moabites, Edomites and other fellow Asiatic Semitic peoples. Although they did not inherit the surname from their father, Hamilcar's progeny are collectively known as the Barcids. Modern historians occasionally refer to Hannibal's brothers as Hasdrubal Barca and Mago Barca to distinguish them from the multitudes of other Carthaginians named Hasdrubal and Mago, but this practice is ahistorical and is rarely applied to Hannibal.

Hannibal was one of the sons of Hamilcar Barca, a Carthaginian leader, and an unknown mother. He was born in what is present-day northern Tunisia, one of many Mediterranean regions colonised by the Canaanites from their homelands in Phoenicia, a region corresponding with the Mediterranean coasts of modern Lebanon and Syria. He had several sisters whose names are unknown, and two brothers, Hasdrubal and Mago. His brothers-in-law were Hasdrubal the Fair and the Numidian king Naravas. He was still a child when his sisters married, and his brothers-in-law were close associates during his father's struggles in the Mercenary War and the Punic conquest of the Iberian Peninsula.

After Carthage's defeat in the First Punic War, Hamilcar set out to improve his family's and Carthage's fortunes. With that in mind and supported by Gades, Hamilcar began the subjugation of the tribes of the Iberian Peninsula (Modern Spain and Portugal). Carthage at the time was in such a poor state that it lacked a navy able to transport his army; instead, Hamilcar had to march his forces across Numidia towards the Pillars of Hercules and then cross the Strait of Gibraltar.

According to Polybius, Hannibal much later said that when he came upon his father and begged to go with him, Hamilcar agreed and demanded that he swear that as long as he lived he would never be a friend of Rome. There is even an account of him at a very young age (9 years old) begging his father to take him to an overseas war. In the story, Hannibal's father took him up and brought him to a sacrificial chamber. Hamilcar held Hannibal over the fire roaring in the chamber and made him swear that he would never be a friend of Rome. Other sources report that Hannibal told his father, "I swear so soon as age will permit...I will use fire and steel to arrest the destiny of Rome." According to the tradition, Hannibal's oath took place in the town of Peñíscola, today part of the Valencian Community, Spain.

Hannibal's father went about the conquest of Hispania. When his father drowned in battle, Hannibal's brother-in-law Hasdrubal the Fair succeeded to his command of the army with Hannibal (then 18 years old) serving as an officer under him. Hasdrubal pursued a policy of consolidation of Carthage's Iberian interests, even signing a treaty with Rome whereby Carthage would not expand north of the Ebro so long as Rome did not expand south of it. Hasdrubal also endeavoured to consolidate Carthaginian power through diplomatic relationships with the native tribes of Iberia and native Berbers of the North African coasts.

Upon the assassination of Hasdrubal in 221 BC, Hannibal (now 26 years old) was proclaimed commander-in-chief by the army and confirmed in his appointment by the Carthaginian government. The Roman scholar Livy gives a depiction of the young Carthaginian: "No sooner had he arrived...the old soldiers fancied they saw Hamilcar in his youth given back to them; the same bright look; the same fire in his eye, the same trick of countenance and features. Never was one and the same spirit more skilful to meet opposition, to obey, or to command[.]"

Livy also records that Hannibal married a woman of Castulo, a powerful Spanish city closely allied with Carthage. The Roman epic poet Silius Italicus names her as Imilce. Silius suggests a Greek origin for Imilce, but Gilbert Charles-Picard argued for a Punic heritage based on an etymology from the Semitic root m-l-k ('chief, the 'king'). Silius also suggests the existence of a son, who is otherwise not attested by Livy, Polybius, or Appian. The son may have been named Haspar or Aspar, although this is disputed.

After he assumed command, Hannibal spent two years consolidating his holdings and completing the conquest of Hispania, south of the Ebro. In his first campaign, Hannibal attacked and stormed the Olcades' strongest centre, Alithia, which promptly led to their surrender, and brought Punic power close to the River Tagus. His following campaign in 220 BC was against the Vaccaei to the west, where he stormed the Vaccaen strongholds of Helmantice and Arbucala. On his return home, laden with many spoils, a coalition of Spanish tribes, led by the Carpetani, attacked, and Hannibal won his first major battlefield success and showed off his tactical skills at the battle of the River Tagus. However, Rome, fearing the growing strength of Hannibal in Iberia, made an alliance with the city of Saguntum, which lay a considerable distance south of the River Ebro, and claimed the city as its protectorate. Hannibal not only perceived this as a breach of the treaty signed with Hasdrubal, but as he was already planning an attack on Rome, this was his way to start the war. So he laid siege to the city, which fell after eight months.

Hannibal sent the booty from Saguntum to Carthage, a shrewd move which gained him much support from the government; Livy records that only Hanno II the Great spoke against him. In Rome, the Senate reacted to this apparent violation of the treaty by dispatching a delegation to Carthage to demand whether Hannibal had destroyed Saguntum in accordance with orders from Carthage. The Carthaginian Senate responded with legal arguments observing the lack of ratification by either government for the treaty alleged to have been violated. The delegation's leader, Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, demanded Carthage choose between war and peace, to which his audience replied that Rome could choose. Fabius chose war.

Second Punic War in Italy (218-204 BC)

This journey was originally planned by Hannibal's brother-in-law Hasdrubal the Fair, who became a Carthaginian general in the Iberian Peninsula in 229 BC. He maintained this post for eight years until 221 BC. Soon the Romans became aware of an alliance between Carthage and the Celts of the Po Valley in Northern Italy. The Celts were amassing forces to invade farther south in Italy, presumably with Carthaginian backing. Therefore, the Romans pre-emptively invaded the Po region in 225 BC. By 220 BC, the Romans had annexed the area as Cisalpine Gaul. Hasdrubal was assassinated around the same time (221 BC), bringing Hannibal to the fore. It seems that the Romans lulled themselves into a false sense of security, having dealt with the threat of a Gallo-Carthaginian invasion, and perhaps knowing that the original Carthaginian commander had been killed.

Hannibal departed Cartagena, Spain (New Carthage) in late spring of 218 BC. He fought his way through the northern tribes to the foothills of the Pyrenees, subduing the tribes through clever mountain tactics and stubborn fighting. He left a detachment of 20,000 troops to garrison the newly conquered region. At the Pyrenees, he released 11,000 Iberian troops who showed reluctance to leave their homeland. Hannibal reportedly entered Gaul with 40,000 foot soldiers and 12,000 horsemen.

Hannibal recognized that he still needed to cross the Pyrenees, the Alps, and many significant rivers. Additionally, he would have to contend with opposition from the Gauls, whose territory he passed through. Starting in the spring of 218 BC, he crossed the Pyrenees and reached the Rhône by conciliating the Gaulish chiefs along his passage before the Romans could take any measures to bar his advance, arriving at the Rhône in September. Hannibal's army numbered 38,000 infantry, 8,000 cavalry, and 38 elephants, almost none of which would survive the harsh conditions of the Alps.

Hannibal outmanoeuvred the natives who had tried to prevent his crossing, then evaded a Roman force marching from the Mediterranean coast by turning inland up the valley of the Rhône. His exact route over the Alps has been the source of scholarly dispute ever since (Polybius, the surviving ancient account closest in time to Hannibal's campaign, reports that the route was already debated). The most influential modern theories favour either a march up the valley of the Drôme and a crossing of the main range to the south of the modern highway over the Col de Montgenèvre or a march farther north up the valleys of the Isère and Arc crossing the main range near the present Col de Mont Cenis or the Little St Bernard Pass. Recent numismatic evidence suggests that Hannibal's army may have passed within sight of the Matterhorn. Stanford geoarchaeologist Patrick Hunt argues that Hannibal took the Col de Clapier mountain pass, claiming the Clapier most accurately met ancient depictions of the route: wide view of Italy, pockets of year-round snow, and a large campground. Other scholars have doubts, proposing that Hannibal took the easier route across Petit Mount Cenis. Hunt responds to this by proposing that Hannibal's Celtic guides purposefully misguided the Carthaginian general.

Most recently, W. C. Mahaney has argued Col de la Traversette closest fits the records of ancient authors. Biostratigraphic archaeological data has reinforced the case for Col de la Traversette; analysis of peat bogs near watercourses on both sides of the pass's summit showed that the ground was heavily disturbed "by thousands, perhaps tens of thousands, of animals and humans" and that the soil bore traces of unique levels of Clostridia bacteria associated with the digestive tract of horses and mules. Radiocarbon dating secured dates of 2168 BP or c. 218 BC, the year of Hannibal's march. Mahaney et al. have concluded that this and other evidence strongly supports the Col de la Traversette as being the "Hannibalic Route" as had been argued by Gavin de Beer in 1954. De Beer was one of only three interpreters-the others being John Lazenby and Jakob Seibert - to have visited all the Alpine high passes and presented a view on which was most plausible. Both De Beer and Siebert had selected the Col de la Traversette as the one most closely matching the ancient descriptions. Polybius wrote that Hannibal had crossed the highest of the Alpine passes: Col de la Traversette, between the upper Guil valley and the upper Po river is the highest pass. It is moreover the most southerly, as Varro in his De re rustica relates, agreeing that Hannibal's Pass was the highest in Western Alps and the most southerly. Mahaney et al. argue that factors used by De Beer to support Col de la Traversette including "gauging ancient place names against modern, close scrutiny of times of flood in major rivers and distant viewing of the Po plains" taken together with "massive radiocarbon and microbiological and parasitical evidence" from the alluvial sediments either side of the pass furnish "supporting evidence, proof if you will" that Hannibal's invasion went that way. If Hannibal had ascended the Col de la Traversette, the Po Valley would indeed have been visible from the pass's summit, vindicating Polybius's account.

By Livy's account, the crossing was accomplished in the face of huge difficulties. These Hannibal surmounted with ingenuity, such as when he used vinegar and fire to break through a rockfall. According to Polybius, he arrived in Italy accompanied by 20,000 foot soldiers, 4,000 horsemen, and only a few elephants. The fired rockfall event is mentioned only by Livy; Polybius is mute on the subject and there is no evidence of carbonized rock at the only two-tier rockfall in the Western Alps, located below the Col de la Traversette (Mahaney, 2008). If Polybius is correct in his figure for the number of troops that he commanded after the crossing of the Rhône, this would suggest that he had lost almost half of his force. Historians such as Serge Lancel have questioned the reliability of the figures for the number of troops that he had when he left Hispania. From the start, he seems to have calculated that he would have to operate without aid from Hispania.

