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Elizabeth Cox: The surprising link between stress and memory

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You spend weeks studying for an important test. On the big day, you wait nervously as your teacher hands it out. You're working your way through, when you're asked to define "ataraxia." You know you've seen the word before, but your mind goes blank. What just happened?

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 Educating Critical Thinkers Role of Epistemic Cog

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The Metacognitive Demands and Opportunities of Generative AI

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How we interpret and respond to the world around us makes up who we are and contributes to our quality of life. The study of emotional psychology allows researchers to dive into what makes humans react as they do to certain stimuli and how those reactions affect us both physically and mentally. While the study of emotional psychology is vast and complex, researchers have discovered quite a bit about what constitutes our emotions and our behavioral and physical reactions to them.

Defining Emotions

Emotions are often confused with feelings and moods, but the three terms are not interchangeable. According to the American Psychological Association (APA), emotion is defined as "a complex reaction pattern, involving experiential, behavioral and physiological elements." Emotions are how individuals deal with matters or situations they find personally significant. Emotional experiences have three components: a subjective experience, a physiological response and a behavioral or expressive response.

Feelings arise from an emotional experience. Because a person is conscious of the experience, this is classified in the same category as hunger or pain. A feeling is the result of an emotion and may be influenced by memories, beliefs and other factors.

A mood is described by the APA as "any short-lived emotional state, usually of low intensity." Moods differ from emotions because they lack stimuli and have no clear starting point. For example, insults can trigger the emotion of anger while an angry mood may arise without apparent cause.

Defining emotions is a task that is not yet complete. Many researchers are still proposing theories about what makes up our emotions, and existing theories are constantly being challenged. Still, there's a good basis of knowledge to analyze when exploring the topic.

The Process of Emotion

While there is debate about sequence, there is general agreement that emotions, as mentioned earlier, are made up of three parts: subjective experiences, physiological responses and behavioral responses. Let's look at each of these parts in more detail.

Subjective Experiences

All emotions begin with a subjective experience, also referred to as a stimulus, but what does that mean? While basic emotions are expressed by all individuals regardless of culture or upbringing, the experience that produces them can he highly subjective.

Subjective experiences can range from something as simple as seeing a color to something as major as losing a loved one or getting married. No matter how intense the experience is, it can provoke many emotions in a single individual and the emotions each individual feel may be different. For example, one person may feel anger and regret at the loss of a loved one while another may experience intense sadness.

Physiological Responses

We all know how it feels to have our heart beat fast with fear. This physiological response is the result of the autonomic nervous system's reaction to the emotion we're experiencing. The autonomic nervous system controls our involuntary bodily responses and regulates our fight-or-flight response. According to many psychologists, our physiological responses are likely how emotion helped us evolve and survive as humans throughout history.

Interestingly, studies have shown autonomic physiological responses are strongest when a person's facial expressions most closely resemble the expression of the emotion they're experiencing. In other words, facial expressions play an important role in responding accordingly to an emotion in a physical sense.

Behavioral Responses

The behavioral response aspect of the emotional response is the actual expression of the emotion. Behavioral responses can include a smile, a grimace, a laugh or a sigh, along with many other reactions depending on societal norms and personality.

While plentiful research suggests that many facial expressions are universal, such as a frown to indicate sadness, sociocultural norms and individual upbringings play a role in our behavioral responses. For example, how love is expressed is different both from person to person and across cultures.

Behavioral responses are important to signal to others how we're feeling, but research shows that they're also vital to individuals' well-being. A study in the Journal of Abnormal Psychology found that while watching negative and positive emotional films, suppression of behavioral responses to emotion had physical effects on the participants. The effects included elevated heart rates. This suggests that expressing behavioral responses to stimuli, both positive and negative, is better for your overall health than holding those responses inside. Thus, there are benefits of smiling, laughing and expressing negative emotions in a healthy way.

