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The Model of Occupational Wholeness (MOW), developed by Dr. Farzaneh Yazdani, is a relatively recent framework that has seen rapid development primarily through its comprehensive publication, the creation of measurement tools, and application-based research since its introduction.

The MOW continues to contribute to occupational science by explicitly focusing on Wellbeing and Satisfaction from the client’s subjective perspective, rather than focusing on pathology or dysfunction. It provides practical tools for clinicians to help clients re-think and re-plan their life (Yazdani, 2023).

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The Kawa Model, since its formal publication in 2006, has seen less of a formal "update" to its core theoretical concepts and more of a broadening of its application and a deeper scholarly defense of its non-Western, contextual framework.

The evolution of the model focuses on its use beyond individual therapy and its role in challenging Western-centric models of occupational therapy (OT)(Iwama, 2006).

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The Model of Occupational Wholeness (MOW) is a comprehensive framework developed by Dr. Farzaneh Yazdani that is guided by principles centered on the concept of Harmony. The optimal state where a person's "doings" successfully satisfy their fundamental needs for being, belonging, and becoming (Yazdani, 2023).

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The Kawa Model is often described using a set of core principles that guide the therapeutic process, focusing on the client's perspective and the inseparable relationship between the individual and their context. These principles emphasize a holistic, client-centered, and culturally responsive approach to occupational therapy (Iwama, 2006).

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The Model of Occupational Wholeness (MOW) is a conceptual framework in occupational therapy, developed by Dr. Farzaneh Yazdani, which posits that a sense of well-being and fulfillment is achieved when a person's daily activities (Doings) successfully satisfy their fundamental human needs (Being, Belonging, and Becoming) in Harmony (Yazdani, 2023)

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The Kawa Model uses the metaphor of a river to represent a person's life journey and its elements. The model's creator is Dr. Michael Iwama, and it was formally published in 2006.

Each element of the river is a core concept that, when drawn and discussed with the client, helps the occupational therapist and client understand the client's current life circumstances and well-being(Iwama, 2006).

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The Kawa Model is rooted in Eastern philosophy and a collective worldview, which contrasts with the individualistic, self-centered approaches often found in Western occupational therapy models. It uses the metaphor of a river to represent a person's life journey(Iwama, 2006).

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The Model of Occupational Wholeness (MOW) is built upon several core assumptions regarding human existence, occupation, and well-being.

The Model of Occupational Wholeness (MOW) is founded on the principle that Doing is the essential medium through which humans satisfy their fundamental needs (Yazdani & Bonsaksen, 2017).

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The Model of Occupational Wholeness (MOW) is a conceptual framework in occupational therapy developed Dr. Farzaneh Yazdani in 2017.

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The Kawa Model was primarily developed by a team of Japanese occupational therapists, led by Canadian occupational therapist Dr. Michael Iwama, starting in the late 1990s

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Model of Occupational Wholeness (MOW)

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1. demonstrates expanding empirical application, including group programs addressing spirituality and meaning in individuals with multiple sclerosis (Haglund et al., 2024).

2. Updated texts, such as Occupational Wholeness for Health and Wellbein,g provide clinicians with structured tools and worksheets to translate the model into practice (Yazdani & Bonsaksen, 2023).

3. Theoretical refinements emphasize acceptance of occupational compromise and contextual influences on choice, aligning MOW with critical-realist perspectives (Yazdani & Bonsaksen, 2023).

Refrences

Haglund, L., Yazdani, F., & Bonsaksen, T. (2024). Feasibility of addressing the spiritual well-being of persons with multiple sclerosis through an occupation-based group program. American Journal of Occupational Therapy.

Yazdani, F., & Bonsaksen, T. (2020). Introduction to the Model of Occupational Wholeness. Scandinavian University Press.

Yazdani, F., & Bonsaksen, T. (2023). Occupational wholeness for health and wellbeing. Scandinavian University Press.

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Recent work emphasizes dynamic use rather than a fixed protocol—clinicians adapt the metaphor and drawing process across different settings such as mental-health, aging, and team-based interventions (Ober et al., 2022; Naidoo, 2023).
Training resources such as Kawa Made Easy were developed to improve practitioner confidence and standardize implementation (Iwama & Nye, 2015).
Scoping reviews highlight the model’s strengths in promoting client-centered reflection and rapport while noting limited psychometric validation and the need for mixed-methods evaluation (Ober et al., 2022).

