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Pizza ( PEET-sə, Italian: , Neapolitan: ) is a dish of Italian origin consisting of a usually round, flat base of leavened wheat-based dough topped with tomatoes, cheese, and often various other ingredients (such as various types of sausage, anchovies, mushrooms, onions, olives, vegetables, meat, ham, etc.), which is then baked at a high temperature, traditionally in a wood-fired oven.

The term pizza was first recorded in the 10th century in a Latin manuscript from the Southern Italian town of Gaeta in Lazio, on the border with Campania. Raffaele Esposito is often credited for creating modern pizza in Naples. In 2009, Neapolitan pizza was registered with the European Union as a Traditional Speciality Guaranteed dish. In 2017, the art of making Neapolitan pizza was added to UNESCO's list of intangible cultural heritage.

Pizza and its variants are among the most popular foods in the world. Pizza is sold at a variety of restaurants, including pizzerias (pizza specialty restaurants), Mediterranean restaurants, via delivery, and as street food. In Italy, pizza served in a restaurant is presented unsliced, and is eaten with the use of a knife and fork. In casual settings, however, it is cut into wedges to be eaten while held in the hand. Pizza is also sold in grocery stores in a variety of forms, including frozen or as kits for self-assembly. They are then cooked using a home oven.

In 2017, the world pizza market was US$ 128 billion, and in the US it was $44 billion spread over 76,000 pizzerias. Overall, 13% of the U.S. population aged two years and over consumed pizza on any given day.

The oldest recorded usage of the word "pizza" is from a Latin text from the town of Gaeta, then still part of the Byzantine Empire, in 997 AD; the text states that a tenant of certain property is to give the bishop of Gaeta duodecim pizze ("twelve pizzas") every Christmas Day, and another twelve every Easter Sunday.

Suggested etymologies include:

Byzantine Greek and Late Latin pitta > pizza, cf. Modern Greek pitta bread and the Apulia and Calabrian (then Byzantine Italy) pitta, a round flat bread baked in the oven at high temperature sometimes with toppings. The word pitta can in turn be traced to either Ancient Greek πικτή (pikte), "fermented pastry", which in Latin became "picta", or Ancient Greek πίσσα (pissa, Attic πίττα, pitta), "pitch", or πήτεα (pḗtea), "bran" (πητίτης pētítēs, "bran bread").

The Etymological Dictionary of the Italian Language explains it as coming from dialectal pinza "clamp", as in modern Italian pinze "pliers, pincers, tongs, forceps". Their origin is from Latin pinsere "to pound, stamp".

The Lombardic word bizzo or pizzo meaning "mouthful" (related to the English words "bit" and "bite"), which was brought to Italy in the middle of the 6th century AD by the invading Lombards. The shift b>p could be explained by the High German consonant shift, and it has been noted in this connection that in German the word Imbiss means "snack".

A small pizza is sometimes called a " pizzetta". A person who makes pizza is known as a " pizzaiolo".

The word "pizza" was borrowed from Italian into English in the 1930s; before it became well known, pizza was called "tomato pie" by English speakers. Some regional pizza variations still use the name tomato pie.

An ancient Roman precursor of pizza shown on a fresco in Pompeii

A pizzaiolo in 1830

Records of people adding other ingredients to bread to make it more flavorful can be found throughout ancient history. In the 6th century BC, the Persian soldiers of the Achaemenid Empire during the rule of Darius the Great baked flatbreads with cheese and dates on top of their battle shields and the ancient Greeks supplemented their bread with oils, herbs, and cheese. An early reference to a pizza-like food occurs in the , when Celaeno, queen of the Harpies, foretells that the Trojans would not find peace until they are forced by hunger to eat their tables (Book III). In Book VII, Aeneas and his men are served a meal that includes round cakes (like pita bread) topped with cooked vegetables. When they eat the bread, they realize that these are the "tables" prophesied by Celaeno. In 2023, archeologists discovered a fresco in Pompeii appearing to depict a pizza-like dish among other foodstuffs and staples on a silver platter. Italy's culture minister said it "may be a distant ancestor of the modern dish". The first mention of the word "pizza" comes from a notarial document written in Latin and dating to May 997 AD from Gaeta, demanding a payment of "twelve pizzas, a pork shoulder, and a pork kidney on Christmas Day, and 12 pizzas and a couple of chickens on Easter Day."

Modern pizza evolved from similar flatbread dishes in Naples, Italy, in the 18th or early 19th century. Before that time, flatbread was often topped with ingredients such as garlic, salt, lard, and cheese. It is uncertain when tomatoes were first added and there are many conflicting claims, though it certainly could not have been before the 16th century and the Columbian Exchange. Until about 1830, pizza was sold from open-air stands and out of pizza bakeries.

A popular contemporary legend holds that the archetypal pizza, pizza Margherita, was invented in 1889, when the Royal Palace of Capodimonte commissioned the Neapolitan pizzaiolo (pizza maker) Raffaele Esposito to create a pizza in honor of the visiting Queen Margherita. Of the three different pizzas he created, the Queen strongly preferred a pizza swathed in the colors of the Italian flag - red (tomato), green (basil), and white (mozzarella). Supposedly, this kind of pizza was then named after the Queen, with an official letter of recognition from the Queen's "head of service" remaining to this day on display in Esposito's shop, now called the Pizzeria Brandi. Later research cast doubt on this legend, undermining the authenticity of the letter of recognition, pointing that no media of the period reported about supposed visit and that both the story and name Margherita were first promoted in the 1930s-1940s.

Pizza was taken to the United States by Italian immigrants in the late nineteenth century and first appeared in areas where they concentrated. The country's first pizzeria, Lombardi's, opened in New York City in 1905. Following World War II, veterans returning from the Italian Campaign, who were introduced to Italy's native cuisine, proved a ready market for pizza in particular.

The Associazione Verace Pizza Napoletana (lit. True Neapolitan Pizza Association) is a non-profit organization founded in 1984 with headquarters in Naples that aims to promote traditional Neapolitan pizza. In 2009, upon Italy's request, Neapolitan pizza was registered with the European Union as a Traditional Speciality Guaranteed dish, and in 2017 the art of its making was included on UNESCO's list of intangible cultural heritage.