Hannibal's vision of military affairs was derived partly from the teaching of his Greek tutors and partly from experience gained alongside his father, and it stretched over most of the Hellenistic World of his time. Indeed, the breadth of his vision gave rise to his grand strategy of conquering Rome by opening a northern front and subduing allied city-states on the peninsula, rather than by attacking Rome directly. Historical events that led to the defeat of Carthage during the First Punic War when his father commanded the Carthaginian Army also led Hannibal to plan the invasion of Italy by land across the Alps.

The task involved the mobilization of between 60,000 and 100,000 troops and the training of a war-elephant corps, all of which had to be provisioned along the way. The alpine invasion of Italy was a military operation that would shake the Mediterranean World of 218 BC with repercussions for more than two decades.

Hannibal's perilous march brought him into the Roman territory and frustrated the attempts of the enemy to fight out the main issue on foreign ground. His sudden appearance among the Gauls of the Po Valley, moreover, enabled him to detach those tribes from their new allegiance to the Romans before the Romans could take steps to check the rebellion. Publius Cornelius Scipio was the consul who commanded the Roman force sent to intercept Hannibal (he was also the father of Scipio Africanus). He had not expected Hannibal to make an attempt to cross the Alps, since the Romans were prepared to fight the war in the Iberian Peninsula. With a small detachment still positioned in Gaul, Scipio made an attempt to intercept Hannibal. He succeeded, through prompt decision and speedy movement, in transporting his army to Italy by sea in time to meet Hannibal. Hannibal's forces moved through the Po Valley and were engaged in the Battle of Ticinus. Here, Hannibal forced the Romans to evacuate the plain of Lombardy, by virtue of his superior cavalry. The victory was minor, but it encouraged the Gauls and Ligurians to join the Carthaginian cause. Their troops bolstered his army back to around 40,000 men. Scipio was severely injured, his life only saved by the bravery of his son who rode back onto the field to rescue his fallen father. Scipio retreated across the Trebia to camp at Placentia with his army mostly intact.

The other Roman consular army was rushed to the Po Valley. Even before news of the defeat at Ticinus had reached Rome, the Senate had ordered Consul Tiberius Sempronius Longus to bring his army back from Sicily to meet Scipio and face Hannibal. Hannibal, by skilful manoeuvres, was in position to head him off, for he lay on the direct road between Placentia and Arminum, by which Sempronius would have to march to reinforce Scipio. He then captured Clastidium, from which he drew large amounts of supplies for his men. But this gain was not without loss, as Sempronius avoided Hannibal's watchfulness, slipped around his flank, and joined his colleague in his camp near the Trebia River near Placentia. There Hannibal had an opportunity to show his masterful military skill at the Trebia in December of the same year, after wearing down the superior Roman infantry, when he cut it to pieces with a surprise attack and ambush from the flanks.

Hannibal quartered his troops for the winter with the Gauls, whose support for him had abated. Fearing the possibility of an assassination attempt by his Gallic allies, Hannibal had a number of wigs made, dyed to suit the appearance of persons differing widely in age, and kept constantly changing them, so that any would-be assassins wouldn't recognize him.

In the spring of 217 BC, Hannibal decided to find a more reliable base of operations farther south. Gnaeus Servilius and Gaius Flaminius (the new consuls of Rome) were expecting Hannibal to advance on Rome, and they took their armies to block the eastern and western routes that Hannibal could use.

The only alternative route to central Italy lay at the mouth of the Arno. This area was practically one huge marsh, and happened to be overflowing more than usual during this particular season. Hannibal knew that this route was full of difficulties, but it remained the surest and certainly the quickest way to central Italy. Polybius claims that Hannibal's men marched for four days and three nights "through a land that was under water", suffering terribly from fatigue and enforced want of sleep. He crossed without opposition over both the Apennines (during which he lost his right eye because of conjunctivitis) and the seemingly impassable Arno, but he lost a large part of his force in the marshy lowlands of the Arno.

He arrived in Etruria in the spring of 217 BC and decided to lure the main Roman army under Flaminius into a pitched battle by devastating the region that Flaminius had been sent to protect. As Polybius recounts, "he [Hannibal] calculated that, if he passed the camp and made a descent into the district beyond, Flaminius (partly for fear of popular reproach and partly of personal irritation) would be unable to endure watching passively the devastation of the country but would spontaneously follow him... and give him opportunities for attack." At the same time, Hannibal tried to break the allegiance of Rome's allies by proving that Flaminius was powerless to protect them. Despite this, Flaminius remained passively encamped at Arretium. Hannibal marched boldly around Flaminius' left flank, unable to draw him into battle by mere devastation, and effectively cut him off from Rome (thus executing the first recorded turning movement in military history). He then advanced through the uplands of Etruria, provoking Flaminius into a hasty pursuit and catching him in a defile on the shore of Lake Trasimenus. There Hannibal destroyed Flaminius' army in the waters or on the adjoining slopes, killing Flaminius as well (see Battle of Lake Trasimene). This was the most costly ambush that the Romans ever sustained until the Battle of Carrhae against the Parthian Empire.

Hannibal had now disposed of the only field force that could check his advance upon Rome, but he realized that, without siege engines, he could not hope to take the capital. He opted to exploit his victory by entering into central and southern Italy and encouraging a general revolt against the sovereign power.

The Romans appointed Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus as their dictator. Departing from Roman military traditions, Fabius adopted the strategy named after him, avoiding open battle while placing several Roman armies in Hannibal's vicinity in order to watch and limit his movements.

Hannibal ravaged Apulia but was unable to bring Fabius to battle, so he decided to march through Samnium to Campania, one of the richest and most fertile provinces of Italy, hoping that the devastation would draw Fabius into battle. Fabius closely followed Hannibal's path of destruction, yet still refused to let himself be drawn out of the defensive. This strategy was unpopular with many Romans, who believed that it was a form of cowardice.

Hannibal decided that it would be unwise to winter in the already devastated lowlands of Campania, but Fabius had trapped him there by ensuring that all the exit passes were blocked. This situation led to the night Battle of Ager Falernus. Hannibal had his men tie burning torches to the horns of a herd of cattle and drive them up the heights nearby. Some of the Romans, seeing a moving column of lights, were tricked into believing it was the Carthaginian army marching to escape along the heights. As they moved off in pursuit of this decoy, Hannibal managed to move his army in complete silence through the dark lowlands and up to an unguarded pass. Fabius himself was within striking distance but in this case his caution worked against him, as rightly sensing a trick he stayed put. Thus, Hannibal managed to stealthily escape with his entire army intact.

What Hannibal achieved in extricating his army was, as Adrian Goldsworthy puts it, "a classic of ancient generalship, finding its way into nearly every historical narrative of the war and being used by later military manuals". This was a severe blow to Fabius' prestige and soon after this his period of dictatorial power ended. For the winter, Hannibal found comfortable quarters in the Apulian plain.

In the spring of 216 BC, Hannibal took the initiative and seized the large supply depot at Cannae in the Apulian plain. By capturing Cannae, Hannibal had placed himself between the Romans and their crucial sources of supply. Once the Roman Senate resumed their consular elections in 216 BC, they appointed Gaius Terentius Varro and Lucius Aemilius Paullus as consuls. In the meantime, the Romans hoped to gain success through sheer strength and weight of numbers, and they raised a new army of unprecedented size, estimated by some to be as large as 100,000 men, but more likely around 50,000-80,000.

The Romans and allied legions resolved to confront Hannibal and marched southward to Apulia. They eventually found him on the left bank of the Aufidus River, and encamped 10 km (6 mi) away. On this occasion, the two armies were combined into one, the consuls having to alternate their command on a daily basis. According to Livy, Varro was a man of reckless and hubristic nature and it was his turn to command on the day of battle. (This account is possibly biased against Varro as its main source, Polybius, was a client of Paullus's aristocratic family whereas Varro was less distinguished. Some historians have suggested the sheer size of the army may have required both generals to command a wing each. This theory is supported by the fact that, after Varro survived the battle he was pardoned by the Senate, which would be peculiar if he were the sole commander at fault.)

Hannibal capitalized on the eagerness of the Romans and drew them into a trap by using an envelopment tactic. This eliminated the Roman numerical advantage by shrinking the combat area. Hannibal drew up his least reliable infantry in the centre in a semicircle curving towards the Romans. Placing them forward of the wings allowed them room to fall back, luring the Romans after them, while the cavalry on the flanks dealt with their Roman counterparts. Hannibal's wings were composed of the Gallic and Numidian cavalry. The Roman legions forced their way through Hannibal's weak centre, but the Libyan mercenaries on the wings, swung around by the movement, menaced their flanks.

The onslaught of Hannibal's cavalry was irresistible. Hannibal's chief cavalry commander, Maharbal, led the mobile Numidian cavalry on the right; they shattered the Roman cavalry opposing them. Hannibal's Iberian and Gallic heavy cavalry on the left, led by Hanno, defeated the Roman heavy cavalry, and then both the Carthaginian heavy cavalry and the Numidians attacked the legions from behind. As a result, the Roman army was hemmed in with no means of escape.

Due to these brilliant tactics, Hannibal managed to surround and destroy all but a small remnant of his enemy, despite his own inferior numbers. Depending upon the source, it is estimated that 50,000-70,000 Romans were killed or captured. Among the dead were Roman consul Lucius Aemilius Paullus, two consuls for the preceding year, two quaestors, 29 of the 48 military tribunes, and an additional eighty senators (at a time when the Roman Senate was composed of no more than 300 men, this constituted 25%-30% of the governing body). This makes the battle one of the most catastrophic defeats in the history of ancient Rome, and one of the bloodiest battles in all of human history (in terms of the number of lives lost in a single day).

After Cannae, the Romans were very hesitant to confront Hannibal in pitched battle, preferring instead to weaken him by attrition, relying on their advantages of interior lines, supply, and manpower. As a result, Hannibal fought no more major battles in Italy for the rest of the war. It is believed that his refusal to bring the war to Rome itself was due to a lack of commitment from Carthage of men, money, and material - principally siege equipment. Whatever the reason, the choice prompted Maharbal to say, "Hannibal, you know how to gain a victory, but not how to use one."