Refrences

Iwama, M. K., & Nye, C. (2015). Kawa Made Easy: A practitioner’s guide to implementing the Kawa Model in practice. OTD Publications.

Naidoo, O. (2023). The Kawa Model: A self-reflection tool for occupational therapy. South African Journal of Occupational Therapy, 53(1), 1–7.

Ober, J. L., James, G., & Gupta, R. (2022). The dynamic use of the Kawa Model: A scoping review. British Journal of Occupational Therapy, 85(9), 563–574.

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Focus on promoting balance and harmony.

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Look at all factors of a client with a focus on environment and culture.

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Concept: Life is a journey, and it shapes us all. Progression depends on the roughness of the journey and the resilience of our consciousness.

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Self-care and a harmonious life.

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Assumptions: From birth to death we are constantly changing due to things in our control and outside of our control.

Cultural and social context shape what is meaningful in our lives.

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Assumptions: individuals have a sense of belonging in occupations.

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Dr.Yazdani 2017

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Dr.Michael Iwama (early 2000s)

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Model of occupational wholeness.

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The model has been revised with the development of the Norwegian Occupational Wholeness Questionnarie(N-OWQ). This assessment was created after refining the information from the MOW for practical application.

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An interesting aspect of this model is the idea of social meaning. when a person completes or does an occupation it is because it has social meaning to them. This model idea of being, becoming, and belonging all start by doing. One thing that stood out to me while reading the founders paper was his example of an individual's experience of social meaning; a homeless woman walking down a street everyday to check on all the other homeless people, this has become a habit for her to not only check on the others but to also give her life some meaning. to onlookers in society they just see a homeless women walking with no meaning or purpose but to the women it is incredibly meaningful.

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The idea of occupational balance has been discussed over and over agains since the beginning of the 1900's. This model focuses on the four dimensions of occupation; being, becoming, belonging and doing.

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This models assumptions was to understand a persons life through the individuals experience of balancing their needs for being, becoming, and belonging by doing. When you look at all of these factors or can see the clients well being.

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developed by Dr. Farzaneh Yazdani in 2017 (Yazdani et al., 2016).

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This model has not been revised, but it remains flexible and adaptable

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The principles of the Kawa model is looking at the whole patient in a very holistic way. The therapist is looking at all parts of a clients life and can see how they interact to represent their life journey. By using this model you can work with a broader more diverse population.

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The Kawa model using the metaphor of a river to understand a clients life better. It focuses on the key components of someones life; the river flow could be the persons life and priorities, the river banks are a clients physical and social environment, the rocks represent a persons obstacles and challenges, and the driftwood is a persons personal attributes. This model is supposed to give a therapist a better understanding of the whole person and why they are the way they are. it follows the clients life flow by combining of of these elements and watching how they interact.

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the Kawa model focuses on the intersection of person, occupation, and environment. This model uses the metaphor of a river to have a visual representation of a persons life. It focuses on the key components of someones life; priorities, physical and social environment, obstacles and challenges, and personal attributes. By following this metaphor you can understand the whole person, not just their parts.

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The KAWA model was developed by Dr. Micheal Iwama and a team of japanese occupational therapist in 1999 and into the early 2000's (Iwama et al).

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The Model of Occupational Wholeness has remained consistent, yet it has been adapted to fit modern life and therapy in new ways.

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The Model of Occupational Wholeness focuses on helping people live balanced and meaningful lives by taking part in work, play, and self-care. It encourages individuals to find purpose in their daily activities.

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The Model of Occupational Wholeness focuses on work, play, as well as self-care these are the main parts of a balanced life. When these areas are in harmony, a person feels healthy and fulfilled.

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The Model of Occupational Wholeness assumes that a balanced life includes work, play, and self-care. It expects individuals to engage in meaningful occupations that support health and personal growth.

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The Model of Occupational Wholeness (MOW) was created by Gail Fidler and Mathilda Rice in 1954. It focuses on finding balance in life through work, play, and self-care.

(Fidler & Rice, 1954).

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Since 2006, the KAWA model has been applied and refined internationally. Later publications emphasized its flexibility across cultures and settings, highlighting its usefulness in promoting culturally responsive, client-defined practice rather than imposing Western ideals of independence (Iwama, Thomson, & Macdonald, 2009).