Preparation

Pizza is sold fresh or frozen, and whole or in portion-size slices. Methods have been developed to overcome challenges such as preventing the sauce from combining with the dough, and producing a crust that can be frozen and reheated without becoming rigid. There are frozen pizzas with raw ingredients and self-rising crusts.

Another form of pizza is available from take and bake pizzerias. This pizza is assembled in the store, then sold unbaked to customers to bake in their own ovens. Some grocery stores sell fresh dough along with sauce and basic ingredients, to assemble at home before baking in an oven.

Pizza dough being kneaded before being left undisturbed and allowed time to proof

In restaurants, pizza can be baked in an oven with fire bricks above the heat source, an electric deck oven, a conveyor belt oven, or, in traditional style in a wood or coal-fired brick oven. The pizza is slid into the oven on a long paddle, called a peel, and baked directly on hot bricks, a screen (a round metal grate, typically aluminum), or whatever the oven surface is. Before use, a peel is typically sprinkled with cornmeal to allow the pizza to easily slide on and off it. When made at home, a pizza can be baked on a pizza stone in a regular oven to reproduce some of the heating effect of a brick oven. Cooking directly on a metal surface results in too rapid heat transfer to the crust, burning it. Some home chefs use a wood-fired pizza oven, usually installed outdoors. As in restaurants, these are often dome-shaped, as pizza ovens have been for centuries, in order to achieve even heat distribution. Another variation is grilled pizza, in which the pizza is baked directly on a barbecue grill. Greek pizza, like deep dish Chicago and Sicilian style pizza, is baked in a pan rather than directly on the bricks of the pizza oven.

Most restaurants use standard and purpose-built pizza preparation tables to assemble their pizzas. Mass production of pizza by chains can be completely automated.

Caramelised crust - its cornicione (the outer edge) - of slices of New York-style pizza

The bottom of the pizza, called the "crust", may vary widely according to style - thin as in a typical hand-tossed Neapolitan pizza or thick as in a deep-dish Chicago-style. It is traditionally plain, but may also be seasoned with garlic or herbs, or stuffed with cheese. The outer edge of the pizza is sometimes referred to as the cornicione. Some pizza dough contains sugar, to help its yeast rise and enhance browning of the crust.

Dipping sauce specifically for pizza was invented by American pizza chain Papa John's Pizza in 1984 and has since been adopted by some when eating pizza, especially the crust.

Mozzarella cheese is commonly used on pizza, with the buffalo mozzarella produced in the surroundings of Naples. Other cheeses are also used, particularly Italian cheeses including provolone, pecorino romano, ricotta, and scamorza. Less expensive processed cheeses or cheese analogues have been developed for mass-market pizzas to produce desirable qualities like browning, melting, stretchiness, consistent fat and moisture content, and stable shelf life. This quest to create the ideal and economical pizza cheese has involved many studies and experiments analyzing the impact of vegetable oil, manufacturing and culture processes, denatured whey proteins, and other changes in manufacture. In 1997, it was estimated that annual production of pizza cheese was 1 million metric tons (1,100,000 short tons) in the U.S. and 100,000 metric tons (110,000 short tons) in Europe.

Varieties and styles

A great number of pizza varieties exist, defined by the choice of toppings and sometimes also crust. There are also several styles of pizza, defined by their preparation method. The following lists feature only the notable ones.

Pizza capricciosa

Ham, mushrooms, artichokes, egg

Italy

Similar to Pizza quattro stagioni, but with toppings mixed rather than separated.

New England

1950s

Pizza version of the covered pie served in New England since colonial times.

Pizza Margherita

Tomatoes, mozzarella, basil

Naples, Italy

1800s

The archetypical Neapolitan pizza.

Pizza marinara

Tomato sauce, olive oil, oregano, garlic. No cheese.

Naples, Italy

1734

One of the oldest Neapolitan pizza.

Pizza quattro formaggi

Prepared using four kinds of cheese (Italian: [ˈkwattroforˈmaddʒi], "four cheeses"): Mozzarella, Gorgonzola and two others depending on the region

Lazio, Italy

1700s

Pizza quattro stagioni

Artichokes, mushroom, ham, tomatoes

Italy

The toppings are separated by quarter, representing the cycle of the seasons.

Seafood pizza

Seafood, such as fish, shellfish or squid

Subvarieties include Pizza frutti di mare (no cheese) and Pizza pescatore (with mussels or squid).

California-style pizza

Distinguished by the use of non-traditional ingredients, especially varieties of fresh produce.

California, US

1980

Chicago-style pizza

Baked in a pan with a high edge that holds in a thick layer of toppings. The crust is sometimes stuffed with cheese or other ingredients.

Colorado-style pizza

Made with a characteristically thick, braided crust topped with heavy amounts of sauce and cheese. It is traditionally served by the pound, with a side of honey as a condiment.

Colorado, US

1973

Deep-fried pizza

The pizza is deep-fried (cooked in oil) instead of baked.

Scotland and Italy

Detroit-style pizza

The cheese is spread to the edges and caramelizes against the high-sided heavyweight rectangular pan, giving the crust a lacy, crispy edge.

1946

Grandma pizza

Thin, square, baked in a sheet pan, "reminiscent of pizzas cooked at home by Italian housewives without a pizza oven".

Long Island, US

Early 1900s

Greek pizza

Proofed and baked in a shallow pan; the crust is light and similar to foccaccia.

Connecticut, US

1955

Italian tomato pie

Made from thick dough covered by tomato paste; a variation on Sicilian pizza. Also called pizza strips (when cut as in the image), gravy pie, church pie, red bread, party pizza, etc.

US

early 1900s

Jumbo slice

Very large slice of pizza sold as street food.

New York and Washington D.C., US

1981

New York-style pizza

Neapolitan-derived pizza with a characteristic thin foldable crust

New York metropolitan area (and beyond)

early 1900s

St. Louis-style pizza

The style has a thin cracker-like crust made without yeast, generally uses Provel cheese, and is cut into squares or rectangles instead of wedges.

1945

By region of origin

Authentic Neapolitan pizza ( pizza napoletana) is made with San Marzano tomatoes, grown on the volcanic plains south of Mount Vesuvius, and either mozzarella di bufala Campana, made with milk from water buffalo raised in the marshlands of Campania and Lazio or Fior-di-latte. Buffalo mozzarella is protected with its own European protected designation of origin. Other traditional pizzas include pizza alla marinara, which is topped with marinara sauce and is supposedly the most ancient tomato-topped pizza, pizza capricciosa, which is prepared with mozzarella cheese, baked ham, mushroom, artichoke, and tomato, and pizza pugliese, prepared with tomato, mozzarella, and onions.

