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made up atoms with unstable nuclei

continue emitting radioactive rays (undergo radioactive decay)

Types of radioactive decay ( alpha, beta and gamma ray)

radiation emitted from these elements is highly toxic and poisonous

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A woman who worked at a nuclear production research complex until her three months of pregnancy. Following her employment, she delivered a baby boy and did not have any additional children thereafter. Tragically, the woman passed away at the age of 45 due to cancer. Her son, now an adult, experienced health issues such as high blood pressure and an enlarged thyroid during his early years. The son, concerned about the potential connection between his mother's exposure to radiation at her workplace and his own health problems, also worries about the health of his future children.

The core learning issues are on types of radiation and their biological hazards as well as safe handling and management of radiation hazards.

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Sufficient energy to move atoms or cause them to vibrate

Not enough to remove electrons from atoms

Can heat substances

Examples are radio waves, visible light, and microwaves.

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1. Training and qualification:

Only authorized personnel trained in radiation safety can handle these materials.

2. Safety Protocols:

Include the use of protective equipment PPE (e.g., gloves, lead aprons), and maintaining a safe distance from radiation sources.

3. Monitoring:

Dosimeters and radiation detectors are used to ensure exposure levels remain within permissible limits.

4. Storage:

Store materials in shielded containers clearly labeled with radiation warning symbols

Maintain secure, well-ventilated, and temperature-controlled storage areas.

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Alpha

Positively charged particles with 2 protons and 2 neutrons from the atom’s nucleus

Produced from the decay of heavy radioactive elements (uranium, radium and polonium)

Travels relatively short distances due to their heavy weight (energy used up to travel)

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1. Packaging requirements

Type A Containers: Used for low- to moderate-level radioactive materials. Designed to prevent leakage during normal handling.

Type B Containers: Used for high-level radioactive materials. These robust containers can withstand severe conditions, such as fires, impacts, and submersion.

2. Documentation and Labeling

clearly label packages with radioactive symbol, shipping category, radionuclide name, and transport index (TI) which indicates the dose rate at one meter from the surface

3. Vehicle and driver requirements

use dedicated vehicles with radiation shielding, where necessary

drivers must be licensed and trained in radioactive material transport

4. Emergency preparedness

equip vehicles with spill containment kits and emergency communication devices

have a predefined response plan for accidents or spills

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Atomic Energy Licensing Act 1984 (Act 304)

primary legislation governing nuclear energy activities in Malaysia.

Regulates the use, production, and disposal of radioactive materials and nuclear energy.

Covers licensing, control, and inspection of nuclear facilities and radioactive materials.

Enforced by the Atomic Energy Licensing Board (AELB), which is the main regulatory body.

Key Provisions Under Act 304 for Nuclear Research Companies:

Licensing Requirements:

All nuclear research facilities must obtain licenses from the AELB to operate. This includes licenses for the use, storage, transportation, and disposal of radioactive materials.

Radiation Safety:

Employers must establish a Radiation Protection Program that includes measures to minimize radiation exposure to workers, the public, and the environment.

Radiation Monitoring:

Continuous radiation monitoring is mandatory in areas where radioactive materials are used. Employers must ensure that radiation levels do not exceed the limits set by the AELB.

Appointment of a Radiation Protection Officer (RPO):

Companies are required to appoint a certified Radiation Protection Officer responsible for overseeing radiation safety measures and compliance with regulations.

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1. Class A - License for Import and Export

Purpose: Authorizes the import and export of radioactive materials, nuclear materials, or equipment capable of producing ionizing radiation.

Applicable to: Companies that engage in the cross-border trade of radioactive sources, such as medical isotopes, industrial gauges, or research equipment.

Requirements:

Detailed documentation on the type, quantity, and purpose of the materials.

Compliance with international shipping and handling standards for radioactive materials.

A secure storage facility approved by AELB.

2. Class B - License for Manufacturing and Production

Purpose: Permits the manufacturing, production, or processing of radioactive materials or nuclear substances.

Applicable to: Nuclear research facilities involved in the production of isotopes for medical, industrial, or research purposes.

Requirements:

A comprehensive Radiation Protection Program (RPP).