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Since its introduction, the MOW has continued to evolve through ongoing conceptual clarification and research exploring its application in occupational therapy education and clinical reasoning (Yazdani, 2020). Current discussions center on integrating the model with occupational justice and client-centered practice frameworks.

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The MOW focuses on promoting occupational balance, meaning, and congruence between personal values and daily activities. It guides therapists to look beyond function and consider how a person’s occupations contribute to their sense of fulfillment, identity, and connectedness with others (Blankenship, 2024).

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The focus of the Kawa Model is on restoring harmony and balance within one’s life context. The therapist’s role is collaborative, working with the client to identify barriers to flow and mobilize personal and environmental resources to enhance overall life movement (Iwama, 2006).

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Occupational balance: engagement in diverse occupations that sustain well-being.

Integration: alignment between internal values and external actions.

Meaning: occupations that provide purpose and coherence to life.

Wholeness: the dynamic outcome when a person’s occupations are balanced and congruent with their sense of self and environment.
These constructs interrelate to help therapists assess how occupation supports or limits an individual’s overall well-being (Yazdani, 2017).

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The model uses the metaphor of a river to represent life:

River flow (Mizu) – the individual’s life energy or life flow.

Riverbanks (Kawa no soku-heki) – social and physical environments that can support or restrict flow.

Rocks (Iwa) – life obstacles or challenges (e.g., illness, trauma, stress).

Driftwood (Ryuboku) – personal resources, skills, values, and experiences that may either help or hinder flow.

Spaces between elements – areas of potential for change, healing, or increased flow.
These parts interact continuously to shape one’s occupational life and sense of harmony (Iwama et al., 2009).

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The MOW assumes that health and well-being arise from achieving a state of occupational balance and integration among multiple dimensions of human existence. It views occupation as central to experiencing harmony across the physical, psychological, social, and spiritual aspects of life. The model also assumes that imbalance or fragmentation in these areas can lead to distress or reduced participation (Yazdani, 2017).

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The Kawa Model assumes that a person’s well-being is best understood within their social and environmental context, rather than as an isolated individual. It reflects Eastern collectivist values, viewing health and occupation as products of harmony between the self, community, and environment, rather than personal mastery or independence (Iwama, 2006).

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The Model of Occupational Wholeness (MOW) was developed by Dr. Farzaneh Yazdani in 2017 to explain how engagement in occupation contributes to human well-being and fulfillment (Yazdani, 2017, as cited in Blankenship, 2024).

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The Kawa (River) Model was developed by Dr. Michael K. Iwama in 2006, originating from his doctoral work and later published in The Kawa Model: Culturally Relevant Occupational Therapy (Iwama, 2006).

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KAWA Model

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Model of Occupational Wholeness

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Model of occupational wholeness (MOW)

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Model of Occupational Wholeness (MOW): Revisions

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Model of Occupational Wholeness (MOW): Revisions

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Since its introduction in the early 1990s, the Model of Occupational Wholeness has not undergone major formal revisions, but its ideas continue to influence modern occupational therapy practice.

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Model of Occupational Wholeness (MOW): Principles

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Model of Occupational Wholeness (MOW): Principles

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The principles of the MOW Model emphasize treating people as whole beings, encouraging a balance between different life activities, and ensuring that occupational therapy interventions are meaningful and tailored to each individual’s unique context.

Johansson, B. K. (1992). The Model of Occupational Wholeness. In K. Skarsater (Ed.), Occupational Therapy and Mental Health (pp. 89–104). Studentlitteratur.

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Model of Occupational Wholeness (MOW): Constructs

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Model of Occupational Wholeness (MOW): Constructs

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The core constructs of the MOW Model are doing, being, becoming, and belonging, which together describe how people engage in purposeful activity, experience personal meaning, grow and develop, and connect with others.

Johansson, B. K. (1992). The Model of Occupational Wholeness. In K. Skarsater (Ed.), Occupational Therapy and Mental Health (pp. 89–104). Studentlitteratur.

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Model of Occupational Wholeness (MOW): Expectations

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Model of Occupational Wholeness (MOW): Expectations

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The MOW Model expects therapists to help clients achieve a balanced and meaningful life by supporting them in engaging in a variety of activities that contribute to their sense of wholeness and satisfaction.