A popular variant of pizza in Italy is Sicilian pizza (locally called sfincione or sfinciuni), a thick-crust or deep-dish pizza originating during the 17th century in Sicily: it is essentially a focaccia that is typically topped with tomato sauce and other ingredients. Until the 1860s, sfincione was the type of pizza usually consumed in Sicily, especially in the Western portion of the island. Other variations of pizzas are also found in other regions of Italy, for example pizza al padellino or pizza al tegamino, a small-sized, thick-crust, deep-dish pizza typically served in Turin, Piedmont.

United States

Pizza banquet in the White House (2009)

The first pizzeria in the U.S. was opened in New York City's Little Italy in 1905. Common toppings for pizza in the United States include anchovies, ground beef, chicken, ham, mushrooms, olives, onions, peppers, pepperoni, salami, sausage, spinach, steak, and tomatoes. Distinct regional types developed in the 20th century, including Buffalo, California, Chicago, Detroit, Greek, New Haven, New York, and St. Louis styles. These regional variations include deep-dish, stuffed, pockets, turnovers, rolled, and pizza-on-a-stick, each with seemingly limitless combinations of sauce and toppings.

Thirteen percent of the United States population consumes pizza on any given day. Pizza chains such as Domino's Pizza, Pizza Hut, and Papa John's, pizzas from take and bake pizzerias, and chilled or frozen pizzas from supermarkets make pizza readily available nationwide.

Argentina, and more specifically Buenos Aires, saw significant Italian immigration at the end of the 19th century. Immigrants from Naples and Genoa opened the first pizza bars, though over time Spanish residents came to own the majority of the pizza businesses.

Standard Argentine pizza has a thicker crust, called "media masa" (half dough) than traditional Italian style pizza and uses more cheese. In Argentina pizza slices are often served topped with fainá, a Genoese chickpea-flour pancake, and accompanied by moscato wine. The most popular variety of pizza is called "muzzarella" (mozzarella), similar to Neapolitan pizza (bread, tomato sauce and cheese) but made with a thicker "media masa" crust, triple cheese and tomato sauce, usually also with olives. It can be found in nearly every corner of the country; Buenos Aires is considered the city with the most pizza bars per person of the world. Other popular varieties include ham, tomato slices, red pepper and longaniza. Two Argentine-originated varieties of pizza with onion, are also very popular: fugazza with cheese, a regular pizza crust topped with cheese and onions, and fugazzetta, with the cheese between two pizza crusts, with onions on top.

As of 2021, according to Guinness World Records:

The world's largest pizza was prepared in Rome in December 2012, and measured 1,261 square meters (13,570 square feet). The pizza was named "Ottavia" in homage to the first Roman emperor Octavian Augustus, and was made with a gluten-free base.

The world's longest pizza was 1,930.39 meters (6,333 feet inches) long; it was made in Fontana, California in 2017. Other previous records include that of Marquinetti (Tomelloso, Spain), where a 1141.5 m pizza was achieved, itself surpassing a previous record in Poland.

The world's most expensive commercially available pizza recognised by Guinness World Records costs US$2,700, and was sold at Industry Kitchen (USA) in New York, New York, US, as of 24 April 2017. It is made of black squid ink dough, and topped with UK white Stilton cheese, French foie gras and truffles, Ossetra caviar from the Caspian Sea, Almas caviar, and 24K gold leaves.

More expensive pizzas have been reported, but are not recognised by Guinness World Records, such as the "Pizza Royale 007" at Haggis restaurant in Glasgow, Scotland, which is topped with caviar, lobster, and 24-carat gold dust, and the US$1,000 caviar pizza made by Nino's Bellissima pizzeria in New York City, New York.

A pizza made by the restaurateur Domenico Crolla that included toppings such as sunblush-tomato sauce, Scottish smoked salmon, medallions of venison, edible gold, lobster marinated in cognac, and champagne-soaked caviar. The pizza was auctioned for charity in 2007, raising .

Pizza and health

Boy Scouts with pizza

Some pizzas mass-produced by pizza chains have been criticized as having an unhealthy balance of ingredients. Pizza can be high in salt and fat, and is high in calories. The USDA reports an average sodium content of 5,101 mg per 36 cm (14 in) pizza in fast food chains. There are concerns about undesirable health effects.

Similar dishes

Calzone and stromboli are similar dishes that are often made of pizza dough folded (calzone) or rolled (stromboli) around a filling.

Panzerotti are similar to calzones, but fried rather than baked.

Piadina is a thin Italian flatbread, typically prepared in the Romagna historical region.

Focaccia is a flat leavened oven-baked Italian bread, similar in style and texture to pizza; in some places, it is called pizza bianca ("white pizza").

"Farinata" or "cecina". A Ligurian (farinata) and Tuscan (cecina) regional dish made from chickpea flour, water, salt, and olive oil. Also called in the Provence region of France. Often baked in a brick oven, and typically weighed and sold by the slice.

Coca is a similar dish consumed mainly in Catalonia and neighbouring regions, but that has extended to other areas in Spain, and to Algeria. There are sweet and savoury versions.

The Alsatian Flammekueche (Standard German: Flammkuchen, French: Tarte flambée) is a thin disc of dough covered in crème fraîche, onions, and bacon.

Garlic fingers is an Atlantic Canadian dish, similar to a pizza in shape and size, and made with similar dough. It is garnished with melted butter, garlic, cheese, and sometimes bacon.

The Anatolian (Arabic: laḥm bi'ajīn; Armenian: lahmajoun; also Turkish pizza or Armenian pizza) is a meat-topped dough round. The base is very thin, and the layer of meat often includes chopped vegetables.

The Levantine (Arabic: ma'ujnāt) and (Arabic: laḥm bi'ajīn; also Arab pizza) are dishes similar to pizza.

Panizza is half a stick of bread (often baguette), topped with the usual pizza ingredients, baked in an oven.

The Macedonian Pastrmajlija is a bread pie made from dough and meat. It is usually oval-shaped with chopped meat on top of it.