Safety assessments and environmental impact studies.

Implementation of robust waste management protocols.

Appointment of a certified Radiation Protection Officer (RPO).

3. Class C - License for Possession and Use

Purpose: Allows entities to possess and use radioactive materials, equipment generating ionizing radiation, or nuclear materials.

Applicable to: Research institutions, hospitals, universities, and industrial companies using radioactive materials for research, diagnostics, or industrial applications.

Requirements:

Radiation protection measures, including shielding and monitoring devices.

Personal dosimetry and regular health surveillance for workers.

Emergency response plans for radiation incidents.

Periodic safety audits and inspections.

4. Class D - License for Transportation

Purpose: Authorizes the safe transport of radioactive materials within Malaysia.

Applicable to: Logistics companies, nuclear research facilities, and medical institutions transporting radioactive sources between locations.

Requirements:

Compliance with the Radiation Protection (Transport) Regulations 1989.

Use of approved containers and vehicles for transporting radioactive materials.

Training for personnel involved in the handling and transport of radioactive substances.

Detailed transport plans, including routes and emergency procedures.

5. Class E - License for Disposal

Purpose: Permits the disposal of radioactive waste and decommissioning of facilities containing radioactive materials.

Applicable to: Nuclear research companies, hospitals, and industries looking to dispose of radioactive waste or decommission radiation-emitting equipment.

Requirements:

Waste characterization and classification according to radioactivity levels.

Compliance with the Guidelines on Radioactive Waste Management in Malaysia.

Secure and approved disposal facilities.

Decommissioning plans that include site assessment, remediation, and radiation clearance verification.

6. Class F - License for Nuclear Power Plant Operation (if applicable)

Purpose: This class would be relevant if Malaysia were to operate nuclear power plants.

Applicable to: Entities responsible for the construction, commissioning, and operation of nuclear power plants.

Requirements:

Extensive safety analysis reports (SAR) and environmental impact assessments (EIA).

Compliance with international nuclear safety standards, such as those set by the IAEA.

Continuous safety and security measures, including the protection of nuclear materials.

Additional Specific Licenses (class H):

AELB may issue specific licenses tailored to particular activities or circumstances.

License for Research and Development (R&D): For institutions conducting R&D involving radioactive materials or nuclear technology.

License for Educational Purposes: For universities and educational institutions using radioactive sources for teaching and demonstration purposes.

License for Medical Applications: For hospitals and clinics using radiotherapy, nuclear medicine, or diagnostic radiology.

In this case, its Class H

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Atomic Energy Licensing (Basic Safety Radiation Protection) Regulations 2010

safety standards for radiation protection in workplaces handling radioactive materials.

ensure that companies comply with safety measures to protect workers, the public, and the environment from radiation hazards.

set the radiation dose limits for workers and the public, following the guidelines of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).

Key Requirements:

Dose Limits:

Occupational Exposure: The annual dose limit for workers exposed to ionizing radiation is set at 20 millisieverts (mSv) per year, averaged over five years, with a maximum of 50 mSv in any single year.

Public Exposure: The dose limit for the general public is 1 mSv per year.

Personal Dosimetry:

Workers must use personal dosimeters to monitor radiation exposure levels continuously.

dosimeters should be reviewed periodically to ensure compliance with dose limits.

Radiation Protection (Transport) Regulations 1989

provide guidelines for the safe transport of radioactive materials within the country.

ensure that radioactive materials are packaged, labelled, and transported safely to minimize the risk of accidents or exposure.

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Environmental Quality Act 1974

plays a role in regulating environmental impacts, including those from nuclear activities.

requires companies to conduct Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) for projects that may have significant environmental consequences.

Malaysia Nuclear Power Corporation (MNPC) Policies

established the MNPC to explore the possibility of nuclear power as part of its energy mix.

The MNPC is responsible for formulating policies related to the development of nuclear energy, ensuring compliance with international standards.

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1. Regulatory compliance

International Frameworks

IAEA Standards: Provide guidelines on radiation safety, waste management, and emergency preparedness.