As a result of this victory, many parts of Italy joined Hannibal's cause. As Polybius notes, "How much more serious was the defeat of Cannae, than those that preceded it can be seen by the behaviour of Rome's allies; before that fateful day, their loyalty remained unshaken, now it began to waver for the simple reason that they despaired of Roman Power." During that same year, the Greek cities in Sicily were induced to revolt against Roman political control, while Macedonian King Philip V pledged his support to Hannibal-thus initiating the First Macedonian War against Rome. Hannibal also secured an alliance with newly appointed tyrant Hieronymus of Syracuse. It is often argued that, if Hannibal had received proper material reinforcements from Carthage, he might have succeeded with a direct attack upon Rome. Instead, he had to content himself with subduing the fortresses that still held out against him, and the only other notable event of 216 BC was the defection of certain Italian territories, including Capua, the second largest city of Italy, which Hannibal made his new base. However, only a few of the Italian city-states that he had expected to gain as allies defected to him.

The war in Italy settled into a strategic stalemate. The Romans used the attritional strategy that Fabius had taught them, which, they finally realized, was the only feasible means of defeating Hannibal. Indeed, Fabius received the name "Cunctator" ("the Delayer") because of his policy of not meeting Hannibal in open battle but through attrition. The Romans deprived Hannibal of a large-scale battle and instead assaulted his weakening army with multiple smaller armies in an attempt to both weary him and create unrest in his troops. For the next few years, Hannibal was forced to sustain a scorched earth policy and obtain local provisions for protracted and ineffectual operations throughout southern Italy. His immediate objectives were reduced to minor operations centred mainly around the cities of Campania.

The forces detached to his lieutenants were generally unable to hold their own, and neither his home government nor his new ally Philip V of Macedon helped to make up his losses. His position in southern Italy, therefore, became increasingly difficult and his chance of ultimately conquering Rome grew ever more remote. Hannibal still won a number of notable victories: completely destroying two Roman armies in 212 BC, and killing two consuls (including the famed Marcus Claudius Marcellus) in a battle in 208 BC. However, Hannibal slowly began losing ground-inadequately supported by his Italian allies, abandoned by his government (either because of jealousy or simply because Carthage was overstretched), and unable to match Rome's resources. He was never able to bring about another grand decisive victory that could produce a lasting strategic change.

Carthaginian political will was embodied in the ruling oligarchy. There was a Carthaginian Senate, but the real power was with the inner " Council of 30 Nobles" and the board of judges from ruling families known as the " Hundred and Four". These two bodies came from the wealthy, commercial families of Carthage. Two political factions operated in Carthage: the war party, also known as the " Barcids" (Hannibal's family name), and the peace party led by Hanno II the Great. Hanno had been instrumental in denying Hannibal's requested reinforcements following the battle at Cannae.

Hannibal started the war without the full backing of Carthaginian oligarchy. His attack of Saguntum had presented the oligarchy with a choice of war with Rome or loss of prestige in Iberia. The oligarchy, not Hannibal, controlled the strategic resources of Carthage. Hannibal constantly sought reinforcements from either Iberia or North Africa. Hannibal's troops who were lost in combat were replaced with less well-trained and motivated mercenaries from Italy or Gaul. The commercial interests of the Carthaginian oligarchy dictated the reinforcement and supply of Iberia rather than Hannibal throughout the campaign.

In March 212 BC, Hannibal captured Tarentum in a surprise attack but he failed to obtain control of its harbour. The tide was slowly turning against him, and in favour of Rome.

The Roman consuls mounted a siege of Capua in 212 BC. Hannibal attacked them, forcing their withdrawal from Campania. He moved to Lucania and destroyed a 16,000-man Roman army at the Battle of the Silarus, with 15,000 Romans killed. Another opportunity presented itself soon after, a Roman army of 18,000 men being destroyed by Hannibal at the first battle of Herdonia with 16,000 Romans dead, freeing Apulia from the Romans for the year. The Roman consuls mounted another siege of Capua in 211 BC, conquering the city. Hannibal attempted to lift the siege with an assault on the Roman siege lines but failed. He marched on Rome to force the recall of the Roman armies. He drew off 15,000 Roman soldiers, but the siege continued and Capua fell. In 212 BC, Marcellus conquered Syracuse and the Romans destroyed the Carthaginian army in Sicily in 211-210 BC. In 210 BC, the Romans entered into an alliance with the Aetolian League to counter Philip V of Macedon. Philip, who attempted to exploit Rome's preoccupation in Italy to conquer Illyria, now found himself under attack from several sides at once and was quickly subdued by Rome and her Greek allies.

In 210 BC, Hannibal again proved his superiority in tactics by inflicting a severe defeat at the Battle of Herdonia (modern Ordona) in Apulia upon a proconsular army and, in 208 BC, destroyed a Roman force engaged in the siege of Locri at the Battle of Petelia. But with the loss of Tarentum in 209 BC and the gradual reconquest by the Romans of Samnium and Lucania, his hold on south Italy was almost lost. In 207 BC, he succeeded in making his way again into Apulia, where he waited to concert measures for a combined march upon Rome with his brother Hasdrubal. On hearing, however, of his brother's defeat and death at the battle of the Metaurus, he retired to Calabria, where he maintained himself for the ensuing years. His brother's head had been cut off, carried across Italy, and tossed over the palisade of Hannibal's camp as a cold message of the iron-clad will of the Roman Republic. The combination of these events marked the end to Hannibal's success in Italy. With the failure of his brother Mago in Liguria (205-203 BC) and of his own negotiations with Phillip V, the last hope of recovering his ascendancy in Italy was lost. In 203 BC, after nearly fifteen years of fighting in Italy and with the military fortunes of Carthage rapidly declining, Hannibal was recalled to Carthage to direct the defence of his native country against a Roman invasion under Scipio Africanus.

Conclusion of the Second Punic War (203-201 BC)

In 203 BC, Hannibal was recalled from Italy by the war party in Carthage. After leaving a record of his expedition engraved in Punic and Greek upon bronze tablets in the Temple of Juno Lacinia at Crotona, he sailed back to Africa. His arrival immediately restored the predominance of the war party, which placed him in command of a combined force of African levies and his mercenaries from Italy. In 202 BC, Hannibal met Scipio in a fruitless peace conference. Despite mutual admiration, negotiations floundered due to Roman allegations of "Punic Faith," referring to the breach of protocols that ended the First Punic War by the Carthaginian attack on Saguntum, and a Carthaginian attack on a stranded Roman fleet. Scipio and Carthage had worked out a peace plan, which was approved by Rome. The terms of the treaty were quite modest, but the war had been long for the Romans. Carthage could keep its African territory but would lose its overseas empire. Masinissa ( Numidia) was to be independent. Also, Carthage was to reduce its fleet and pay a war indemnity. But Carthage then made a terrible blunder. Its long-suffering citizens had captured a stranded Roman fleet in the Gulf of Tunis and stripped it of supplies, an action that aggravated the faltering negotiations. Fortified by both Hannibal and the supplies, the Carthaginians rebuffed the treaty and Roman protests. The decisive battle of Zama soon followed; the defeat removed Hannibal's air of invincibility.

Unlike most battles of the Second Punic War, at Zama the Romans were superior in cavalry and the Carthaginians had the edge in infantry. This Roman cavalry superiority was due to the betrayal of Masinissa, who had earlier assisted Carthage in Iberia but changed sides in 206 BC with the promise of land, and due to his personal conflicts with Syphax, a Carthaginian ally. Although the ageing Hannibal was suffering from mental exhaustion and deteriorating health after years of campaigning in Italy, the Carthaginians still had the advantage in numbers and were boosted by the presence of 80 war elephants.

The Roman cavalry won an early victory by swiftly routing the Carthaginian horse and because standard Roman tactics for limiting the effectiveness of the Carthaginian war elephants were successful, including playing trumpets to frighten the elephants into running into the Carthaginian lines. Some historians say that the elephants routed the Carthaginian cavalry and not the Romans, whilst others suggest that it was actually a tactical retreat planned by Hannibal. Whatever the truth, the battle remained closely fought. At one point, it seemed that Hannibal was on the verge of victory, but Scipio was able to rally his men, and his cavalry, having routed the Carthaginian cavalry, attacked Hannibal's rear. This two-pronged attack caused the Carthaginian formation to collapse.

With their foremost general defeated, the Carthaginians had no choice but to surrender. Carthage lost approximately 20,000 troops with an additional 15,000 wounded. In contrast, the Romans suffered only 2,500 casualties. The last major battle of the Second Punic War resulted in a loss of respect for Hannibal by his fellow Carthaginians. The conditions of defeat were such that Carthage could no longer battle for Mediterranean supremacy.

Hannibal was still only 46 at the conclusion of the Second Punic War in 201 BC and soon showed that he could be a statesman as well as a soldier. Following the conclusion of a peace that left Carthage saddled with an indemnity of ten thousand talents, he was elected suffete (chief magistrate) of the Carthaginian state. After an audit confirmed Carthage had the resources to pay the indemnity without increasing taxation, Hannibal initiated a reorganization of state finances aimed at eliminating corruption and recovering embezzled funds.

The principal beneficiaries of these financial peculations had been the oligarchs of the Hundred and Four. In order to reduce the power of the oligarchs, Hannibal passed a law stipulating the Hundred and Four be chosen by direct election rather than co-option. He also used citizen support to change the term of office in the Hundred and Four from life to a year, with none permitted to "hold office for two consecutive years."

Seven years after the victory of Zama, the Romans, alarmed by Carthage's renewed prosperity and suspicious that Hannibal had been in contact with Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire, sent a delegation to Carthage alleging that Hannibal was helping an enemy of Rome. Aware that he had many enemies, not least of which due to his financial reforms eliminating opportunities for oligarchical graft, Hannibal fled into voluntary exile before the Romans could demand that Carthage surrender him into their custody.

He journeyed first to Tyre, the mother city of Carthage, and then to Antioch, before he finally reached Ephesus, where he was honourably received by Antiochus. Livy states that the Seleucid king consulted Hannibal on the strategic concerns of making war on Rome. According to Cicero, while at the court of Antiochus, Hannibal attended a lecture by Phormio, a philosopher, that ranged through many topics. When Phormio finished a discourse on the duties of a general, Hannibal was asked his opinion. He replied, "I have seen during my life many old fools; but this one beats them all." Another story, according to Aulus Gellius, is that after Antiochus III showed off the gigantic and elaborately equipped army he had created to invade Greece to Hannibal, he asked him if they would be enough for the Roman Republic, to which Hannibal replied, "I think all this will be enough, yes, quite enough, for the Romans, even though they are most avaricious."