The physiological and behavioral responses associated with emotions illustrate that emotion is much more than a mental state. Emotion affects our whole demeanor and our health. Furthermore, our ability to understand others' behavioral responses plays a huge role in our emotional intelligence, which will be discussed in more detail later.

Emotions and Psychology

Theories and hypotheses about emotions date back centuries. In fact, basic or primary emotions are referenced in the Book of Rights, a first-century Chinese encyclopedia. Emotion is much harder to measure and properly define than many other human responses. Much of the study that has been done in emotional psychology is about basic emotions, our psychological and behavioral responses, and the role of emotional intelligence in our lives.

Basic and Complex Emotions

In emotional psychology, emotions are split into two groups: basic and complex.

Basic emotions are associated with recognizable facial expressions and tend to happen automatically. Charles Darwin was the first to suggest that emotion-induced facial expressions are universal. This suggestion was a centerpiece idea to his theory of evolution, implying that emotions and their expressions were biological and adaptive. In fact, emotions have been observed in animals by researchers for several years, suggesting that they're pivotal to survival in other species as well. Basic emotions are likely to have played a role in our survival throughout human evolution, signaling to those around us to react accordingly.

Emotional psychologist Paul Ekman identified six basic emotions that could be interpreted through facial expressions. They included happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise and disgust. He expanded the list in 1999 to also include embarrassment, excitement, contempt, shame, pride, satisfaction and amusement, though those additions have not been widely adapted.

List of the six basic emotions

Sadness

Happiness

Fear

Anger

Surprise

Disgust

Similarly, in the 1980s, psychologist Robert Plutchik identified eight basic emotions which he grouped into pairs of opposites, including joy and sadness, anger and fear, trust and disgust, and surprise and anticipation. This classification is known as a wheel of emotions and can be compared to a color wheel in that certain emotions mixed together can create new complex emotions.

More recently, a new study from the Institute of Neuroscience and Psychology at the University of Glasgow in 2014 found that instead of six, there may only be four easily recognizable basic emotions. The study discovered that anger and disgust shared similar facial expressions, as did surprise and fear. This suggests that the differences between those emotions are sociologically-based and not biologically-based. Despite all the conflicting research and adaptations, most research acknowledge that there are a set of universal basic emotions with recognizable facial features.

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Complex emotions have differing appearances and may not be as easily recognizable, such as grief, jealousy or regret. Complex emotions are defined as "any emotion that is an aggregate of two or more others." The APA uses the example of hate being a fusion of fear, anger and disgust. Basic emotions, on the other hand, are unmixed and innate. Other complex emotions include love, embarrassment, envy, gratitude, guilt, pride, and worry, among many others.

Complex emotions vary greatly in how they appear on a person's face and don't have easily recognizable expressions. Grief looks quite different between cultures and individuals. Some complex emotions, such as jealousy, may have no accompanying facial expression at all.

Theories of Emotion

As we've explored, emotion is multifaceted and debatable. Thus, many theories of emotion exist. While some theories directly refute others, many build upon each other. Here are some common theories of emotional psychology that have helped shape the field and how humans view emotions.

James-Lange Theory

The James-Lange Theory of Emotion is one of the earliest emotion theories of modern psychology. Developed by William James and Carl Lange in the 19th century, the theory hypothesizes that physiological stimuli (arousal) causes the autonomic nervous system to react which in turn causes individuals to experience emotion. The reactions of the nervous system could include a fast heartbeat, tensed muscles, sweating and more. According to this theory, the physiological response comes before the emotional behavior. Over time, the James-Lange theory has been challenged, as well as expanded upon in other theories, suggesting that emotion is the mix of physiological and psychological response.

Facial-Feedback Theory

The Facial-Feedback Theory of Emotion suggests that facial expressions are crucial to experiencing emotion. This theory is connected to the work of Charles Darwin and William James that hypothesized that facial expressions impact emotion as opposed to their being a response to an emotion. This theory holds that emotions are directly tied to physical changes in the facial muscles. Thus, someone who forced himself to smile would be happier than someone who wore a frown.