UN Transport Recommendations: Establish protocols for the safe transport of dangerous goods, including radioactive materials.
National Legislation
- Countries must implement laws regulating radiation safety (e.g., the Atomic Energy Licensing Act in Malaysia).
- Regulatory bodies should conduct regular inspections and audits of nuclear facilities.

2. Waste classification

Low-Level Waste (LLW):

Examples: Contaminated clothing, tools, or filters.

Management: Incineration or shallow burial in licensed landfills.

Intermediate-Level Waste (ILW):

Examples: Reactor components, resins.

Management: Encapsulation in concrete or bitumen before burial in secure facilities.

High-Level Waste (HLW):

Examples: Spent nuclear fuel, highly radioactive isotopes.

Management: Encased in steel canisters and stored in deep geological repositories.

3. Inventory and security

maintain accurate records of radioactive material inventories

implement robust security measures to prevent theft or unauthorized access

4. Decommissioning and disposal

Decommission unused radioactive equipment or facilities following safety guidelines.

Dispose of radioactive material through licensed facilities.

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Eyes: High doses can cause cataracts.

Thyroid: Radioactive iodine can build up and cause cancer, particularly during growth.

Lungs: Breathing in radioisotopes can damage DNA.

Stomach: Radioactive isotopes can sit in the stomach and irradiate it for a long time.

Reproductive organs: High doses can cause sterility or mutations.

Skin: Radiation can burn the skin or cause cancer.

Bone marrow: Radiation can cause leukaemia and other diseases of the blood.

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Beta

Small, fast-moving particles with negative electrical charge emitted from an atom’s nucleus during decay

Emitted by unstable atoms such as hydrogen-3 (tritium), carbon-14 and strontium-90

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Malaysian Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994 (OSHA 1994)

primary legislation in Malaysia that governs workplace safety across various industries, including nuclear research.

Key Provisions of OSHA 1994 Relevant to Nuclear Companies:

General Duty of Employers (Section 15):

Employers are responsible for ensuring, practicable, the safety, health, and welfare of all employees. This includes protecting them from exposure to hazardous substances like radiation.

Risk Assessment (Section 16):

Employers must conduct risk assessments to identify, evaluate, and control hazards associated with radiation exposure.

Employee Training and Information (Section 18):

Employers must provide adequate training, information, and supervision to workers handling radioactive materials or operating radiation-emitting equipment.

Health Surveillance (Section 28):

Regular health surveillance is required for workers exposed to ionizing radiation to detect any adverse health effects early.

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Neutron

No electrical charges are emitted from the nuclei of unstable radionuclides

High-speed nuclear particles that can make objects radioactive

Can be found in nuclear fission and fusion reactions (nuclear power plants), neutron sources, and particle accelerators

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Regulations for pregnant workers in nuclear facilities

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Regulations for pregnant workers in nuclear facilities

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Lower Dose Limit for Pregnant Workers:

Once a worker declares her pregnancy, the radiation dose limit is reduced to 1 millisievert (mSv) for the entire pregnancy, from the time of declaration until delivery.

Job Reassignment:

reassign pregnant workers to duties that minimize radiation exposure, especially away from high-radiation areas, to ensure their safety.

Medical Surveillance:

Pregnant workers must undergo additional medical check-ups and radiation monitoring to track any exposure throughout the pregnancy.

Radiation Safety Training:

Employers must provide pregnant workers with information about the potential risks of radiation exposure to the fetus and ensure they understand safety protocols.

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Gamma rays

Weightless particles with energy (photons) from the nucleus of unstable and excited atoms

Pure energy and can travel long distances at high speed

Emitted along with alpha and beta particles

Examples: Iodine-131 (I-131), Cesium-137 (Cs-137), Cobalt-60 (Co-60), cobalt-57 (Co-57), Gallium-67 (G-67), Technetium-99m (Tc-99m), Iridium-192 (Ir-192)

X-rays

Similar to gamma rays, they are photons with pure energy

Emitted from outside of the nucleus

Lower in energy and less penetrating than gamma rays

Produced naturally or machines using electricity

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Responsibilities of Nuclear Research Companies in Malaysia

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Responsibilities of Nuclear Research Companies in Malaysia

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Implement a Comprehensive Radiation Protection Program:

Develop policies and procedures for radiation safety

use of protective equipment, proper handling of radioactive materials, and emergency response plans.