In the summer of 193 BC, tensions flared up between the Seleucids and Rome. Antiochus gave tacit support to Hannibal's plans of launching an anti-Roman coup d'état in Carthage, yet it was not carried out. The Carthaginian general also advised equipping a fleet and landing a body of troops in the south of Italy, offering to take command himself. In 190 BC, after having suffered a series of defeats in the Roman-Seleucid War, Antiochus gave Hannibal his first significant military command after spending five years in the Seleucid court. Hannibal was tasked with building a fleet in Cilicia from scratch. Although Phoenician territories like Tyre and Sidon possessed the necessary combination of raw materials, technical expertise, and experienced personnel, it took much longer than expected for it to be completed, most likely due to wartime shortages.

In July 190 BC, Hannibal ordered his fleet to set sail from Seleucia Pieria along the southern Asia Minor coast in order to reinforce the rest of the Seleucid navy at Ephesus. The following month Hannibal's fleet clashed with the Rhodian navy in the Battle of Side. The faster Rhodian ships managed to heavily damage half of Hannibal's warships through the diekplous manoeuvre, forcing him to retreat. Hannibal had preserved most of his fleet; however, he was in no position to unite with Polyxenidas' fleet at Ephesus since his ships required lengthy repairs. The ensuing Battle of Myonessus resulted in a Roman-Rhodian victory, which cemented Roman control over the Aegean Sea, enabling them to launch an invasion of Seleucid Asia Minor. The two armies faced off in the Battle of Magnesia, north-east of Magnesia ad Sipylum. The battle resulted in a decisive Roman-Pergamene victory. The truce was signed at Sardes in January 189 BC, whereupon Antiochus agreed to abandon his claims on all lands west of the Taurus Mountains, paid a heavy war indemnity and promised to hand over Hannibal and other notable enemies of Rome from among his allies.

According to Strabo and Plutarch, Hannibal also received hospitality at the Armenian royal court of Artaxias I. The authors add an apocryphal story of how Hannibal planned and supervised the building of the new royal capital Artaxata. Suspicious that Antiochus was prepared to surrender him to the Romans, Hannibal fled to Crete, but he soon went back to Anatolia and sought refuge with Prusias I of Bithynia, who was engaged in warfare with Rome's ally, King Eumenes II of Pergamon. Hannibal went on to serve Prusias in this war. During one of the naval victories he gained over Eumenes, Hannibal had large pots filled with venomous snakes thrown onto Eumenes' ships. Hannibal also went on to defeat Eumenes in two other battles on land.

At this stage, the Romans intervened and threatened Bithynia into giving up Hannibal. Prusias agreed, but the general was determined not to fall into his enemy's hands. The precise year and cause of Hannibal's death are unknown. Pausanias wrote that Hannibal's death occurred after his finger was wounded by his drawn sword while mounting his horse, resulting in a fever and then his death three days later. Cornelius Nepos and Livy, however, tell a different story, namely that the ex-consul Titus Quinctius Flamininus, on discovering that Hannibal was in Bithynia, went there in an embassy to demand his surrender from King Prusias. Hannibal, discovering that the castle where he was living was surrounded by Roman soldiers and he could not escape, took poison. Appian writes that it was Prusias who poisoned Hannibal.

Pliny the Elder and Plutarch, in his life of Flamininus, record that Hannibal's tomb was at Libyssa on the coast of the Sea of Marmara. According to some, Libyssa was sited at Gebze (between Bursa and Üskudar), but W. M. Leake, identifying Gebze with ancient Dakibyza, placed it further west. Before dying, Hannibal is said to have left behind a letter declaring, "Let us relieve the Romans from the anxiety they have so long experienced, since they think it tries their patience too much to wait for an old man's death".

Appian wrote of a prophecy about Hannibal's death, which stated that "Libyssan earth shall cover Hannibal's remains." This, he wrote, made Hannibal believe that he would die in Libya, but instead, it was at the Bithynian Libyssa that he would die.

In his Annales, Titus Pomponius Atticus reports that Hannibal's death occurred in 183 BC, and Livy implies the same. Polybius, who wrote nearest the event, gives 182 BC. Sulpicius Blitho records the death under 181 BC.

Hannibal caused great distress to many in Roman society. He became such a figure of terror that, whenever disaster struck, the Roman senators would exclaim "Hannibal ad portas" ("Hannibal is at the gates!") to express their fear or anxiety. This famous Latin phrase became a common expression that is often still used when a client arrives through the door or when one is faced with calamity.

His legacy would be recorded by his Greek tutor, Sosylus of Lacedaemon. The works of Roman writers such as Livy (64 or 59 BC - AD 12 or 17), Frontinus ( c. AD 40-103), and Juvenal (1st-2nd century AD) show a grudging admiration for Hannibal. The Romans even built statues of the Carthaginian in the streets of Rome to advertise their defeat of such a worthy adversary. It is plausible to suggest that Hannibal engendered the greatest fear Rome had towards an enemy. Nevertheless, the Romans grimly refused to admit the possibility of defeat and rejected all overtures for peace; they even refused to accept the ransom of prisoners after Cannae.

During the war there are no reports of revolutions among the Roman citizens, no factions within the Senate desiring peace, no pro-Carthaginian Roman turncoats, no coups. Indeed, throughout the war Roman aristocrats ferociously competed with each other for positions of command to fight against Rome's most dangerous enemy. Hannibal's military genius was not enough to really disturb the Roman political process and the collective political and military capacity of the Roman people. As Lazenby states,

It says volumes, too, for their political maturity and respect for constitutional forms that the complicated machinery of government continued to function even amidst disaster-there are few states in the ancient world in which a general who had lost a battle like Cannae would have dared to remain, let alone would have continued to be treated respectfully as head of state.

According to the historian Livy, the Romans feared Hannibal's military genius, and during Hannibal's march against Rome in 211 BC

a messenger who had travelled from Fregellae for a day and a night without stopping created great alarm in Rome, and the excitement was increased by people running about the City with wildly exaggerated accounts of the news he had brought. The wailing cry of the matrons was heard everywhere, not only in private houses but even in the temples. Here they knelt and swept the temple-floors with their dishevelled hair and lifted up their hands to heaven in piteous entreaty to the gods that they would deliver the City of Rome out of the hands of the enemy and preserve its mothers and children from injury and outrage.

In the Senate the news was "received with varying feelings as men's temperaments differed," so it was decided to keep Capua under siege, but to send 15,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry as reinforcements to Rome.

According to Livy, the land occupied by Hannibal's army outside Rome in 211 BC was sold by a Roman while it was occupied. This may not be true, but as Lazenby states, "could well be, exemplifying as it does not only the supreme confidence felt by the Romans in ultimate victory, but also the way in which something like normal life continued." After Cannae the Romans showed a considerable steadfastness in adversity. An undeniable proof of Rome's confidence is demonstrated by the fact that after the Cannae disaster she was left virtually defenseless, but the Senate still chose not to withdraw a single garrison from an overseas province to strengthen the city. In fact, they were reinforced and the campaigns there maintained until victory was secured; beginning first in Sicily under the direction of Claudius Marcellus, and later in Hispania under Scipio Africanus. Although the long-term consequences of Hannibal's war are debatable, this war was undeniably Rome's "finest hour".

Most of the sources available to historians about Hannibal are from Romans. They considered him the greatest enemy Rome had ever faced. Livy gives us the idea that Hannibal was extremely cruel. Even Cicero, when he talked of Rome and its two great enemies, spoke of the "honourable" Pyrrhus and the "cruel" Hannibal. Yet a different picture sometimes emerges. When Hannibal's successes had brought about the death of two Roman consuls, he vainly searched for the body of Gaius Flaminius on the shores of Lake Trasimene, held ceremonial rituals in recognition of Lucius Aemilius Paullus, and sent Marcellus' ashes back to his family in Rome. Any bias attributed to Polybius, however, is more troublesome. Ronald Mellor considered the Greek scholar a loyal partisan of Scipio Aemilianus, while H. Ormerod does not view him as an "altogether unprejudiced witness" when it came to his pet peeves, the Aetolians, the Carthaginians, and the Cretans. Nonetheless, Polybius did recognize that the reputation for cruelty the Romans attached to Hannibal might in reality have been due to mistaking him for one of his officers, Hannibal Monomachus.

Hannibal is generally regarded as one of the best military strategists and tacticians of all time, the double envelopment at Cannae an enduring legacy of tactical brilliance. According to Appian, several years after the Second Punic War, Hannibal served as a political advisor in the Seleucid Kingdom and Scipio arrived there on a diplomatic mission from Rome.

It is said that at one of their meetings in the gymnasium Scipio and Hannibal had a conversation on the subject of generalship, in the presence of a number of bystanders, and that Scipio asked Hannibal whom he considered the greatest general, to which the latter replied " Alexander of Macedonia".

To this Scipio assented since he also yielded the first place to Alexander. Then he asked Hannibal whom he placed next, and he replied " Pyrrhus of Epirus", because he considered boldness the first qualification of a general; "for it would not be possible", he said, "to find two kings more enterprising than these".

Scipio was rather nettled by this, but nevertheless he asked Hannibal to whom he would give the third place, expecting that at least the third would be assigned to him; but Hannibal replied, "to myself; for when I was a young man I conquered Hispania and crossed the Alps with an army, the first after Hercules."

As Scipio saw that he was likely to prolong his self-laudation he said, laughing, "where would you place yourself, Hannibal, if you had not been defeated by me?" Hannibal, now perceiving his jealousy, replied, "in that case I should have put myself before Alexander". Thus Hannibal continued his self-laudation, but flattered Scipio in an indirect manner by suggesting that he had conquered one who was the superior of Alexander.

At the end of this conversation Hannibal invited Scipio to be his guest, and Scipio replied that he would be so gladly if Hannibal were not living with Antiochus, who was held in suspicion by the Romans. Thus did they, in a manner worthy of great commanders, cast aside their enmity at the end of their wars.

Military academies all over the world continue to study Hannibal's exploits, especially his victory at Cannae.

Maximilian Otto Bismarck Caspari, in his article in the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910-1911), praises Hannibal in these words:

As to the transcendent military genius of Hannibal there cannot be two opinions. The man who for fifteen years could hold his ground in a hostile country against several powerful armies and a succession of able generals must have been a commander and a tactician of supreme capacity. In the use of strategies and ambuscades he certainly surpassed all other generals of antiquity. Wonderful as his achievements were, we must marvel the more when we take into account the grudging support he received from Carthage. As his veterans melted away, he had to organize fresh levies on the spot. We never hear of a mutiny in his army, composed though it was of North Africans, Iberians and Gauls. Again, all we know of him comes for the most part from hostile sources. The Romans feared and hated him so much that they could not do him justice. Livy speaks of his great qualities, but he adds that his vices were equally great, among which he singles out his more than Punic perfidy and an inhuman cruelty. For the first there would seem to be no further justification than that he was consummately skillful in the use of ambuscades. For the latter there is, we believe, no more ground than that at certain crises he acted in the general spirit of ancient warfare. Sometimes he contrasts most favorably with his enemy. No such brutality stains his name as that perpetrated by Gaius Claudius Nero on the vanquished Hasdrubal. Polybius merely says that he was accused of cruelty by the Romans and of avarice by the Carthaginians. He had indeed bitter enemies, and his life was one continuous struggle against destiny. For steadfastness of purpose, for organizing capacity and a mastery of military science he has perhaps never had an equal.