Cannon-Bard Theory

Developed by Walter Cannon and Philip Bard in the 1920s, the Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion was developed to refute the James-Lange theory. This theory posits that bodily changes and emotions occur simultaneously instead of one right after the other. This theory is backed by neurobiological science that says that the once a stimulating event is detected, the information is relayed to both the amygdala and the brain cortex at the same time. If this holds true, arousal and emotion are a simultaneous event.

Schachter-Singer Theory

This theory, developed by Stanley Schachter and Jerome E. Singer, introduces the element of reasoning into the process of emotion. The theory hypothesizes that when we experience an event that causes physiological arousal, we try to find a reason for the arousal. Then, we experience the emotion.

Cognitive Appraisal Theory

Richard Lazarus pioneered this theory of emotion. According to the Cognitive Appraisal Theory, thinking must occur before experiencing emotion. Thus, a person would first experience a stimulus, think, and then simultaneously experience a physiological response and the emotion.

These are far from the only theories of emotion that exist, but they provide great examples of how the ideas about how emotion is generated differ from each other. What all theories of emotion have in common is the idea that an emotion is based off some sort of personally significant stimulus or experience, prompting a biological and psychological reaction.

Benefits of Understanding Emotions

As discussed, emotions have helped humans evolve and survive. According to Ekman, who developed the wheel of emotion, "It would be very dangerous if we didn't have emotions. It would also be a very dull life. Because, basically, our emotions drive us - excitement, pleasure, even anger." That is why it's important that we're able to understand emotions as they play such an important role in how we behave.

Ekman argues that emotions are fundamentally constructive. They are influenced by what is good for our species overall and what we learned during our upbringing. They guide our behavior in a way that should lead us to a positive outcome. However, emotions can become destructive if the emotions we've learned are the correct response no longer fit our situation, or if subconscious emotions cause reactions that we are unable to understand. Being in touch with your emotions and turning your understanding into action is called emotional awareness. Being able to do this with others as well is referred to as emotional intelligence.

Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive, control and evaluate emotions. The term was first coined by researchers Peter Salovey and John D. Mayer and found popularity through Dan Goleman's 1996 book. They define it as the ability to recognize, understand and manage our own emotions as well as recognize, understand and influence those of others. The study of emotional intelligence has gained much popularity since the mid-1990s, with business professionals, relationship coaches and more using the term to encourage others to improve their lives. Many researchers believe that emotional intelligence can be improved over time, while some argue that it's a trait we're born with or without.

The components of emotional intelligence include:

Appraising and expressing emotions in the self and others: Recognizing or expressing verbal or nonverbal cues about emotion

Regulating emotion in the self and others: Managing emotions so that all parties are motivated towards a positive outcome.

Using emotions in adaptive ways: Using emotion and the interpretation of emotions to result in positive outcomes.

Those who have emotional intelligence open themselves to positive and negative emotional experiences, identify the emotions and communicate those emotions appropriately. Emotionally intelligent people can use their understanding of their emotions and the emotions of others to move toward personal and social growth. Those with low emotional intelligence may unable to understand and control their emotions or those of others. This could leave others feeling badly when they don't understand their emotions, feelings, or expressions.

Clearly, there are personal and professional benefits to improving your emotional intelligence. In Forbes, Co-Chair of Nobel Peace prize-nominated campaign and New York Times best-selling author Chade-Meng Tan addressed the benefits of improving emotional intelligence. He pointed out that high emotional intelligence correlates with better work performance, makes people better leaders and creates the conditions for personal happiness. He stated, "There are also compelling personal benefits, and the most basic of those occur in three categories: calmness and clarity of mind, resilience and more satisfying relationships."