Regular Safety Audits and Inspections:

Conduct periodic safety audits and inspections to identify

comply to radiation protection measures

Training and Certification:

Provide mandatory training for all employees handling radioactive materials

ensure they are certified in radiation safety.

Reporting and Documentation:

Maintain detailed records of radiation exposure for all workers, incidents of radiation leaks, and compliance with safety regulations.

Emergency Preparedness:

Develop and maintain an emergency response plan for radiation incidents, including evacuation procedures, first aid, and communication protocols.

National drills and trainings following the guidelines in AELB

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pbl 3 penetration of ionizing radtions.JPG

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What to do when you need to exit nuclear facilities

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What to do when you need to exit nuclear facilities

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1. Decontamination

Go through a series of decontamination processes, including:

Removing protective clothing (gloves, suits, masks).

Washing exposed skin and hair with specialized soap and water.

Using radiation detectors to check for any residual contamination on the body or clothing.

All equipment, tools, and vehicles used should be thoroughly cleaned and checked for radioactive contamination before being taken off-site.

2.  Radiation Monitoring and Safety Checks

Personal Dosimeters: Ensure that all personnel wear dosimeters to monitor their radiation exposure levels. These devices should be checked and recorded regularly.

Exit Monitors: Use radiation detectors at facility exits to scan individuals, vehicles, and materials for any radioactive contamination before leaving the premises.

Air Quality Tests: Conduct air quality assessments to detect any airborne radioactive particles.

3. Environmental Monitoring

Continuous Monitoring: Install environmental monitoring stations around the facility to regularly test soil, water, and air for radiation levels.

Post-Exit Assessments: After exiting, conduct periodic environmental impact assessments to ensure no radioactive leaks or contamination have occurred.

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Alpha

Lacks energy to penetrate the outer layer of skin

Can be harmful if swallowed, inhaled or through wounds; damages living tissues

Energy is concentrated in small volumes of cells, severely damaging DNA and cellular structure

Beta

Penetrates more than alpha particles, but is relatively less damaging to living tissues and DNA

Even though they travel long distances, it can be stopped by thin layer of clothing or substances like aluminium

Some particles can penetrate the skin and cause skin burns

Neutron

Can interact with tissues in our body

Have the potential to cause damage

Gamma and X-rays

easily penetrate barriers that can stop alpha and beta particles, such as skin and clothing

Can completely pass through our body

Can cause ionization (process of knocking electrons off atoms and molecules.) resulting in damaged tissues and DNA

Though both cannot make anything radioactive

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What determines the amount of radioactive decay or radiation emitted?

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What determines the amount of radioactive decay or radiation emitted?

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A process where unstable atoms release energy (radiation) to become more stable

Their half-life / time taken to for half of the  radioactive atoms present to decay to a more stable form determines the rate of radioactive decay

Some radioactive atoms undergo a series of steps to reach its stable form. During the process, they may emit alpha or beta particles.

Can take from seconds to billions of year to reach stable state

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number of energized particles or photons emitted by a source of radioactive material per unit of time

number of decays (also described as disintegrations) occurring per unit of time.

Measured in Curie (Ci, US) or Becquerel (Bq, international)

1 Bq = 1 decay per second

1 Ci = 3.7x1010 Bq

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The case starts when the woman is pregnant in her first trimester is still in the nuclear company 

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The case starts when the woman is pregnant in her first trimester is still in the nuclear company 

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The first trimester which is the three months of early pregnancy is a critical period for fetal development.

But then, it does not specify which department she is and does she follow the safety protocol also whether the radiation dose was significant enough to affect the fetal health.

The case study also does not specify whether she knows about her pregnancy and resigned during the three month period.

But then, if she is married and anticipating having a child, she should resign from the nuclear company as it will affect her child development.

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Fortunately, she delivered a boy but did not have any children after that. 

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Fortunately, she delivered a boy but did not have any children after that. 

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It might be the case of infertility due to radiation exposure or hormonal issues that affect her ability to maintain her pregnancy.