Even the Roman chroniclers acknowledged Hannibal's supreme military leadership, writing that "he never required others to do what he could not and would not do himself". According to Polybius 23, 13, p. 423:

It is a remarkable and very cogent proof of Hannibal's having been by nature a real leader and far superior to anyone else in statesmanship, that though he spent seventeen years in the field, passed through so many barbarous countries, and employed to aid him in desperate and extraordinary enterprises numbers of men of different nations and languages, no one ever dreamt of conspiring against him, nor was he ever deserted by those who had once joined him or submitted to him.

Count Alfred von Schlieffen developed his " Schlieffen Plan" (1905/1906) from his military studies, including the envelopment technique that Hannibal employed in the Battle of Cannae. George S. Patton believed himself a reincarnation of Hannibal-as well as of many other people, including a Roman legionary and a Napoleonic soldier. Norman Schwarzkopf Jr., the commander of the Coalition of the Gulf War of 1990-1991, claimed, "The technology of war may change, the sophistication of weapons certainly changes. But those same principles of war that applied to the days of Hannibal apply today."

According to the military historian Theodore Ayrault Dodge,

Hannibal excelled as a tactician. No battle in history is a finer sample of tactics than Cannae. But he was yet greater in logistics and strategy. No captain ever marched to and fro among so many armies of troops superior to his own numbers and material as fearlessly and skilfully as he. No man ever held his own so long or so ably against such odds. Constantly overmatched by better soldiers, led by generals always respectable, often of great ability, he yet defied all their efforts to drive him from Italy, for half a generation. Excepting in the case of Alexander, and some few isolated instances, all wars up to the Second Punic War, had been decided largely, if not entirely, by battle-tactics. Strategic ability had been comprehended only on a minor scale. Armies had marched towards each other, had fought in parallel order, and the conqueror had imposed terms on his opponent. Any variation from this rule consisted in ambuscades or other stratagems. That war could be waged by avoiding in lieu of seeking battle; that the results of a victory could be earned by attacks upon the enemy's communications, by flank-manoeuvres, by seizing positions from which safely to threaten him in case he moved, and by other devices of strategy, was not understood... [However,] for the first time in the history of war, we see two contending generals avoiding each other, occupying impregnable camps on heights, marching about each other's flanks to seize cities or supplies in their rear, harassing each other with small-war, and rarely venturing on a battle which might prove a fatal disaster-all with a well-conceived purpose of placing his opponent at a strategic disadvantage... That it did so was due to the teaching of Hannibal.

Due to his origin and connection with the territory belonging to modern-day Tunisia, he is widely revered as a national hero in the Arab nation.

Hannibal's profile appears on the Tunisian five-dinar bill issued on 8 November 1993, as well as on another new bill put into circulation on 20 March 2013. His name also appears in that of a private television channel, Hannibal TV. A street in Carthage, located near the Punic ports, bears his name; as does as a station on the TGM railway line: "Carthage Hannibal".

Plans envisage a mausoleum and a 17-metre (56 ft) high colossus of Hannibal on the Byrsa, the highest point of Carthage overlooking Tunis.

The teenaged Sigmund Freud regarded Hannibal as a "hero"; the founder of psychoanalysis portrays an idealized image of the Carthaginian general in his analysis of his "dreams of Rome" in The Interpretation of Dreams. Freud then associates this phenomenon with the adage "All roads lead to Rome". He writes in The Interpretation of Dreams: "Hannibal and Rome symbolized for the adolescent that I was the opposition between the tenacity of Judaism and the organizing spirit of the Catholic Church".

A fictional opera called Hannibal appears at the beginning of the musical Phantom Of The Opera.

Kocaeli in Turkey has a cenotaph built in Hannibal's memory. Even though the location of Hannibal's tomb could not be determined precisely in the studies carried out due to Atatürk's great interest, a monumental cenotaph was built in the south of present-day Gebze as an expression of Atatürk's will and Atatürk's respect for Hannibal.

Since 2011, Hannibal has appeared as one of the main characters, with Scipio Africanus, of the Ad Astra manga in which Mihachi Kagano traces the course of the Second Punic War. The two generals appear as allies in the manga, having been teleported to another dimension to wage war together.

Tunisia's home and away kit for the 2022 FIFA World Cup was inspired by the Ksour Essef cuirass, a piece of body armor believed to be worn by Carthaginian soldiers under the command of general Hannibal.

Timeline of Hannibal's life (248 BC-c. 183 BC)

Baker, George P. (1929). Hannibal. New York: Dodd, Mead.

Bickerman, Elias J. (1952). "Hannibal's Covenant". American Journal of Philology. 73 (1): 1-23. doi:10.2307/292232. JSTOR 292232.

Bradford, Ernle; Scullard, H.H. (1981). Hannibal. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-007064-6.; UK edition: London, Macmillan, 1981.

De Beer, Gavin (1969). Hannibal: Challenging Rome's Supremacy. New York: Viking Press.

De Beer, Gavin (1974). Hannibal: The Struggle for Power in the Mediterranean. London: Book Club Associates/Thames and Hudson Ltd.

Delbrück, Hans (1990). Warfare in antiquity. Walter J. Renfroe, trans. Lincoln: Univ. of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-9199-7.

Dodge, Theodore Ayrault (1891). Hannibal. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Lamb, Harold (1958). Hannibal: one man against Rome. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.

Livy (1972). Radice, Betty (ed.). The war with Hannibal : books XXI-XXX of the History of Rome from its foundation. Aubrey De Sélincourt, trans. Harmondsworth: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-044145-1.

MacDonald, Eve (2015). Hannibal: A Hellenistic Life. Yale University Press. online review

Toynbee, Arnold (1965). Hannibal's Legacy. London: Oxford University Press.

Mark, Joshua. "The Price of Greed: Hannibal's Betrayal by Carthage". World History Encyclopedia.

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Hannibal (; Punic: 𐤇𐤍𐤁𐤏𐤋, Ḥannibaʿl; 247 - between 183 and 181 BC) was a Carthaginian general and statesman who commanded the forces of Carthage in their battle against the Roman Republic during the Second Punic War. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest military commanders in history.

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this is rare to most of people that does not eat camal, some of few didn't even see camal before.
https://palestine-family.net/bedouin-food/

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BEDOUIN FOOD

Contributed by Toine Van Teeffelen on 18.02.2006:

To understand Arab and Palestinian food traditions it is important to go back to one of the roots of Arabic culinary culture: Bedouin life. Traditionally, Middle Eastern Bedouin followed a nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle. They lived in tents made of camel or goat hair. The Bedouin in the Negev tended sheep and camels which provided them with cheese, butter and yoghurt. The yoghurt was dried to save it for Winter. The Bedouin ate the meat from their sheep or camels.

The Bedouin would grow some vegetables in the wadis (valleys) or desert oases. By building dams they created a water supply. Products included tomatoes, cucumber, zucchini (courgette), eggplant, and fruits such as water melon, honey melon, figs and dates. Similar to the yoghurt, they dried vegetables and fruits for Winter time. From flour, water and a bit of salt, the Bedouin baked shrak, a special flat bread which is used for meals like mansaff. Having access to only a limited range of products, Bedouin rarely used sugar in their daily life.

After 50 years the Bedouin lifestyle has changed very fast. Most no longer live in tents but in houses. The wood and fire are replaced by the electric oven and the Bedouin no longer need to dry food for Winter. Dairy products and cattle meat are replaced by products from the market.

Although the household is modernized, still some Bedouin mothers bake the bread themselves and prepare it on fire and wood. Not all Bedouin can afford the comfort of present-day life; many prefer to slaughter sheep and chickens instead of buying meat from the market.

Some kinds of food quickly disappear from the Bedouin kitchen. Salah Abu Hani from Rahat remembers the bread his mother used to make, called gurs. It was baked in a special way. The dough was put on a round metal plate under a fire. To give it a special taste, it was sprinkled with coal. His mother used to prepare bazena during Winter, dough baked in yellow butter and milk. Few people still make it.

Food preparation and the Bedouin family

In traditional food preparation, the mother is the main cook. She is assisted by her daughters who, among other things, gather wood for the fire. The mother starts at four o'clock in the morning, baking the bread and preparing the breakfast for her husband and children. Besides cleaning the house she prepares lunch and supper, both hot meals. Only on special occasions, for instance when an important guest is invited, the man prepares the food. As proof that he really slaughtered the sheep or lamb, he shows the guest a knife full of blood. For these occasions the women prepare the bread and rice.

When a woman has her period, she is considered unclean to cook and she would not be able to prepare the meals for her family. One of her relatives would do the cooking. According to tradition, the guest eats first and only then the male host will follow. After they finish, the women and children follow. Men and women used to eat separately but nowadays you can find Bedouin families who eat together.

Modern kitchen tools make food preparation less tiresome for Bedouin mothers. Instead of two hot meals she can prepare one large dish for both lunch and dinner. However, Bedouin women, especially those with many children, often still face a daunting task.

Food and "table" manners

If Bedouin offer food to their guests, it is not in the first place to fill their stomachs but to show respect. It is therefore very impolite for the guest to overfeed himself. The guest should know that eating much shows bad manners. He has to eat quickly and finish before the host. There is a saying amongst Bedouin: "It is better to visit somebody with a full stomach and old clothes." According to the prophet Mohammed, people should not each too much. Eat what you need. There are other sayings: "Eat as camels (quickly) and get up before moon." "The demands of the stomach should not always be complied with." Self-restraint is a virtue.

Bedouin used to have a hard life. Food was scarce and therefore valuable. However, even when they could barely afford it, Bedouin were always obliged to prepare a meal for a guest. They would borrow ingredients from their neighbours. It is also a rule that the guest should never eat alone. To keep him comfortable, the host would join eating and stop eating as soon as the guest has finished his meal.