The Provençal Pissaladière is similar to an Italian pizza, with a slightly thicker crust and a topping of cooked onions, anchovies, and olives.

Pizza bagel is a bagel with toppings similar to that of traditional pizzas.

Pizza bread is an open-faced sandwich made of bread, tomato sauce, cheese, and various toppings.

Pizza sticks are baked with pizza dough and pizza ingredients. Bread dough may also be used in their preparation, and some versions are fried.

Pizza Rolls are a trade-marked commercial product.

Okonomiyaki, a Japanese dish cooked on a hotplate, is often referred to as "Japanese pizza".

"Zanzibar pizza" is a street food served in Stone Town, Zanzibar, Tanzania. It uses a dough much thinner than pizza dough, almost like filo dough, filled with minced beef, onions, and an egg, similar to Moroccan basṭīla.

Zwiebelkuchen, a German onion tart, often baked with diced bacon and caraway seeds.

References

Further reading

Kliman, Todd (September 5, 2012). "Easy as pie: A Guide to Regional Pizza". The Washingtonian. Explanation of eight pizza styles: Maryland, Roman, "Gourmet" Wood-fired, Generic boxed, New York, Neapolitan, Chicago, and New Haven.

Helstosky, Carol (2008). Pizza: A Global History. London: Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-86189-391-8. OCLC 225876066.

Chudgar, Sonya (March 22, 2012). "An Expert Guide to World-Class Pizza". QSR Magazine.* Raichlen, Steven (2008). The Barbecue! Bible. Workman Publishing. pp. 381-384. ISBN 978-0761149446.

Delpha, J.; Oringer, K. (2015). Grilled Pizza the Right Way. Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-62414-106-5. 208 pages.

External links

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Pizza ( PEET-sə , Italian: , Neapolitan: ) is a dish of Italian origin consisting of a usually round, flat base of leavened wheat-based dough topped with tomatoes, cheese, and often various other ingredients (such as various types of sausage, anchovies, mushrooms, onions, olives, vegetables, meat, ham, etc.), which is then baked at a high temperature, traditionally in a wood-fired oven.

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Forming double comparatives in sentences- 

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Forming double comparatives in sentences- 

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https://teflpedia.com/Double_comparative

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A double comparative is a construction, usually considered an error in English, whereby comparison is marked twice, once with an adverb (either more or less) and once with a comparative adjective or adverb. For example:

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Double comparative in sentences - Grammar Monster

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Double comparative in sentences - Grammar Monster

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https://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/double_superlative.htm

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What Is a Double Superlative?

A double superlative is a grammar mistake caused by applying two ways of forming a superlative instead of one. Double superlatives are most commonly committed when someone uses "-est" and "most" at the same time (e.g., most tallest).

Table of Contents

Examples of Double Superlatives

Avoiding Double Superlatives

Why Understanding "Double Superlatives" Is Important

Test Time!

Examples of Double Superlatives

He is the most wisest.
wisest)
She is the most quickest.
(should be quickest)

Avoiding Double Superlatives

The rules for forming the superlatives of adjectives are summarized in the table below.

A superlative is created by applying one of these rules (the appropriate one) to your adjective. A double superlative (which is a serious grammar mistake) is created by apply two of the rules.

He is the most silliest person I know.
silliest)
She is our most best player.
(should be best)
It's the worstest meal I've ever eaten.
(should be worst)
The examples above are all double superlatives of adjectives. Occasionally, you see double superlatives with adverbs too.

I tried most hardest.
hardest)
Double superlatives are more common in speech than in writing. In speech, they can often be written off as a moment of absentmindedness, but, in writing, a double superlative is a credibility-bashing grammar howler. Read more about forming superlatives.

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A double superlative (e.g., bestest, most prettiest) is a grammar mistake caused by applying two ways of forming a superlative instead of one. More common in speech than in writing, a double superlative is usually formed by using both the -est suffix and most (e.g., most tallest).

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https://www.grammarly.com/blog/double-comparatives-and-superlatives/

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Prescriptively incorrect: Double comparatives in sentences

I decided to go with double comparatives because I had heard one of my friends say “much better” and even “more fastest” or “more harder” in a conversation not too long ago. It always made me wonder if it was “more fastest” or was the word, faster " the correct answer. Attitudes seen towards this usage are mostly negative due to prescriptive grammar rules. It seems to be associated with less linguistically aware individuals. Instead of saying, “this is more harder than she expected,” they would point out that it should be “this is harder than she expected.” Now, looking back at it, it appears incorrect since “more” and “er” shouldn’t be used in this sense. Instead, it should just be the suffix, er.

There are 3 links that provide an explanation of double comparatives. The first link is grammar monster, which explains how using double comparatives such as “er” and “more” together like more taller is considered non standard and incorrect. It provides further insight into what this means, and even goes as far as providing useful examples and ways to avoid it. For instance, it shows many examples of incorrect instances such as “more quicker” or “more wiser.” Using both is considered a serious mistake. I chose it because one word stood out to me: serious. It mentions something serious over and over, which makes me wonder why they would feel that way about such a small error. I personally use double comparatives in my everyday life, and even my friends do, so for the way I speak to be considered “incorrect” is concerning. Saying that it is incorrect usage, my guess is that this means people who are less educated use it. This relates back to the lecture where “one single correct English” is considered a myth, so for double comparatives to be seen as incorrect goes against this notion. As seen in grammar monster, it is clear that double comparative usage is not necessarily associated with a certain social group, but perhaps one that is less conscious of grammar and language. In the Teflpedia dictionary linked, it mentions how even native speakers use it, so it is not necessarily specific to a certain group. It is often identified as incorrect by grammatically conscious individuals, who feel that speaking this way violates basic grammar rules in English; I honestly do not think their dislike is justified since it is such a miniature mistake, and honestly should be overlooked. I don’t necessarily see anyone advocating for its use, unless in a more professional linguistic setting. As mentioned in lecture, opinions concerning non standard words or varieties like double comparatives is in fact, an opinion about those who use it. They might be implying that those who use this- like myself are “deficient.” Also mentioned in lecture is the idea that one single correct English is in fact, a myth which