Getting medical advice from her doctor who is aware of her situation regarding the radioactive exposure and against her from having more children as it will risk genetic mutation in future offspring and maternal health complications during subsequent pregnancies.

The mother also might have developed her disease after she delivered her baby that makes it difficult for her to conceive another child.

The mother also might have the genetics for cancer even before she works in a nuclear company and the radiation might activate the cells as radiation can weaken the immune system.

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The son has health issues which are enlarged thyroid and high blood pressure. 

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The son has health issues which are enlarged thyroid and high blood pressure. 

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Radiation can alter the gene expression by modifying DNA and these changes are also heritable, potentially increasing cancer susceptibility in offspring.

This might be an issue towards the offspring as they will not know how their DNA will mutate and become cancer cells.

The offspring actually inherited a higher risk of cancer, but not the cancer itself.

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Atomic Bomb Survivors (Hiroshima and Nagasaki)

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Atomic Bomb Survivors (Hiroshima and Nagasaki)

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Involved immediate, high doses of radiation from nuclear explosion

Radiation increased cancer risk in survivors.

Their offspring showed no direct inheritance of cancer cells but an increased incidence of genetic mutations that might predispose them to cancer.

Children exposed in utero to radiation had higher risks of microcephaly (small head size), intellectual disabilities and developmental delays.

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Involved prolonged, lower-dose exposures from fallout.

Studies on children born to radiation-exposed parents revealed higher rates of thyroid cancers and other health issues, likely due to inherited genetic and epigenetic changes.

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The biological effects of nuclear radiation are profound and far-reaching, impacting both human health and the environment. These effects depend on the type, dose, duration, and mode of exposure to radiation, as well as the vulnerability of the organism or ecosystem.

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Nuclear radiation affects living tissue by ionizing molecules, leading to cellular damage. Its effects can be categorized into acute (immediate) and chronic (long-term).

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Acute Effects (High-Dose, Short-Term Exposure)

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Acute Effects (High-Dose, Short-Term Exposure)

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Acute Radiation Syndrome (ARS):

Occurs at doses above 1 Sievert (Sv). Symptoms include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, skin burns, and bone marrow suppression.

Higher doses (>5 Sv) can be fatal within weeks due to multi-organ failure.

Cellular Damage:

Radiation breaks DNA strands and generates free radicals, disrupting cell function and replication.

Rapidly dividing cells (e.g., in bone marrow, gastrointestinal tract, skin) are most vulnerable.

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Chronic Effects (Low-Dose or Prolonged Exposure)

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Chronic Effects (Low-Dose or Prolonged Exposure)

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Cancer:

Ionizing radiation is a carcinogen, increasing the risk of cancers such as leukemia, thyroid, breast, and lung cancer.

Damage to tumor-suppressor genes (e.g., TP53) or activation of oncogenes can lead to uncontrolled cell growth.

Genetic Mutations:

Radiation can cause mutations in germ cells (sperm and egg), potentially passing on genetic disorders to offspring.

In somatic cells, mutations may result in chronic diseases or cancer.

Non-Cancer Diseases:

Increased risks of cardiovascular diseases, cataracts, and infertility have been observed in individuals exposed to radiation.

Fetal Effects:

Radiation exposure during pregnancy can cause microcephaly, developmental delays, intellectual disabilities, or miscarriage, depending on the dose and timing of exposure.

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Nuclear radiation also has profound effects on ecosystems, with impacts observed in plants, animals, and soil.

Plants

Radiation Sensitivity:

Rapidly growing plants and their seeds are particularly vulnerable. High doses can cause mutations, sterility, or death.

Chronic low-dose exposure may lead to stunted growth or abnormal development.

Bioaccumulation:

Plants can absorb radioactive isotopes (e.g., cesium-137, strontium-90) from contaminated soil, which then move up the food chain.

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Direct Effects:

High radiation doses can cause acute death, sterility, or genetic mutations in wildlife.

Long-term effects include reduced reproduction rates, cancers, and developmental abnormalities.

Population Dynamics:

Some populations recover rapidly, while others, particularly top predators, may suffer due to bioaccumulation of radioactive isotopes.