Johansson, B. K. (1992). The Model of Occupational Wholeness. In K. Skarsater (Ed.), Occupational Therapy and Mental Health (pp. 89–104). Studentlitteratur.

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The Model of Occupational Wholeness (MOW) was developed by Swedish occupational therapist Gunilla Kielhofner and her colleagues in the late 1980s and early 1990s. However, it’s important to note that Kielhofner is more widely known for developing the Model of Human Occupation (MOHO). The Model of Occupational Wholeness is less commonly cited and is primarily attributed to Barbro K. Johansson, with significant contributions in the early 1990s.

Johansson, B. K. (1992). The Model of Occupational Wholeness. In K. Skarsater (Ed.), Occupational Therapy and Mental Health (pp. 89–104). Studentlitteratur.

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The KAWA Model has not been formally revised since its introduction, but its application has expanded as therapists adapt the model to different cultural and clinical settings.

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The KAWA Model is based on principles of cultural relevance, client-centeredness, and the idea that people’s lives are shaped by both personal and environmental factors, all visualized through the river metaphor.

Iwama, M. K., Thomson, N. A., & Macdonald, R. (2009). The Kawa model: The power of culturally responsive occupational therapy. Disability and Rehabilitation, 31(14), 1125–1135. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638280902773711

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The main constructs of the KAWA Model are water (representing life flow), rocks (challenges), driftwood (personal attributes and resources), and river walls and bottom (environment), all working together to describe a person’s life context.

Iwama, M. K. (2006). The Kawa (River) Model: Nature and culture in occupational therapy. Occupational Therapy International, 13(4), 215-222. https://doi.org/10.1002/oti.229

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The KAWA Model expects therapists to work closely with clients, using the river metaphor to explore and understand each person’s unique life flow and the factors that help or hinder their well-being.

Iwama, M. K., Thomson, N. A., & Macdonald, R. (2009). The Kawa model: The power of culturally responsive occupational therapy. Disability and Rehabilitation, 31(14), 1125–1135. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638280902773711

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The KAWA model was developed by Dr. Michael Iwama and colleagues. It was first introduced in 2006 as an occupational therapy model that uses the metaphor of a river to represent the client’s life flow and the various factors that influence it.

Iwama, M. K., Thomson, N. A., & Macdonald, R. M. (2009). The Kawa model: Culturally relevant occupational therapy. Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier.

Iwama, M. K., Thomson, N. A., & Macdonald, R. (2009). The Kawa model: The power of culturally responsive occupational therapy. Disability and Rehabilitation, 31(14), 1125–1135. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638280902773711

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OT Model:

Model of Occupational Wholeness (MOW)

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OT Model: Kawa Model

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The MOW is still progressing currently. However, there have been some revisions done to The Occupational Wholeness Questionnaire which is associated to the MOW model.

Yazdani, F., & Bonsaksen, T.

(2017). Introduction to the model of occupational wholeness.

Ergoscience, 12, 28-32.

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There haven't been formal revisions to the Kawa Model. However, the model has seen continuous polishing and adaptation through ongoing discussions and interpretations by occupational therapists worldwide since its original publication in the late 1990s.

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The Model of Well-being (MOW) in occupational therapy focuses on promoting a persons overall well-being by balancing their resources, demands, and adaptive capacity. The MOW model focuses on enhancing resources, reducing demands, and improving adaptive skills to improve participation.

Model of occupational wholeness | OT theory. (n.d.).

https://ottheory.com/therapy-model/model-occupational-wholeness

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The Model of Well-being (MOW) in occupational therapy uses multiple concepts. It looks at well-being as a dynamic balance between resources, demands, and the adaptive capacity. "Resources" is the physical, mental, and social assets that support a person's ability to function through life. "Demands" are the challenges and any stress that requires effort for someone to manage. "Adaptive capacity" refers to one’s ability to adjust and respond effectively to the demands. The MOW aims to enhance a persons well-being by improving resources, reducing demands, and strengthening adaptive skills all to promote a better quality of life.

Model of occupational wholeness | OT theory. (n.d.).

https://ottheory.com/therapy-model/model-occupational-wholeness

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The Kawa Model uses several key concepts, the “Water" represents the person's life flow and overall well-being. "Riverbanks" and "Bottom" symbolize the person's environment and their social context. "Rocks" are the challenges and obstacles that they face that messes with their life flow. “Driftwood" represents personal attributes and resources that can either help or harm the flow. "Spaces between the elements" are the opportunities for occupational therapists to intervene and enhance the client's life flow and their participation in life.