The second link is also to a grammarly blog, which mentions how sentences containing "er with more/most are considered incorrect. It also provides an explanation or breakdown of the word, double comparatives and explains briefly why it is wrong. I chose it because it made such an interesting commentary on double comparatives. It mentions that using double comparatives like “more” and “er” together sounds awkward and is not proper English. It would make sense to remove the -er at the end. This hints to the idea that those who use double comparatives like “more” and suffix “er” together are seen as not proper and do not fully understand proper rules of the English language. The blog also hints at the fact that those who use may not speak English as their first langage. I personally disagree since I use it and I’m well educated and speak English quite fluently.  The third link is to the Teflpedia dictionary, which also mentions that double comparatives in sentences is a major error and that is often made by native speakers. It provides a solid explanation of double comparatives. I chose this specific dictionary since it I found it interesting that it contradicts what was said in the precious grammrly blog about people using double comparatives as non English speakers. This dictionary says it is used by native speakers, so this in a way shows how it is even used by educated individuals who are familiar with English grammatical rules. This does not advocate for its use, but it does show that it is used by native English speakers, so it isn’t entirely taboo or incorrect if it is used by a majority of people.

It also relates back to the idea that the standard language is often that of a majority group of people in power; this is different since now, the dictionary is mentioning that this “grammatical error” is used by native speakers or majority English speakers.

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T-Deletion- Dropped T /D Sounds in English

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T-Deletion- Dropped T /D Sounds in English

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KVSF0OMDPyc

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Dropped T and D Sounds in English [Understand Fast English Speakers Series]

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Omission of /t/ - English Pronunciation - Dropping Sounds

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Omission of /t/ - English Pronunciation - Dropping Sounds

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T Deletion in English- Sound

I decided to choose /t/ deletion in English, which I’ve heard one of my professors actually mention in a previous linguistics class. They have also said it a few times on occasion. I think they were from the Midwest, definitely not from New York. For instance, they’ve said “internet” pronounced as “inner-net” where the /t/ is often silent; another word I’ve heard before is “better” versus “be’er” or water pronounced as “wa’er.” Words with the /t/ deletion seem to be associated with informal speech and those without that deletion are used in professional settings. This is usually prevalent among younger generations such as Gen Z and might even span to perhaps Gen X. It could also be due to dialects of people from regions such as the Midwest/South like in my professor's case. My professor included /t/ deletion on multiple occasions while she was lecturing, and I’ve also heard my friends say certain words like water and internet with t/deletion, who were also originally from the South. Typically, the variant that has /t/ pronunciation is typically more acceptable to use in professional settings like in a job interview or meeting while the variant without /t/ is used in informal settings, or settings where the individual feels comfortable speaking that way. Personally, I use /t/ deletion alot in my everyday language and conversationally; I find it easier to pronounce most of these words that way. It feels more relaxed and comfortable for me to speak that way. I don’t think I would use standard t/ pronunciation unless I was in a formal setting like academic or a job interview, for instance.

There are 2 videos linked that provide an explanation of  t/deletion and show them be spoken in a conversation. The first video, Dropped T/D Sounds in English is an explanation of how certain words appear when T is dropped or deleted, which is the first variant. At 0:10, the woman mentions “internet” and how it can be pronounced as “inner-net.” She repeats it multiple times. At 3:18, she provides another example: lighting, and how it can be pronounced as “lighn-ing.” I chose this specific video since it does a good job of proving solid examples of t/ deletion, and also because the woman in the video mentions that t/ deletion is actually more common than expected. There were a few examples such as wrestle and Christmas. What stood out to me was the explanation of “Christmas” and how /t/ is deleted, and that was actually very common in everyday language. I chose this specific video because it explains how there isn’t a specific social group that uses t/ deletion, and that is actually very common among native speakers. It goes on to explain that native speakers actually use t/ deletion more than they realize, in words such as wrestle, whistle etc at 1:40. I find this interesting because I’ve heard a few of my professors actually pronounce water with t/ deletion, and even lightning without the t. This relates back to the lecture, where it was mentioned how it was all different ways of saying the same thing, but had different social connotations. For my professor versus my friend, it might have had different social connotations, to say in lecture versus with one's friends. My professor was also from the Midwest and he was also raised there most of his life. Perhaps being raised there contributed to the social connotations of t/deletion when he spoke. One thing that this video also pointed out was that there wasn’t a certain group that used since this t/ deletion was actually very common. I found that interesting since I thought it had more to do with background or maybe dialect since my Midwest professor was using this a lot.

The second video, /t/- English Pronounication- Dropping Sounds provided a thoughtful explanation focusing mainly on the second variant, which was t/ pronounced/standard pronunciation. She also provides an example of the standard variant with t/ pronounced at 3:50. She explains that there are also words such as interactive and international, where the t/ is heard. Like the variant with t/ deletion, the one with t/ pronunciation is also just as common. This data also mentions that using either variant is not really more acceptable than the other, even in professional versus informal contexts. Even in formal settings like with my professors, t/ deletion variant was used. This relates back to the lecture about the speakers’ choices between the variants in a linguistic variable, which in this case is t/ deletion; in this scenario, the data shows that these specific variants are in fact, not tied to a specific social group and are very common among native speakers such as myself. I personally speak using both variants, but for me, it depends on the setting that I am in or even who I am with at the moment. I like to use the first variant with t/ deletion when I am with friends, but when I am in an academic setting, I would use the second variant.

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I decided on two photos that I took when I was in Washington Heights with friends. The first was at a Hispanic restaurant, with a small ad placed outside the store in Spanish. It says breakfast, lunch, dinner but in Spanish with signs showing some of the food they sell. Some of the foods shown were hot tamales, and a specific Mexican cuisine. I saw this sign just outside the “Mexi- Deli” store around the corner. I chose this specific photo because I took it myself, when I had gone there with a couple friends. I have been to this restaurant many times before, and even know the owner there. The Spanish translations really stood out to me since it helped draw in Hispanic customers who did not speak English, and instead only spoke Spanish. This relates to what was said in lecture about the idea of regional language varieties, which in this case is Spanish tailored to the local Hispanic community. This aligns with the understanding that these varieties arise due to historical, social factors in these geographic areas. For instance, Washington Heights with its predominantly Spanish speaking population has developed its own linguistic norms, with Spanish being widely spoken and cultural significant.