The Bedouin eat in groups who sit around one tray. Everybody keeps their side. Touching the other side would be greedy and impolite. Sharing a meal is connected with honor and trust. For instance, when there is a problem between tribes, the sheikhs would visit each other. When coffee is offered, they would not touch the cups unless the problem is solved. The coffee ceremony is like confirming a treaty. After settling the conflict, the tribal leaders share a meal. In this way the treaty is sealed forever. Violating such a treaty is very shameful. When tribes want to settle accounts, they will never share meals.

Proverb: "The one who eats with you will never betray you." Sharing a meal is not only a social occasion. When you do business or settle a disagreement the act of inviting someone for a meal helps to break the ice, or to build and strengthen a relationship.

"A person who does not want to eat does not want to give." If you accept generosity you are willing to give as well.

Food and magic in Bedouin life

Presently Bedouin will ask for medical treatment if they are ill. However, the darwish, a kind of magician, is still important for spiritual healing. If a person is considered to be possessed by a demon or when somebody wants to harm somebody in one way or another, the darwish can put something in the food or coffee to heal or protect him. There are some practices which are aimed at overcoming fear or preventing the evil eye. If you are afraid for something or somebody you may slaughter a black cock early in the morning and bury it. In the evening you eat it and all fears are gone. If a man and woman marry without the family's permission, a darwish can be consulted to harm the couple. To prevent them raising a family, the darwish may prepare something for the man's meal so that he will not be able to sleep with his wife.

From: "Sahteen: Discover the Palestinian Culture by Eating", published by the Freres School, Bethlehem, part of the Culture and Palestine series issued by the Arab Educational Institute-Open Windows, Bethlehem, 1999. To order the book, send a mail to aei@p-ol.com

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Contributed by Toine Van Teeffelen on 18.02.2006: To understand Arab and Palestinian food traditions it is important to go back to one of the roots of Arabic culinary culture: Bedouin life. Traditionally, Middle Eastern Bedouin followed a nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle. They lived in tents made of camel or goat hair.

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this game is for the poor group of people with no toy and no other play station to use it, it plays on a rock and that is not usual and also not seen anymore now.

https://www.ancientgames.org/tab/

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Ancient Games - Playing the Board Games of the Ancient World

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The game of Tab, sometimes spelled Tâb, and in Arabic - الطاب, also known as Tab Wa-Dukk, is a Middle Eastern game, that has both, luck and strategy, components. Many Tab boards have been found carved into stones, in Egypt, Jordan, and other Middle Eastern countries, however their dating is problematic, and we do not know if they have been carved by the Bedouin in the last few hundred years, or if they date to antiquity. Tab has been continuously played in Egypt at least since the Middle Ages until today and its rules are known.

Tab board near the Dier monument in Petra, Jordan. Photo: Dan Gibson, 2003, nabataea.net.

The earliest known mention of Tab is in a poem by the Medieval Arabic Mamluk poet from Egypt, Ibn Daniyal (1248 - 1310 CE), preserved in a manuscript (Mukhtar [min] Diwan Shams al-Din Ibn Daniyal, Ms. Istanbul Aya Sofya 4880, fol. 159a) with his poetry, in Turkey.

And I fell in love with the boys, then reverted
To being young, till I went back to grade school.
Every fawn intoxicates and thus kills his lover.
When he gives him the wine of spittle to drink.
I studied cheating, till I
Became the imam of dice (ki'ab) playing.
Then I gambled among them with date pits
And with ad-dukk at times and at-tab.
I played pigeons among them. How (often)
Did I thereby hunt every swift bird!
English translation from Rosenthal, Franz. Gambling in Islam. Brill, 1975. p. 45.; and Rosenthal, Franz. Man versus Society in Medieval Islam. Brill, 2014. pp. 380-381.
Detailed rules for Tab have been published for the first time in 1836, in a book by Edward William Lane, called "An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians". Lane traveled to Egypt twice, in the 1820s and 1830s, and observed Egyptian Bedouin and Felaheen (peasants) play various games, whose rules he recorded.

Since Tab is a game of the Egyptian poor and Bedouin nomads, it did not have fancy manufactured boards and pieces, as opposed to games like Senet, Aseb, Mehen, and Hounds and Jackals, all of which were the games of royalty and the wealthy. The Felaheen and the Bedouin simply dug holes in the sand to make a temporary playing board or carved them into rocks, and used pebbles of two different colors to play.

Although Tab has been played historically on boards with an odd number of cells in width, varying from 7 to 29 cells wide, in the rules below I have chosen to standardize the board to 4×11. The more columns there are in the game the smaller the impact of the luck factor and more use of strategy, but as the gaming boards gets wider so too the duration of the game gets longer. Width of 11 cells is a good compromise between the duration of the game and the reduction of the luck aspect.

Although historically, the number of the playing pieces varied, sometimes equal to the width if the board and sometimes less, as recorded by Lane, in the standardized rules below I have set the number of pieces per player always equals to the width of the board, namely 11 pieces, for 4×11 board.

Both, Lane and Walker, have indicated that when playing with single sided pieces, it is rather difficult to memorize which pieces have visited specific location in the game and thus changed their status. Due to this problem. I have added to the rules, that the playing pieces should be two sided so that the players do not need to memorize which pieces have visited the last row and which pieces have not, as was in the original game played with pebbles, which did not have two distinct sides. The pieces can be merely flipped over, thus marking their status.

Tab board in Petra, Jordan on the rocks behind the first row of small shops as one walks from the parking lot to the Government Resthouse. Photo: Dan Gibson, 2003, nabataea.net.

The naming terminology of various game components in Tab comes from Arabic. Each cell on the board is called Beyt (house). Each playing piece is called Kelb (dog), or plural Kilab. Each throwing stick is called Tab, which is also the name of score 1, or plural Teeb. All pieces that sit on their home rows are called individually Nazranee (Christian), or plural Nazara. Once the pieces move off their home row they get "converted" and are now called Muslim (Muslim), or plural Muslemeen. A stack of multiple pieces is called Eggeh.

Most rules have been described by Lane, but a few additional clarification were made by Damian Walker, as well as myself.
Tab Rules:

1. Tab is a 2 player game.

2. It consists of a 4×11 playing board, 4 throwing sticks with one side flat and the other side rounded, used as dice, and 22 two sided playing pieces, 11 per player, usually colored white and black.

3. Prior to the start of the game, the players position their pieces on the board on the outer home rows (rows 1 and 4), closest to each player.

4. The players decide who goes first by agreement or by casting lots such as a toss of a coin.

5. All 4 throwing sticks are thrown at the same time. The score is determined as follows:

1. If one throwing stick landed on the flat side and the other three landed on the round side the score is 1.

2. If two throwing sticks landed on the flat side and the other two landed on the round side the score is 2.

3. If three throwing sticks landed on the flat side and the fourth one landed on the round side the score is 3.

4. If all four throwing sticks landed on the flat side the score is 4.

5. If all four throwing sticks landed on the rounded side the score is 6 (note NOT 5), which is the maximum obtainable score.

6. Score of 5 is not present in the game.

6. The scores 1, 4 and 6, give the player another turn to throw the sticks. The player keeps throwing the sticks repeatedly until they score 2 or 3, at which their turn stops.

7. Each individual throw score allows the player to move either the same piece that number of spaces, or different pieces that number of spaces.

8. Scores from different throws cannot be combined into a single move.

9. The first score of the game must be a Tab (1), so the player who goes first keeps throwing the sticks until they score a 1. After scoring a 1 they get to throw again.

10. After all throws of an individual turn have been made, the player moves their pieces. Pieces move to the right of the player's 1st and 3rd rows, and to the left of the player's 2nd and 4th rows.

11. Pieces in their initial position cells (Christians) can only be moved on the score of 1 (Tab). Once the Christian has been moved off its initial position cell it gets converted to a Muslim and from then on can be moved on any score. There is no need to flip over the piece once it got converted from Christian to Muslim, because its current status is obvious by its location on the board.

12. If a player scores 1 (Tab) and still has Christians to play then they must move their right most Christian off its original cell. However, if they do not have Christians left then they can move any piece.

13. A player can land their own piece onto a cell occupied by another of their own pieces, in which case the pieces get stacked. The stack can contain any number of pieces.

14. A stack can be moved together as if it was an individual piece.

15. A stack can be grown by landing on top of other friendly pieces or other friendly stacks.

16. A stack may be split up on a score of 1 (Tab), by removing the top piece and moving it to the next cell. Multiple pieces cannot be removed off the stack.

17. If a stack goes back to a previous row (i.e. from row 3 to row 2, or from row 4 to row 3), then it gets reduced to a single piece and all other pieces get removed off the board. If such a move is the player's only choice then they can skip their turn on that particular throw, in which case they either throw again if they scored 1, 4, or 6, or skip their turn completely.

18. If a player lands onto a cell, with an exact score (i.e. lands, but not simply jumps over), with an opponent's piece or stacked pieces, all of the opponent's pieces from that cell get removed from the board.

19. A player can knock out multiple opponent's pieces in a single turn.

20. Once a piece has reach row 3 it may chose to go back to row 2 in a clockwise direction, instead of going forward to row 4 (the home row of the opponent). Pieces can go back and forth between rows 2 and 3 without any change in their status.

21. Muslims are forbidden to return to their own home row. As David Parlett, quoted by Damian Walker in his book, pointed out, "apostasy is forbidden."

22. If a piece is moved from row 3 to row 4 it gets flipped over. That piece can only go to row 4 if the following two conditions are met:

1. The pieces has never been on the opponent's home row before. (i.e. it was not flipped over)

2. There is at least one opponent's piece still sitting on their own home row. If the opponent's home row does not have any of their pieces on it then the player cannot move their pieces onto it.

23. Once the player's flipped over piece has landed on to the opponent's home row, it can only be moved in the following situations:

1. The player has no pieces left on their own home row.

2. The piece is not stacked.

3. The player does not have any unstacked pieces left.

24. Once a player gets all of their pieces knocked off the board, they lose the game.

On Strategy:

1. The throwing sticks have uneven probability for different scores, as compared to a six sided cubic dice, which makes them more frustrating and exciting at the same time.

1. The most frequent dice score on throwing sticks is 2 (probability is 6/16).

2. The next most frequent dice scores are 1 and 3 (probability is 4/16).

3. The least frequent dice scores are 4 and 6 (probability is 1/16).

4. Due to this uneven probability of scoring it is advantageous to the player to keep gaps between theirs and opponent's pieces of either 1 or 3 cells. Gaps of 4 or 5 are even better. However, gaps of 2 are more dangerous since the probability of the opponent scoring a 2 is highest and therefore the piece can get easily knocked out.