A quick glance through the kawa model. The Kawa Model. (n.d.).

https://www.kawamodel.com/v1/2016/08/10/occupation-focused-conceptual-frameworks-the-kawa-model/

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The Kawa Model stands on several core principles that include, viewing a person's life as a river. The river's flow is a representation of their well-being, which is influenced by their environmental and social factors. Some key principles to understanding the client's perspective is that within their unique cultural and social environment, promoting balance by addressing obstacles (rocks) and resources (driftwood) affecting their life flow, and stressing the importance of collaboration between the therapist and client to enhance the overall life flow within the river. The model focuses on enabling participation and improving life satisfaction by working with these elements.

Kawa Model - Physiopedia. (n.d.-a).

https://www.physio-pedia.com/Kawa_Model

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The Model of Well-being (MOW) in occupational therapy states that well-being is a dynamic state that comes from the interaction between a person's resources, the demands placed on them, and their ability to adapt to these demands. The model has expectations that by enhancing a person's resources, reducing demands, and improving adaptive skills, occupational therapists can promote a persons overall well-being and improve participation in activities that are meaningful to them. The model also stresses a holistic approach that considers physical, mental, and our social aspects of health.

Model of occupational wholeness | OT theory. (n.d.).

https://ottheory.com/therapy-model/model-occupational-wholeness

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The Kawa Model says that life is a river flowing from bank to bank. The water a person's life flows is affected by various elements like rocks (which are challenges), driftwood (our personal attributes), and the river walls and bottom (the environment around us). Occupational therapists that use this model are hoping to enhance the client's life flow by addressing each of these elements within their specific cultural and social context. The over all goal is to balance in the person's life river.

About. The Kawa Model. (2016, August 6).

https://www.kawamodel.com/v1/about/

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The Model of Well-being (MOW) was developed by Risë van Hanswijk Penninx, Margreet Smits, and Lex Wunderink. It was introduced in 2014.

Model of occupational wholeness | OT theory. (n.d.).

https://ottheory.com/therapy-model/model-occupational-wholeness

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The Kawa Model was developed by Michael Iwama and a team of Japanese occupational therapists. It was first introduced in 1999. “Kawa” is Japanese for river.

Iwama, M. K., Thomson, N. A., & Macdonald, R. M. (2009). The Kawa model: the power of culturally responsive occupational therapy. Disability and rehabilitation, 31(14), 1125–1135.

https://doi.org/10.1080/09638280902773711

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Model of occupational wholeness (MOW)

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The Model of Wholeness focuses on the significance of self-wellness and the four concepts (being, becoming, belonging, and doing/not doing). It focuses on how meaningful occupations can be done, and the satisfaction they bring to individuals (Blankenship, 2024).

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Due to its recent development in 2017, this model has undergone a few updates, which include a change to the questionnaire assesment and a closer approach to occupational therapy.

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The MOW encompasses four constructs: Being, Becoming, Belonging, and Doing/not doing.

Being: this concept focuses on how individuals understand themselves to be, and how it changes in meaning depending on the level of development or existing.

Becoming: this encompasses the future of individuals and all the plans that are expected, or are to be believed to occur.

Belonging: how individuals are connected to their communities or surroundings, and how those connections are important for progression and identity.

Doing/not doing: focuses on occupations that bring enjoyment or participation to ones life

(Yazdani & Fekri, 2023).

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Due to its recent development in 2017, this model has undergone a few updates, which include a change to the questionnaire assesment and a closer approach to occupational therapy.

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In the Model of Occupational Wholeness, the assumption is that individuals feel a sense of whole when doing occupations. It expects for individuals to have a sense of being and belonging alongside the environment and the time and space they spend in it.

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The KAWA Model has not had any revisions or updates; however, it is kept up to date with research.

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The KAWA Model is framed around six concepts, which include: river, water, river walls and floors, rocks, driftwood, and spaces. The river represents personal journeys, suggesting that lives are shaped by the place where one is born and lives. The water represents life flow, and how capacity can be shaped depending on the surroundings. River walls and floors represent individuals' environments, both social and physical. Rocks can vary in size and are represented as obstacles or challenges in life. Driftwood can either help progress or be harmful and represent personal attributes. Lastly, spaces represent the obstacles in between occupations. The more space there is, the greater one can feel (Blankenship, 2024).