Emotional intelligence plays a role in overall success much like traditional intelligence. In fact, some researchers argue that it plays a bigger role. In his 1995 book "Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ," psychologist Daniel Goleman introduced the idea of an EQ. Much like an IQ, an EQ is a measurement for individuals' emotional intelligence aptitude. Goleman argues that EQ counts twice as much as IQ and technical skills combined when it comes to becoming successful.

Whether or not that is true is certainly debatable, but emotional intelligence has served humans well throughout our evolution and history. It played a role long before it was officially defined, and likely will for years to come.

The Future of Emotional Psychology

While numerous studies and robust research about emotions has already been done, the field of emotional psychology undoubtedly has an exciting future. From artificial intelligence to new challenges to long-held theories, there's no telling what our understanding of humans and their emotional responses will be.

If you want to join the ranks of those studying emotions, consider an online bachelor's degree in psychology. A bachelor's degree from the University of West Alabama will give you a foundation in experimental design and data analysis.

Already have a bachelor's degree? Further your psychology career with an online masters in experimental psychology. Our experienced faculty have Ph.D.s in diverse areas of experimental psychology. The connections you make and the skills you learn will prepare you for employment in the field or further study.

Earn your degree entirely online at one of the state's most affordable institutions. Our culturally and intellectually diverse institution and flexible structure allow you to challenge yourself while still fitting education into your busy lifestyle. We proudly provide all our students with personal support from application to graduation.

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The Science of Emotion: Exploring the Basics of Emotional Psychology | UWA Online

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How we interpret and respond to the world around us makes up who we are and contributes to our quality of life. The study of emotional psychology allows researchers to dive into what makes humans react as they do to certain stimuli and how those reactions affect us both physically and mentally.

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The intersetion between emotions and memory - Elizabeth Phelps

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Influences of Emotion on Learning and Memory

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The first version of the CRAAP Test by Sarah Blakeslee

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Kruger-Dunning Effect

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Learn how the brain can rewire itself after an injury.

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This report arises from Science of Learning Fellowships funded by the International Brain Research Organization (IBRO) in partnership with the International Bureau of Education (IBE) of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The IBRO/IBE-UNESCO Science of Learning Fellowship aims to support and translate key neuroscience research on learning and the brain to educators, policy makers, and governments.
Executive summary
Our brain is plastic-which means the brain changes its connectivity and even its structure in response to learning.

Our first learning experiences are foundational for our later education, and experiences in the early years of life can greatly impact later achievement.

Waves of overproduction and pruning back of brain connections occur until late adolescence, making childhood a special time for learning.

Our biology does not set a defined limit to what we can achieve. The plasticity of a student's brain means the student and their teacher play an important role in constructing it.

Although younger brains are more plastic, our brains remain plastic throughout our lifetime, supporting our lifelong learning ability.

Understanding plasticity is important for students and teachers. Our brain shapes our learning, but learning shapes our brain.

What is plasticity?
Most of our entire stock of neurons (~86 billion) are created prior to our birth. After birth, huge changes in the connectivity between neurons occurs over childhood and beyond. These connectivity changes are an important example of what is referred to as the brain's plasticity-i.e., its ability to change. These changes are important from an educational point of view because, from the earliest years, there is an important two-way interaction between an individual's learning experiences and their brain's changing connectivity and structure. In other words, our brain shapes our ability to learn, and learning shapes our brain.

Two important types of plasticity have been identified ¹:

1 · Experience-expectant plasticity involves the overproduction of connections (or "synapses") between neurons in different regions of the brain around particular times during development. These connections are then organised and pruned back by expected or typical/common experiences. Both overproduction and pruning help "tune" basic functions during development, including vision, movement, language, and socio-emotional response (see Figure 1). The overproduction and pruning occur first in regions related to the most primary functions (e.g., vision and hearing). Brain regions that serve higher-order thinking processes develop more slowly, reaching their maximum number of connections at preschool, while their pruning back can continue in regions key for reasoning and learning late into the teenage years.