5. For the same reason, playing the game with a six sided cubical dice instead of the throwing sticks significantly ruins the experience of the game, since it equalizes all probabilities of the scores and these stratagems stop being applicable.

6. Since a player can throw the sticks multiple times in a single turn they have different probabilities for scoring per turn, as opposed to per throw. The following table summarizes all probabilities:

7. From the above table it can be inferred that on average it will take about 4 throws to score a Tab, and therefore convert a Christian into a Muslim or to split a stack.

2. Pieces on the 4th row (opponent's home row) are safe from being knocked out, as long as there are no opponent's Christians still sitting on that row behind them, because enemy Muslims are forbidden to return to their own home row.

3. Rows 1 and 4 can be used as ambush locations to knock out opponent's pieces in rows 2 or 3, as long as they themselves are safe from being knocked by near by opponents's pieces. Above listed probabilities can be used to determine which pieces is safer in relation to an opponent's piece.

4. Stacking pieces does not make them safe, but rather more vulnerable to being knocked out all the same time. However, stacking can be used to getting faster to the opponent's home row, where they can be safe, by jumping on top of each other and leaping forward, in a single turn.

5. Another use for stacking pieces is to get them out of the second row faster where they are most vulnerable.

Tab board located on the rocks to the right of the Urn Tomb, almost overlooking the theater in Petra, Jordan. Photo: Dan Gibson, 2003, nabataea.net.
Bibliography:

1. Lane, Edward William. An account of the manners and customs of the modern Egyptians: written in Egypt during the years 1833,-34, and-35, partly from notes made during a former visit to that country in the years 1825,-26,-27, and-28. J. Murray, 1860. p. 346-349.

2. Walker, Damian Gareth. A Book of Historic Board Games. Lulu. com, 2014. pp. 65-75.

3. Crist, Walter, Anne-Elizabeth Dunn-Vaturi, and Alex de Voogt. Ancient Egyptians at Play: Board Games Across Borders. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2016. pp. 158-160.

4. Hyde, Thomas. De ludis orientalibus. 1694. pp. 217-223.

5. Depaulis, Thierry. "Jeux de parcours du monde arabo-musulman (Afrique du Nord et Proche-Orient)." International Journal for the Study of Board Games 4 (2001). pp. 53-76.

6. De Voogt, Alex, Ahmad BA Hassanat, and Mahmoud B. Alhasanat. "The History and Distribution of ṭāb: A Survey of Petra's Gaming Boards." Journal of Near Eastern Studies 76, no. 1 (2017): 93-101.
Professor Ahmad Hassanat's complete list of all carved Tab gaming boards in Jordan, with a Google map and photos, collected for this paper.

7. Hassanat, Ahmad B., Ghada Altarawneh, Ahmad S. Tarawneh, Hossam Faris, Mahmoud B. Alhasanat, Alex de Voogt, Baker Al-Rawashdeh, Mohammed Alshamaileh, and Surya VB Prasath. "On Computerizing the Ancient Game of Ṭāb." International Journal of Gaming and Computer-Mediated Simulations (IJGCMS) 10, no. 3 (2018): 20-40.

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The game of Tab, sometimes spelled Tâb, and in Arabic - الطاب, also known as Tab Wa-Dukk, is a Middle Eastern game, that has both, luck and strategy, components.

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this market was dead and is because the culture of bedouin in this market has been covered by other stuff that makes it not so special anymore, this market will sell some coin or tobacco and spices but now it has lost the distinctiveness of the stuff.https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium.MAGAZINE-beer-sheva-to-close-century-old-bedouin-market-lost-uniqueness-1.5438615

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this film is about the life of bedouin it could be like a Documentary it is all about the lifestyle of bedouin and also the thing that happen in the bedouin, and this is the few of the  movie that is about bedouin, and also this is the only movie that is talking about that kind of thing.
https://www.haaretz.com/middle-east-news/bedouin-drama-vies-for-oscar-nod-1.5389499

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AP - A coming-of-age drama set among Bedouin tribesmen roaming the desert emerged as the first potential Oscar contender produced by Jordan's nascent film industry.

"Theeb" (Wolf), set in 1916, tells the story of a playful 11-year-old Bedouin boy of the same name who gets caught up in his tribe's alliance with the British against Ottoman rulers during the era's Arab Revolt.

Billed as a "Bedouin Western" and an authentic portrayal of Bedouin culture, Theeb is one of nine movies short-listed for best foreign language film nominations. The final five will be announced Thursday.

For the amateur cast from a Bedouin clan and for two young Jordanians writing and directing their first feature film, making Theeb has already been a wild ride, climaxing in the 2014 world premiere at the Venice Film Festival. That marked the first time the actors left Jordan or saw the entire film.

"They got a 10-minute standing ovation," said director Naji Abu Nowar, who won for best director in the "Orrizonti" (Horizons) category in Venice.

"The Bedouins, it's a very macho culture, and you never see anyone cry, even the children ... and to see tears coming out of some of their eyes (during the premiere) was a really powerful moment," he said, speaking from the Palm Springs International Film Festival, a last pre-Oscar opportunity to promote foreign films.

Theeb also won two nominations from the British Academy of Film and Television Arts, or BAFTA, for its 2016 awards - for best foreign language film and for outstanding directorial debut for Abu Nowar, who is also British.

The actors have since resumed their lives in al-Shakriyeh, a small Bedouin village nestled among striking rock formations rising from the desert floor of Wadi Rum, a protected landscape just north of the Red Sea and one of Jordan's main tourist attractions.

Jacir Eid Al-Hwietat, who played Theeb, is now 15, attends 10th grade and has revised his career plans, from police officer to actor. "I'm a celebrity among my friends now," said Jacir, who has morphed from a boy with a sweet smile into a guarded teen.

His cousin, Hussein Salameh al-Sweilhiyeen, who played Theeb's brother Hussein, is back to racing camels and working as a tourist guide. Since Theeb, he has appeared in a German TV documentary about Wadi Rum and a Jordanian tourism commercial, and said he would like to do more acting.

Al-Sweilhiyeen said being involved in Theeb made him aware of the need to protect traditions. Bedouin lifestyles in the area have changed dramatically in the last few decades, with nomads settling down, trading their camels for pickup trucks and living off tourists instead of goat herds.

"Sometimes I say the old life was better," said al-Sweilhiyeen, sitting on the floor of the carpeted family diwan, or traditional reception area for guests. "The desert teaches you how to depend on yourself. Now we have good services, but we need to protect some old customs."

Jacir's father, 42-year-old Eid, still remembers the old ways; he was born in a tent and as a boy rode camels over long distances as his family wandered the desert before settling down about 30 years ago. He dropped out of school as a 15-year-old, taught himself English, began guiding tourists and recently sold his last camels, saying he doesn't have the time and space to care for them properly.

Al-Hwietat became the local point man for the filmmakers, Abu Nowar and Bassel Ghandour, who produced the film and co-wrote the script. The pair lived in al-Shakriyeh for most of 2012, soaking up Bedouin culture, rewriting the script and holding acting workshops for the local cast.

Bassel Ghandour, who produced the film and co-wrote the script of "Theeb", one of nine movies short-listed for best foreign language film nominations. January 7, 2016. Credit: AP

Theeb was filmed over five weeks by veteran Austrian cinematographer Wolfgang Thaler, the most experienced crew member and praised by all involved as the bedrock of the production.

Ghandour said Thaler used super-16mm film in part because it captures the desert's harsh sun and deep shadows more naturally. Theeb, also released commercially, was "definitely low-budget," Ghandour said, but wouldn't reveal how much it cost to make.

Half a century before Theeb, scenes of the Oscar-winning epic "Lawrence of Arabia" about maverick British army officer T. E. Lawrence were filmed in Wadi Rum, just minutes from where Jacir and his family live.

Jacir's grandfather was part of the local support staff for "Lawrence," also set during the Arab Revolt, and the tradition continues. Jacir's father, Eid, has worked on international productions, most recently as a location manager for "The Martian," a 2015 science fiction film starring Matt Damon, which just won a Golden Globe Award for Best Musical or Comedy Motion Picture.

Damon was unpretentious during the shoot, greeting everyone at the start of each day, said al-Hwietat.

Providing locations and crew for foreign films remains an important part of Jordan's film work, said George David, general manager of the Royal Film Commission. Major films shot in Jordan also include "Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade" (1989) and "The Hurt Locker" (2008).

At a time of growing conflict in the region, urban centers in Jordan, seen as relatively safe, are standing in for Baghdad or Beirut, he said, adding that "we have also become the go-to location for Mars and the moon."

Meanwhile, the success of Theeb signals the development of domestic film production.

Over the past decade, the commission has offered workshops on all aspects of film-making, including an annual screenwriters' lab in consultation with the Sundance Institute. It also helped promote 25 feature films and documentaries made in Jordan between 2010 and 2015.

However, budget cuts have forced the closure of a film school and the commission had to reduce training. "If we, as an industry, tackle the funding issue, I think we will be seeing more Theebs," said David. "Whether it wins or not, we are already very proud of what it has already achieved."

Back in al-Shakriyeh, the Theeb cast members play it cool, despite what appears to be a mild case of Oscar fever. If Theeb is nominated, four of them plan to travel to the awards ceremony in Hollywood - Jacir, his father Eid, cousin Hussein and the film's villain, played by local resident Hassan Mutlaq al-Maraiyeh.

Like others in the film industry, they have already thought about what to wear for the big night - black robes, the Bedouin version of formal attire, instead of the beige ones for every day, said Jacir's father.

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Jordanian drama about Bedouin tribe vies for Oscar nomination

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AP - A coming-of-age drama set among Bedouin tribesmen roaming the desert emerged as the first potential Oscar contender produced by Jordan's nascent film industry. "Theeb" (Wolf), set in 1916, tells the story of a playful 11-year-old Bedouin boy of the same name who gets caught up in his tribe's alliance with the British against Ottoman rulers during the era's Arab Revolt.

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this story is about before, bedouin likes to make war fight each other to get food or ground and resource or woman, and to be men that are fighting one of the warriors is very brave and defend the enemy and beat them all by himself. this also has not many people knowing this because we don't need to war know so the story use to Inspire does not had to.

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this one is kind of like fasion or some thing else for their ceremony and aspecially when is wedding this is the most important thing to bedouin so they will prepare the specail cloth for them to make it special and to let the ceremony be more grand to them and this kind of ceramony is been less and less not much seen, also because of the urbanization.