I think the community it is targeting is the majority Hispanic Spanish speaking population. Washington Heights has historically been a majority hispanic neighborhood since the 1900s which is why it’s common to see Spanish in signs everywhere. The advertiser chose the language they did as a deliberate choice to cater to the predominantly Hispanic population, and to resonate with the linguistic and cultural preferences of that local community. The effects it was intended to have was to communicate to potential customers that this restaurant caters to their specific cultural and linguistic needs, and to ensure this strong connection between its Spanish speaking population in a neighborhood like Washington Heights.

The second photo was an MTA nyc bus passing by, which I usually take to campus. It had a “La Mujer Diablo” advertisement for a movie. It was in Spanish instead of English, and even the description beneath was also in Spanish. It showed two characters from the movie plastered near the title. The reason I chose this specific advertisement was because I thought that it was such a clever place to place it especially in a majority Hispanic neighborhood like Washington Heights. I also use the MTA buses a lot, so it was definitely interesting to see this sign plastered all over these buses. It was actually not the first time I had seen this specific advertisement since the MTA did this all the time. I saw this very same sign on multiple buses passing by. They used Spanish translations on their ads all over buses to evoke this connection to the cultural heritage of the neighborhood, thereby attracting Hispanic customers. It targets the majority Hispanic Spanish speaking population in Washington Heights, which was where the neighborhood this bus was passing through. It also targeted the Mexican and Colombian majority population in this neighborhood as well. This relates to what was mentioned in lecture, which was dialectology principles that catered to regional linguistic variation. In the context of Washington Heights, which has a significant Hispanic population, including Mexican and Colombian communities, the advertisement strategically utilizes Spanish language to target the linguistic preferences of the local population. This aligns with dialectological research, which suggests that regional language varieties develop and persist due to historical, social, and cultural factors within specific geographic regions.

The reason the advertiser chose this specific language was because Washington Heights has historically been a majority Hispanic speaking neighborhood since the 1900s. By using Spanish, the advertiser aims to connect with the cultural heritage and linguistic identity of this local population, which created this sense of resonance and familiarity. The effect it was intended to have was to draw in the attention of Spanish speakers. The MTA buses are also used by a lot of residents, mostly whom are Spanish speaking, which also helped to create this awareness for the “La Mujer Diabo” movie, which translated to English means “the Women Devil.”

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Ain't No Mountain High Enough Song- AAVE (AIN'T)

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Ain't No Mountain High Enough Song- AAVE (AIN'T)

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Bill Withers - Ain't No Sunshine (Official Audio)

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African American Vernacular: AIN’T

I chose the word, ain’t because I’ve heard it used in so many different scenarios in my life. I have even heard my professor from my AAVE linguistics class from last year use it in class during one of her lectures. It is typically considered a nonstandard variant for “are not” or “am not.” I have also heard it being used in songs before. It exemplifies covert prestige since it is used in a way that is not standard, but considered prestige. An example of this is in the song, “Ain’t No Mountain High Enough” by Marvin Gaye and Tammi Terell. Ain’t is heard at 0:30, 0:40, 1:03, repeatedly throughout the song. I chose this specific song because I thought it showed a great example of covert prestige of the word, ain’t. It is also a particularly popular song that has been around for ages, and I personally thought that the use of this nonstandard variant contributed to the song’s overall appeal. For context, it is about two lovers who believe that nothing can get in their way, or stop them from loving each other, not even a mountain or any kind of weather. Ain’t is used repeatedly throughout the song.

Evidently, this usage of a nonstandard word multiple times throughout the song communicates this cultural authenticity, rawness and emotional intensity. This shows this great level of prestige in popular music and rap. The negative attributes associated with the variant are that it is not proper English due to being grammatically incorrect; meanwhile, the positive attribute is how it conveys a sense of authenticity and cultural identity, especially in certain regional dialects. The user is trying to show this emotional intensity, and by using the variant, ain’t, it shows the strength of love between the two characters in the music video, and how “ain’t nothing” is enough to separate them, or their love. I personally thought that it worked since it shows their love for one another, and how “ain’t nothing” getting in the way. The use of this variant is evidently valued and desirable in music like this, and communicates authenticity. This connects back to what was said in lecture about status, and the amount of respect accorded to the person. In this scenario, this music artist had a lot of respect, and high status. Their use of ain’t reflected their status as influential figures in music.

Another song where the variant, ain’t is heard is “Ain’t No Sunshine” by Bill Withers.

I chose this particular song because it is a solid example of covert prestige of this variant especially, in the music industry. It also uses it multiple times throughout the song, and does so in such an authentic, raw way; it shows great cultural significance.

For context, it describes the feelings of longing and sadness one experiences when their lover is not around. The lyrics uses “ain’t” a lot at 0:02-0:10 and how “ain’t sunshine when she goes…”....”ain’t no breath….” to describe how he feels when his lover leaves. This variant exemplifies covert prestige since it uses this nonstandard variant to emphaisze his feelings, which contributes to the song’s overall appeal. This shows how this specific word has taken on a certain level of prestige in the context of the song; in fact, it would not sound the same if that variant were removed from the song. The negative attributes associated with ain’t include that it is nonstandard English, and is not proper grammar; however, positive attributes include its autnehticity and how it adds this emotional tone that is impactful.

I think the user is trying to communciate his raw feelings and a sense of authenticity when they use this variant in their song. It has transformed their song to one that has an emotional intensity. I definitely do think that it worked since it added meaning to the song’s overall message. It added this emotional tone to the lyrics. This relates to what was said in lecture about language change, and how usage of ain’t reflects change; while it is nonstandard, it has been widely accepted in certain contexts such as in music where it conveys this sense of authenticity.

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I chose the words whom, internet, and beehive for this ngram search. For decreasing, I chose the word, whom because I have heard it used a few times by my teachers, but not amongst my friends. However, I have noticed that as more time passes by, I’ve heard it less often. According to the Ngram search, it is following a decreasing trend or trajectory in usage over time. This decline is attributed to perhaps the simplification of English grammar, and language change. I have also heard some of my friends say who instead of whom, which might be contributing to this decline. I think it shows this trajectory because whom is often seen as more formal, and shows this shift to a more simpler, informal language that is reflective of broder societal changes in communication. The use of whom may also be seen as overly formal, and the use of “who” might have replaced it. I think that this change is due to a language-interal change since English is a living language that is constantly changing and evolving. The simpler alternative shows this broader trend towards simplification of English grammar and usage. This relates to what was mentioned in the lecture about language change, and how it changes over time. In this scenario, there is this shift to a simpler version of a word. This shows this gradual change over time, which occurs in a social context, influenced by factors such as cultural shifts and social interactions.