Deprived conditions in the early years can impact negatively in terms of experience-expectant plasticity. This was demonstrated by findings from the Bucharest Early Intervention Project. Here, children were randomly allocated to foster carers having suffered early institutional deprivation in Romania, which did not provide a species-typical experience in terms of sensory stimulation, touch, speech, and personal caregiving. Children formed insecure attachments, knew only a third of the number of words, and produced less brain activity than children reared in family environments ⁸⁻¹². There also appeared a time constraint, after which remediation of attachment and cognitive development by foster care was less likely (24 months)-which points to sensitive periods of development being involved.

Most of what we understand of sensitive periods relates to infancy, but given the structural changes occurring throughout childhood, later ones are likely 13,14.

2 · Experience-dependent plasticity involves the change or production of new connections based on experiences that would never be expected to be common to all children. These include culturally-specific skills, such as reading, writing, and mathematics. Sensitive periods are not usually associated with this type of plasticity. Plasticity has been studied in a region of the brain called the hippocampus (see Figure 2). This region should be of particular interest to educators since it has a crucial role in learning and memory. Education requires a vast amount of information to be committed to memory. This type of information first arrives at the hippocampus where it is converted into a form for storage in regions across the brain.

In short, scientific understanding of the role of sensitive periods is incomplete, and their role may be restricted to significant levels of disadvantage. Still, there is already a biological basis for emphasising the importance of a child's educational experience from the earliest years. This helps understand why early care, education, and experience appear so foundational to later learning and development. While academic and cognitive benefits of extra investment in the early years can sometimes fade with time, some long-term benefits can persist, such as improved rates of high school graduation and decreased teenage parenthood and criminality ²². From the early years, the quality of the learning experience is a major factor in determining later outcomes 23,24. Indeed, early economic models based on a "learning begets learning" principle (where learning leads to greater ability to learn) show earlier is generally better for investing in children's education ²⁵⁻²⁷. However, one should be careful with the simple idea "learning begets learning," since it can suggest that less is returned from those who have suffered the least investment. In reality, a consistent message from the research has emphasised the particular importance of preschool and early years education for the disadvantaged. Maturation of abilities occurs at different times during development ¹⁴, and more sophisticated economic models have attempted to reflect this. This research shows early investment still provides the greatest economic return, but it also confirms that this would be greatest for the least advantaged ²⁸. Interestingly, the research also shows the later adolescent years may benefit more from interventions aimed at noncognitive skills iii, which aligns with suggestions of a sensitive period during adolescence for identity formation ²⁹.
Why does the message of plasticity matter in education? Lifelong plasticity References

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i Current knowledge of sensitive periods is mostly restricted to primary functions (sensory, motor, etc.) that develop early. There are no sensitive periods for maths, reading, etc.-these are complex abilities that draw on multiple types of basic cognitive function. Even the idea that sensitive periods are involved with age-of-acquisition effects for 2nd language learning is controversial. For example, this may be better considered as a reduction general plasticity of the brain and/or accumulation effects (i.e., the sooner you start the more you learn).

ii This process requires social interaction-it does not occur simply from, for example, having the TV or radio broadcast a foreign language.

iii Cognitive skills include abilities such as reasoning, memory, IQ, etc., while noncognitive skills include those more associated with traits such as self-motivation, attitude, sociability, etc.

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IBE - Science of learning portal - The plastic brain

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Scientists are discovering how our brain shapes our ability to learn, and how learning shapes our brain.

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Training the Brain: Practical Applications of Neural Plasticity From the Intersection of Cognitive Neuroscience, Developmental Psychology, and Prevention Science

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Prior researchers have shown that the brain has a remarkable ability for adapting to environmental changes. The positive effects of such neural plasticity include enhanced functioning in specific cognitive domains and shifts in cortical…

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Cog Neuro Per on Motivation and Learning  Revisiting