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the reason for bedouin to build a house is in the tent, but even they build their house they still keep their style, like this one on top is the house that they are living but is underground so they can cover by dirt to be protect so they won't get hurt by the weather, but actually, this building is the few of the building in Tunisia actually is the only building because to live in a cave is not so comfortable and this housing is slowly disappearing because of the people who live in there are slowly gone then the house will be a remains for this city

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to know that bedouin is a living desert so they need a tent because they will keep moving around like a nomad, but the tent in the desert is going to be way different then the normal tent because the tent must be more stable to resist the wind and the hot temperature and the Sand burst in the desert and it needs to be light and also need to be easy to build and collect, the tent that they build has covered all of the function that I give on top, but it does not have a good looking, the way it disappearing is simple people do not want to live around anymore, city Development now can live the way much better then live in a tent this is connect about urbanization too.

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is a drum that is over 900 years old this instrument is popular now but the variety has been changing, this instrument has been live 900 years and is popular in the city that makes no sense the instrument won't change, Darbuka is a struck drum the original in bedouin has been improved? and so the structure or the appearance has been changed to different  so usually, it has already disappeared, and the fun fact is this instrument can be played either by keeping it under the arm or resting on the leg.

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El Oud is also an instrument to show in the festival and also this instrument is a pear-shaped string the other name call mandora and this may look like a guitar or lute but actually, it has a  lot of difference even the voice or the way to play, the number of strings varies between is ten to thirteen, to be sure this instrument is disappearing is because I can't find much information and also know this is because this one is using the festival to know the biggest festival is Dahab festival and because the disappearing or the festival, so the instrument will be getting useless and not many people, will learn this because is hard and also the teacher is less and if the instrument is popular than not many people will want to learn this instrument.

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Al-Taghrooda, traditional Bedouin chanted poetry

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This instrument is the coolest instrument I saw before, it uses the bow to play this music and have a special sound and it is for, is a bowed string instrument that has 1500 history, this instrument only has one string, and is made from the skin of the goat and the tail of an Arabian racing horse, it does not sound really good so they will play this with some drum to make the accompaniment to help the music, this instrument is disappearing is because that this instrument is too rare and also the amount of people who know how to play this instrument is all pretty old if they need to teach next generation is really hard and also now we got the electronic music to copy this music is too easy to do it, so the tourist won't get too intrust about it.

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is a type of poem that is about social criticism, to say it more uncomplicated it is just a political poem, in Asia, we have many examples and not just into day in the history also has much poetry is about this social criticism, and that can speak the voice out for people, and to be disappearing is because now we had less and less bedouin so that means this will be disappearing by the creator increase.

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this kind of poem is the logest kind of poem in bedouin, this one has been called epic poem and this poem is actually more about the word too, they all know that the better word you have write the better singer you can be but also they still need to play the music but in that case every body know how to play besouin music so is not that special and important.

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is a type of poetry but is about love, but as we know about the poetry is use to be sing but in this type of poetry is to show how you feel and to express them self by this poem, and also for the reason of this culture is dissappear because the bedouin is getting less so the creator is much lesser.

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this one is for the war, as we know bedouin lifestyle in the history is always been war fighting each other to steal their food and animal or tent also a woman and as their culture they need to sing a song to be brave and fight against with the enemy, so this is the song all about, to disappear it going to have some reason for it, at the timeline now we don't see war often because in know we won't need to fight each other to get our food or something else, because of the urbanization so that mean this song it can just be a culture for no any use to bedouin or everyone.

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this is another type of music is about the camel driver to Present their feeling and the process to be creative this kind of music because bedouin almost all the transportation is using camel and so they will have the emotion or something when they ride the camel, so long time are on the camel and they do this kind of creation to share or tells about the camel, and t be disappear is because the bedouin are getting lesser and the creators are getting lesser and also the urbanization can kill the usefulness  of camel because we won't need it any more.

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this is a type of the bedouin singing bedouin has many types, this type is about poetry but is not exactly and also to make the music from their heart there is no accompaniment only there singing, this type of singing is lesser now because as the bedouin decrease the singer decrease and also another reason this song should play with their own instrument but the instrument was very rare actually, is  in danger now so when the instrument are out then the music is done

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bedouin are live in the desert so they make their stuff by themself, and because of this effect they all do much stuff for this thing and make up their own style to be able to use in sahara and also because the limit of their materials can shape their thinking so the craft that they done is able to use in their lifestyle so when this product comes out then it could be more special to us and the visitor and is same as the paint and also the festivals because bedouin is much less now so with the decrease of people at the same time the artist will decrease.

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bedouin paint is much more different than other paint because it has covered the lifestyle and emotion when they live in the Sahara desert, and some of the art because is so special and some people will collect this kind of art for exhibition, actually at this moment not much artist now the art on top is cost about 376497.63NTD is not so expensive to think about art but is come from a bedouin is much emotion and more meaning in this art so they will want to keep it, and as I said the artist is getting lesser so the art from here is almost about to die

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bedouin will eat the lamb egg to show they are brave the picture on top is Bear Grylls going to Sahara for survival and he has met the bedouin and they use the lamb egg to show their culture to him so give him a lamb egg, Bear Grylls just Spit it out because is too terrible and he understands why this can show men are brave, this culture can be disappeared by any reason, the first bedouin is separate in each country and they won't have all the same culture if the tribe that has this culture but they died or been urbanization then this culture will fully disappear.

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the textile is bedouin was very butiful and also the only woman will do this job.
https://www.sunbula.org/en/article/35/Bedouin-Weaving

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Handmade Fairtrade Gifts from Palestine | Shop Sunbula Online

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Bedouins are a semi-nomadic people who, historically, lived across the Middle East and North Africa, moving their flocks to seasonal grazing locations. The weaving is usually done by women on a ground loom, creating a three-ply strong and tight textile that is made into camel bags, tents, rugs and pillows. Wool from local sheep is carded and then hand spun into yarn that is skeined, dyed and plied prior to weaving. Our partner in Lakiya, make their woven items from 100% wool from Negev desert Awassi sheep.

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Bedouins are a semi-nomadic people who, historically, lived across the Middle East and North Africa, moving their flocks to seasonal grazing locations. The weaving is usually done by women on a ground loom, creating a three-ply strong and tight textile that is made into camel bags, tents, rugs and pillows.

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in bedouin they will have much difference between the Muslims, they have their own cultural activity for doing any kind of stuff Some Bedouin groups postulate the existence of ogresses and of monstrous.
https://www.timeanddate.com/holidays/tunisia/eid-al-adha

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Take your kids and their teddy bears out for a picnic on Teddy Bears' Picnic Day. More

Named after Edmund Clerihew Bentley, this poetic holiday celebrates a unique form of humorous poetry called the clerihew. More

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Take your kids and their teddy bears out for a picnic on Teddy Bears' Picnic Day. More Named after Edmund Clerihew Bentley, this poetic holiday celebrates a unique form of humorous poetry called the clerihew. More

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Some kinds of food quickly disappear from the Bedouin kitchen. Salah Abu Hani from Rahat remembers the bread his mother used to make, called gurs. It was baked in a special way. The dough was put on a round metal plate under a fire. To give it a special taste, it was sprinkled with coal. His mother used to prepare bazena during Winter, dough baked in yellow butter and milk. Few people still make it, because there are tons of food can replace by many food and the flavor is much better.

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is about playing or staying together to do something together but now bedouin is much less so the time gather together and do some thing activity.

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bedouin will shephered the animal and move around this is not a good way for survival to day because to shepher animal like sheep, camal, cow.... around the desert they are the only hope that you can live in this desert if they are dead or something happen you will be done in desert, because bedouin will eat the meat and drink the milk from the sheep and cow and camal so actally that is the key for their survival, now people because of the urbanization so they will build farm for anilmal to make sure that they won't had any accident happen, to affect their output.

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Bedouin shepherds struggle to make a living on the hills around Bethlehem

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this are the myth and story from tunisia and bedouin, and is slowly forgot by people because it is not so important and also the way they live does not make the same rules.

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bedouin and tunisia they very cares about the wedding ceremonies and also religions so they will have more Special feature in their ceremonies

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the architecture in tunisia and bedouin is slowly disappearing because 1. urbanization make the tent useless, 2. the house underground is been old and people won't build any house underground this is the only one and it is just a historical remains to tunisia

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in tunisia and bedouin they has many instrument that is very special because they will use the resources they got to make the instrument and is too unpopular so no one play it now.

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poetry in bedouin is very important and is a way to show how good is your languge skill, the creator of poetry is been less and is because they don't often upload it or create.

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the music in bedouin is from their heart and have many diffrent type to do, they have create the music for war but they don't fight each other in today so it is useless and they also do about camal and is also disappearing to ride a camel.

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bedouin  has made many tool or accessories by their own and now becasue of globolization their stuff slowly affect by others.

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Dahab Bedouin festival is the biggest festival in bedouin, this festival will absorb many visitors to come and learn about their culture, they will have music food and the lifestyle, and bedouin will use this time to sell their product for Livelihood, but the last time that has been recorded is 2015, so that means there is no any other information for 2016~2021 that is unambiguous evidence to prove this festival is slowly disappeared in globalization and slowly will disappear in their culture and that is because of the feature of this festival is slowly not so popular now because their has much big company are doing the same or either better thing, and slowly the reason to come visit them is not so important, and also the main reason is the bedouin is much lesser now so that mean they will have less chance for doing this activity.

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Rationale:

As part of an online community known as the Kaleidoscope Museum project I will be discuss about the Tunisia disappearing culture and nomads. My contribution is to make a padlet for showing the Tunisian minority culture. Tunisia is 99% Muslim and that tends to dominate the cultural activity of the country, but there is also there was a lot of Bedouin nomads in Tunisia who have a special traditional culture, but Tunisia culture are disappearing because of urbanization. Tourism is influential because when the visitor from other country will bring their culture to Tunisia will effect on Tunisia own culture, Hotel chain in Tunisia is cover by Marriott, but the problem is Marriott has 7,000+ properties and across 131 countries that will make Tunisia hotel can’t show their unique culture, Tunisia does not have a strong economic or political power in the world, so their culture will be superseded by other cultures of bigger countries like American, French, Roman for those who had dominated Tunisia before. And also because the time have change and people spread the systematic agriculture, and the growth of industry that will make nomads settle. This is problematic for the distinctiveness of Tunisian culture because the nomadic cultures within Tunisia needs to be remembered, if this kind of culture be superseded then people will soon forget this. And that could also adversely affect its tourist industry due to a lack of diversity, because when visitor travel to Tunisia and they will only experience similar culture to their own and that will make the tourist industry earnings go down.