The second word chosen was internet, which seemed to show an increasing trend. I chose this specific word because I felt that it would represent this strong technological shift that had a profound impact on society. According to the ngram graph, there was an obvious increasing shift. I think it shows this trajectory because of technological advancements and cultural shifts. The adoption and increasing importance of the internet for communication led to increasing usage of this word. It has now become a central aspect of modern society, and is increasingly being used. I personally hear it being used on a day to day basis. For instance, my professors deal with technology issues and internet connections, and so this specific word is used multiple times. I believe this change reflects technological shifts coming into being/ gaining importance. The widespread apdotpom of the internet and increasing importance of digital communication led to this increasing trajectory. This also correlates with this shift, where digital technologies and online platforms such as Facebok also gained prominence during this time. This relates to what was mentioned in lecture about how speakers changed language; sociolinguistics study language change in its social context, and the increasing usage of “internet” is a prime example of how it is affected by external factors such as cultural shifts and technological advancements. As new technologies and concepts emerge, language evolves to accommodate these changes. Internet has no wbecome a common term in the English language.

The third word chosen was beehive, which showed a fad, or a single prominent peek. The reason this specific ngram was chosen was because it showed this prominent peak in the graph, which reflected this “fad or trend” at the time. I have only heard it once, and that was back in high school by one of my science teachers. I feel like nowadays, it is not a very common word to come across.

According to the ngram graph, this peak correlates to a trend in the 1960s most likely, when this was seen as a popular hairstyle. However, as time went on, it slowly began losing popularity and used less. The change in usage is most likely due to cultural shifts and fashion trends. It reflects a mix of language-internal change and external changes like cultural shifts and fashion trends. The peak use of beehive showed this cultural trend, but as the hairstyle lost popularity, so did its usage. This trajectory showed the dynamic nature of fashion and cultural trends.

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Newspaper-  “Why Men Interrupt Women and How to Stop It” by The Guardian newspaper 

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Newspaper-  “Why Men Interrupt Women and How to Stop It” by The Guardian newspaper 

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“Why Men Interrupt Women and How to Stop It” by The Guardian newspaper

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NEWSPAPER #2 "Women Get Punished More Than Men for a Common Speech Mannerism: Vocal Frys” by Julia Reinstein-

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NEWSPAPER #2 "Women Get Punished More Than Men for a Common Speech Mannerism: Vocal Frys” by Julia Reinstein-

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"Women Get Punished More Than Men for a Common Speech Mannerism: Vocal Frys” by Julia Reinstein

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As if women needed another hurdle to being taken seriously in the workplace. This time, apparently it's our annoying voices. According to a new study from the University of Miami, women with a speech mannerism called "vocal fry" - that low, creaky, Kardashian-esque sound at the end of sentences - may be perceived as "less attractive, less competent, less educated, less trustworthy, and ultimately less hirable." Men were also seen less favorably when they had vocal fry, but they were punished less severely forit.

In the study, young people were recorded saying "Thank you for considering me for this opportunity" twice - once in a normal tone, once in vocal fry. Then, 800 study participants listened to the recordings and were asked which voice sounded more educated, competent, trustworthy, attractive, and worthy of hiring. Over 80 percent of the time, and in every category, participants preferred the normal voice - and they tended to rate women who had it lower than men whodid.

"Humans prefer vocal characteristics that are typical of population norms," said Casey A. Klofstead, an associate professor at the University of Miami and author of the study, in the press release. "While strange-sounding voices might be more memorable because they are novel, humans find 'average' sounding voices to be more attractive. It is possible that speakers of vocal fry are generally perceived less favorably because vocal fry is accompanied by a dramatic reduction in voice pitch relative to normalspeech."

Excessive use of vocal fry was once regarded as a speech disorder, but today it can be heard in the conversations of many perfectly healthy young women. It is thought to have emerged as a trend from pop culture, particularly music. Makes sense for a generation that grew up hearing Britney Spears raspily croon, "Oh baby baby ..."

This isn't the first time working women's voices have been criticized. Back in 1995, Clueless brought with it the popularization - and derision - of Valley Girl "uptalk." Adults naturally criticized a method of speaking in which, by ending sentences with a higher inflection, young people sounded less, like, confident and stuff? But almost a decade later, a University of California, San Diego study argued that working women use uptalk for a perfectly valid reason. A rise at the end of a sentences serves as a signal that the person is not finished speaking, thus deterring interruption or floor-stealing. It's not a sign of shallowness - it's a strategy to beheard.

What's concerning, as always, is the degree to which women are judged more harshly than equally qualified men. This study just serves as further proof that women's success often depends on superficial details men don't have to think twice about, which shouldn't surprise anyone given that we live in a world in which commentators compare Jill Abramson's voice to a " nasal car honk" and hear Hillary Clinton's assertive tone as "shrill" and " nagging."

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Women Get Punished More Than Men for a Common Speech Mannerism

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It's the new uptalk, and people with it are taken less seriously.

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I chose two newspapers, “Why Men Interrupt Women and How to Stop It” by The Guardian newspaper and "Women Get Punished More Than Men for a Common Speech Mannerism: Vocal Frys” by Julia Reinstein. that mentioned gender specific linguistic behavior

I chose the Guardian newspaper because it examines this common perception of how women talk more than men and delves into its complexities. It talks about how men interrupt women more frequently when converdating, which relates to power dynamics and gender linguistic inequality.  In terms of linguistic merit, this newspaper focuses on the phenomen of men interrupting women in conversation and why that seems to happen. It makes a lot of references to linguistic behaviors such as interruption frequency and conversational dominance. I think it relates more to Lakoff’s dominance model simply because it shows this relationship between certain linguistic behaviors and how it reflects power dynamics and power imbalance especially in conversation and societal norms. It demonstrates this by discussing how power imbalances are inherent in gendered language norms as proposed by this dominance model.