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The KAWA Model focuses on the interconnection of personal factors, the environment, and occupations. By mutually connecting these three, therapists can understand how both internal and external factors can shape a persons identity and life. This model points out a focus to culture and spirtuality of individuals (Blankenship, 2024).

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The KAWA Model assumes that life is like a river in terms of the environment and personal experiences or occupations. It assumes that therapy should incorporate individuals' cultures and create appropriate methods or interventions suited uniquely for each one (Blankenship, 2024).

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The KAWA Model was developed by Michael K. Iwama and was published in 2006 (Blankenship, 2024).

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The Model of Occupational Wholeness was founded in 2017 by Farzaneh Yazdani (Blankenship, 2024).

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Model Name: Model of Occupational Wholeness (MOW)

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Model Name: Model of Occupational Wholeness (MOW)

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The development of the MOW model is still a work in progress. The Occupational Wholeness Questionnaire, which is associated with the MOW model, has had some revisions made. For instance, within the second version, it now includes a six-point Likert scale, the inclusion of factor and Rasch analysis, and includes refined questionnaire items that were overlooked through validating scoring of occupational therapists (Yazdani, 2022).

References

Blankenship, L. R. (2024). Model of Occupational Wholeness (MOW) [PowerPoint slides]. Blackboard. https://www.utmb.edu/eclass

Yazdani, F. (2022). Occupational wholeness for health and wellbeing. Routledge eBooks. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003034759

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The MOW has nine principles that represent the focus of the model. For instance, it includes things that people do regarding the 3 B's, along with people having limits placed on their choices due to their own capacities. People also have choices in correspondence with their own values, and they also have occupational choices that matter in terms of a social aspect. Furthermore, the model focuses on the congruence between the actual and ideal triangle, while emphasizing self-awareness as one improves it, a change begins. Lastly, any changes made to the person impact their occupational wholeness, and if one has any difficulty in finding positive meaning, they can become dissatisfied with themselves (Yazdani, 2022).

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The MOW model has three main concepts, which include the 3 B's. It contains being, belonging, and becoming. Being involves the self and who we understand ourselves to be. Belonging is finding acceptance with and from other people, and becoming represents change within one (Yazdani, 2022).

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One of the model expectations is wholeness to be achieved through doing and integrating with other people. It also has an intervention focus that involves beginning change (Blankenship, 2024). Additionally, it emphasizes the need to live through being and doing. If a certain item is difficult to achieve, it can cause the individual to become dissatisfied (Yazdani, 2022)

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The developer for the MOW model is Farzaneh Yazdani in the year 2017 (Yazdani, 2022).

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Model of Occupational Wholeness (MOW)

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The model was originally published in 2006. They were unable to initially integrate the nature of self and context when it was first published. They would later make changes and include the river metaphor to signify the dynamic and flow of life (Iwama et al., 2009).

References

Blankenship, L. R. (2024). Kawa Model [PowerPoint slides]. Blackboard. https://www.utmb.edu/eclass

Iwama, M. K., & Thomson, N. A. (2009). The Kawa model: The power of culturally responsive occupational therapy. Disability and Rehabilitation, 31(14), 1125–1135. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638280902773711

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The Kawa model focuses on having a balance in one's life and their flow. It consists of six aspects. The model has a responsive context that has a cultural framework, and it focuses on enhancing the flow to increase one's well-being. Breaking the rocks consists of removing any obstacles that are present, while maximizing spaces is when one begins to engage in activities that they enjoy. Lastly, using driftwood is when the person refers to and uses their own resources, and to widen river bed walls is to make any necessary changes to one's environment (Blankenship, 2024). All these six aspects make up the focus of the model.

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The Kawa model has six concepts. It first includes the river, also known as kawa, that encompasses a person's journey. River walls and floors are presented as kawa zoko, which represent the social and physical environment. Furthermore, it also includes rocks, referred to as iwa, and spaces known as sukima. The rocks represent the difficult situations that occur in life that are hard to remove, while the spaces represent the channels where life flows (Blankenship, 2024). Water, known as mizu, is the flow of life signaling change, and driftwood, known as ryuboku, is the skills and resources an individual has (Iwama et al., 2009).