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Soil Contamination:

Radioactive fallout binds to soil particles, contaminating the land.

Isotopes like cesium-137 and strontium-90 have long half-lives, persisting for decades.

Aquatic Ecosystems:

Radioactive material can contaminate water bodies, affecting aquatic life.

Isotopes like iodine-131 and tritium can accumulate in fish, posing risks to predators and humans

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Trophic Cascades:

Radiation-induced damage to one species can affect entire food webs.

Example: Decreased reproduction in herbivores may limit food availability for predators.

Genetic Diversity:

Radiation-induced mutations can reduce genetic diversity, weakening population resilience to environmental changes.

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Human Health

Medical Countermeasures:

Potassium iodide (KI) pills to block radioactive iodine uptake in the thyroid.

Chelating agents to remove certain radioactive isotopes.

Monitoring and Treatment:

Long-term health monitoring and cancer screening for exposed populations.

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Decontamination:

Removing topsoil, washing surfaces, and using absorbents in water.

Bioremediation:

Using plants or microbes to absorb and break down radioactive materials.

Natural Recovery:

Over time, radiation levels decrease as isotopes decay, but this can take decades to centuries.

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1. Stricter Workplace Radiation Safety Standards

Radiation Monitoring: Regular dosimeter use ensures exposure limits set by IAEA/OSHA are adhered to.

Controlled Work Areas: Restricted access, shielding, and ventilation minimize high-radiation exposure.

2. Health Surveillance and Monitoring Programs

Health Checks: Pre-employment screenings and regular monitoring detect potential radiation-related health issues early.

Genetic Counseling: Family planning employees receive counseling/testing to assess radiation risks on offspring.

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3. Protective Measures for Pregnant Employees

Disclosure Policies: Non-discriminatory policies encourage early pregnancy disclosure for reassignment to low-radiation roles.

Dosimeter Use: Personalized dosimeters ensure fetal exposure stays below 1 mSv during pregnancy.

4. Comprehensive Training and Education

Awareness Programs: Workers learn about radiation risks, protective measures, and emergency protocols, with focus on reproductive health.

Preparedness Drills: Regular drills prepare employees for radiation leaks or spills.

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5. Enhancing Family Support Services

Health Monitoring: Long-term post-employment health tracking addresses delayed radiation effects, particularly for pregnant employees.

Offspring Care: Healthcare benefits cover children's check-ups for potential radiation-linked developmental or genetic issues.

6. Research and Safer Technologies

Radiation Alternatives: Non-radioactive processes reduce radiation use.

Shielding Innovations: Advanced materials improve workplace radiation protection.

Protocol Updates: Regularly updated safety measures align with new scientific advancements and standards

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Depending on the radiation dose, it may cause some damage to the living organs

Higher dose exposed, higher the risk of adverse effects

If the radiation dose is low but delivered over long period of time, the risk is lower as the damage to cells will be repaired by the body.

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Acute radiation syndrome from large exposures

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Acute radiation syndrome from large exposures

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When one is exposed to high levels of radiation over a short period of time, symptoms like nausea and vomiting within hours may arise. Worst case scenario one may die over the following days and weeks. Known as “radiation sickness”

Rare syndrome as it occurs from nuclear explosion or accidental handling or rupture of a highly radioactive source

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Low level radiation does not cause immediate health effects, but can increase the risk of cancer over lifetime

Radiation dose is measured in milisieverts or rem; dose is determined from a one-time radiation exposure or accumulated exposures over time

Study suggests that a one-time whole-body doses of 100 mSv or 10 rem has a minimal increase in cancer risk. (about 1% or less)

10 rem is considered low in the context of radiation exposure

About 40% of men and women will develop cancer at some point in their lifetime regardless of radiation exposure.

For such doses, it is difficult to relate any cases of cancer specifically to radiation exposure because the natural background rate of cancer is already high and the small increase of cancer risk is insignificant to the baseline rate of 40%

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Occurs on non-reproductive cells

Describes any alteration at the cellular level in somatic tissues occurring after fertilization

This mutation will NOT be passed down to generations, only affects the current individual

This type of mutation will last the whole lifespan of the individual

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For somatic mutation, if the pregnant women was exposed to the radiation, will the fetus also obtain the somatic mutation?