Per Lakoff’s domiance theory, women often adopt linguistic patterns that make them subordinate, leading to situations where men often interrupt them as mentioned in the article. Quantitative evidence was used which I felt was convincing since it included expert analysis and anecdotal stories. I personally think that the newspaper was not biased in any way and even provided expert analysis and a clear, solid view on the issue of gendered interruption. It gives this perspective from every angle. This newspaper relates to what was said in class about gender preferential linguistic differences and highlights how societal expectations and gender norms influence communication patterns. It also relates back to how language directly and indirectly indexes gender and hw linguistic behaviors serve as makers of gender identity and reinforce societal perceptions of gender roles. By addressing this, the newspaper sheds light on the ways language can perpectuate certain gender inequalities.

The second newspaper chosen was probably my favorite one: "Women Get Punished More Than Men for a Common Speech Mannerism: Vocal Frys” by Julia Reinstein. I chose this specific article because it discusses vocal fry in women’s speech (a linguistic phenmomen) and that it is perceived differently based on gender. Quantitive evidence doesn’t seem to be used, but there is extensive anedotal evidence that supports Reinstein’s argument. This newspaper aligns with Tannen’s difference model; it highlights gendered differences in the perception of vocal fry. It also mentions that women are disproportionately penalized for using vocal fry in comparison to men which reflected major societal bias. I believe there was some bias seen in the newspaper, as it was written by a woman and mentioned that this common speech style was unfairly punished in women’s speech or when they talk. It talks more about women’s injustice and doesn’t really give a full perspective of men and their role in this and provides few male ancetodals. This relates to what was mentioned in lecture about gender preferential linguistic differences, and how vocal fry often seen as a gendered speech mannerism which leads to women seeing disproportionate criticism for it in comparison to their counterparts.

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I decided to choose the laughing emoji, a very common one used all over social media and texting. For expressiveness, I screenshotted a text between a friend and I saying, “just finished watching that comedy you sent me, and I'm in stitches”😂. I chose this specific text with the laughing emoji since it expressed what I felt: humor but in a nonverbal cue. In this specific scenario, I added the laughing emoji at the end to express my humor and laughter, but without words. I communicated to my friend that I felt that the comedy was so funny, to the point where I included that specific emoji. I thought it was so funny that I just felt that this emoticon would express that more authentically.

I also think that it added a bit of an emotional touch to it, which communicated to my friend that I was very amused by it. I felt its use was successful since my friend responded back saying she was glad I liked it. The second one I chose was phatic, which was an email saying “hey, long time no see ! How have you been 😂. The reason I chose this was because it is used phatically to show that there is a friendly informal tone in the email when emails are typically formal. It also showed to the person receiving the email that I meant to greet them in a friendly way, and that I did not expect a formal response back. I think it was successful since the response back was also friendly and definitely not formal. This helped establish this social relationship, or in this case, phatic communication. This also served as this nonverbal cue that showed the individual how I was trying to be friendly and open the way for a conversation. This relates to the topic of politeness norms since it’s a social interaction that creates these friendly, open relationsips. For instance, the use of the laughing emoji helped to convey respect or even friendlessness as in the email between me and the other person. The emoji mostly relates to politeness norms since it adds warmth and friendliness overall to the email, especially since emails are mostly seen as formal. I wouldn’t have been able to convey this friendless email had I not incorporated that laughing emoji there.

For the directive, I included a screenshot of a text mentioning “I can't believe I tripped in front of everyone at the party 😂.” The reason I chose this specific emoji was because it was used in a directive way that would help downplay my embarrassment in this situation. I was also looking for a specific response from that friend which used that emoji. I believe it was successful since that person responded back with reassurance which was the specific response I had originally intended.  Clearly, I was embarrassed about what had happened at the party that day, and was texting my friend to make myself feel better. I did so by including a laughing emoji to soften the mood and atmosphere, and also to indirectly encourage my friend to reply back with humor or at least to make me feel better. This relates to the topic of communicative competence due to the fact that it involves using language according to the specific social situation one is; this applies to text and digital communication words. In this specific scenario, using this emoji was a nonverbal cue or communication to the person receiving the text.

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I decided to choose the laughing emoji, a very common one used all over social media and texting. For expressiveness, I screenshotted a text between a friend and I saying, “just finished watching that comedy you sent me, and I'm in stitches”😂. I chose this specific text with the laughing emoji since it expressed what I felt: humor but in a nonverbal cue. In this specific scenario, I added the laughing emoji at the end to express my humor and laughter, but without words. I communicated to my friend that I felt that the comedy was so funny, to the point where I included that specific emoji. I thought it was so funny that I just felt that this emoticon would express that more authentically.

I also think that it added a bit of an emotional touch to it, which communicated to my friend that I was very amused by it. I felt its use was successful since my friend responded back saying she was glad I liked it. The second one I chose was phatic, which was an email saying “hey, long time no chat ! How's life 😂. The reason I chose this was because it is used phatically to show that there is a friendly informal tone in the email when emails are typically formal. It also showed to the person receiving the email that I meant to greet them in a friendly way, and that I did not expect a formal response back. I think it was successful since the response back was also friendly and definitely not formal. This helped establish this social relationship, or in this case, phatic communication. This also served as this nonverbal cue that showed the individual how I was trying to be friendly and open the way for a conversation. This relates to the topic of politeness norms since it’s a social interaction that creates these friendly, open relationsips. For instance, the use of the laughing emoji helped to convey respect or even friendlessness as in the email between me and the other person. The emoji mostly relates to politeness norms since it adds warmth and friendliness overall to the email, especially since emails are mostly seen as formal. I wouldn’t have been able to convey this friendless email had I not incorporated that laughing emoji there.

For the directive, I included a screenshot of a text mentioning “I can't believe I tripped in front of everyone at the party 😂.” The reason I chose this specific emoji was because it was used in a directive way that would help downplay my embarrassment in this situation. I was also looking for a specific response from that friend which used that emoji. I believe it was successful since that person responded back with reassurance which was the specific response I had originally intended.  Clearly, I was embarrassed about what had happened at the party that day, and was texting my friend to make myself feel better. I did so by including a laughing emoji to soften the mood and atmosphere, and also to indirectly encourage my friend to reply back with humor or at least to make me feel better. This relates to the topic of communicative competence due to the fact that it involves using language according to the specific social situation one is; this applies to text and digital communication words. In this specific scenario, using this emoji was a nonverbal cue or communication to the person receiving the text.