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For somatic mutation, if the pregnant women was exposed to the radiation, will the fetus also obtain the somatic mutation?

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Yes, the fetus will also get the somatic mutation

The radiation will affect both the mother’s cells and the fetus’ cells

This radiation can later cause birth defects or developmental abnormalities later on in the fetus’ life

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Occurs on reproductive cells (egg and sperm cells)

It can be passed down to the following generations since they carry genetic material to the offspring

How long it will pass on to the generations still remains unclear due to lack of evidence

Based on a study on the Chernobyl victims, the first generation (F1) showed an increase in possibility of having the mutation, but F2 generation has seen to have a minimal possibility

Researchers can only assume now that there is a possibility that the mutation stops at F2 generation (two generations after the parent(s) who were affected)

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Radiation dose = amount of radiation absorbed by the body and is measured in mSv or rem.

Used to visualise common radiation doses and the possible health effects at different doses

At 100% lethality:

At 1000 rem / 10000 mSv, those close to site of radiation may have risk for this dose. Results in 100% death.

At 50% lethality:

At 400 rem / 4000 mSv, 50% of people near site of radiation will die.

At 100 rem / 1000 mSv, people will experience acute radiation syndrome

At 50 rem / 500 mSv, this dose will cause damage to blood cells

At 2 rem / 20 mSv, this is the recommended threshold to relocate people from the area.

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1. Developmental Stages and Radiation Effects

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1. Developmental Stages and Radiation Effects

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Pre-implantation Stage (0–2 Weeks Post-Fertilization)

Sensitivity: Highly sensitive; even low radiation doses can cause cell death.

All-or-Nothing Effect: Radiation either causes embryonic death or has no long-term impact due to totipotent cell repair mechanisms.

Effects: Loss of pregnancy if critical cells are damaged. Surviving embryos show no congenital anomalies.

Organogenesis Stage (2–8 Weeks Post-Fertilization)

Malformations: High sensitivity to structural deformities as organs begin to form.

CNS Damage: Impaired brain and spinal cord development.

Growth Restriction: Damage to growing cells results in stunted overall growth.

Fetal Period (9 Weeks to Birth)

Neurological Impact: Cognitive disabilities such as reduced IQ, learning difficulties, or mental retardation.

Growth Delays: Reduced birth weight and height.

Cancer Risk: Higher lifetime risk of cancers, particularly leukemia.

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Microcephaly: Reduced brain size with intellectual impairments (notable during 8-15 weeks post-fertilization).

Eye Defects: Malformations or cataracts with exposure during eye formation.

Skeletal Abnormalities: Defective bone development during the organogenesis stage.

Fetal Death: High radiation doses may lead to miscarriage or stillbirth.

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Low Doses (<100 mGy): Minimal effects, but no exposure is entirely without risk during pregnancy.

Moderate Doses (100–500 mGy): Increased likelihood of growth restrictions and neurological effects.

High Doses (>500 mGy): Severe developmental issues, including malformations and potential fetal death.

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Cancer: Increased risk of childhood cancers from radiation exposure during development.

Genetic Mutations: Potential heritable mutations due to germ cell damage.

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Expanded Framework: Radiation Effects at Different Stages

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Expanded Framework: Radiation Effects at Different Stages

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Early Pregnancy (First 2 Weeks Post-Conception)

Threshold: Doses >0.1 Gy can prevent implantation due to cell damage.

Outcome: Embryo death without congenital abnormalities if implantation occurs.

Organogenesis Period (2–8 Weeks Post-Conception)

Threshold: Doses >0.5 Gy can cause severe organ malformations, growth restriction, and CNS damage.

Fetal Development (8–25 Weeks Post-Conception)

Key Window: Weeks 8–15 are critical for brain development; 1 Gy dose results in ~40% risk of intellectual disabilities.

Later Sensitivity: Risks reduce after 15 weeks but remain significant through week 25.

Later Pregnancy (After 25 Weeks)

Decreased Sensitivity: The fetus is less vulnerable, but high doses may still affect growth and pose cancer risks.