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(PreK-5)

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Museum

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North Saint Paul

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Minneapolis

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Over 125 stores including 11 restaurants.

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17 restaurants, over 10 farmers markets & more than 100 merchandise stores.

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Annual Hmong International Freedom Festival (J4)

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Annual Hmong International Freedom Festival (J4)

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Usually the first or second weekend of July, depending on when the fourth of July is.
Held in Saint Paul near the Como Zoo.

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2 Day Celebration
Highlights—traditional Hmong dance, music, crafts, vendors & more.
Traditionally held the weekend after Thanksgiving
Saint Paul RiverCentre

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The Hmong, were refugees, settled in Minnesota due to the actions of voluntary agencies. Minnesota had many active VOLAGS who helped Hmong people when they arrived.

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Hmong were political refugees fled their country because of war & persecutions.

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There are 2 main dialects of Hmong. Most Hmong Americans speak either white or green dialect.

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Link to an audio sample of the language:

Phrases flashcards Hmong white:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XJRL34jmRdI

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Hmong is an ethnic group, not a nationality.

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Green Hmong people can understand Hmong white, but White Hmong people cannot understand Hmong green.

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Link to an audio sample of the language:

Green Hmong:

https://youtu.be/Joa_f19m0EE

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Laos—Southeast Asia

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Thailand—Southeast Asia

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Vietnam—Southeast Asia

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China—Southeast Asia

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Myanmar (Burma)—Southeast Asia

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The Hmong people are indigenous to southern and central China, but are now found in many countries in Asia and elsewhere. In the 18th and 19th centuries, persecution and genocide by the Qing Dynasty drove many Hmong people to migrate south out of China to other countries in Southeast Asia. In the early 1960s during the North Vietnamese invasion of Laos during the Cold War, the US military recruited and trained Hmong soldiers to fight against North Vietnam. Starting after the Vietnam war in 1975, many Hmong people entered the US as refugees. Later on, more people and families were able to immigrate. Currently, the largest Hmong communities in the US are in California, Minnesota and Wisconsin.

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These are the three most widely used ways to write Hmong, but historically, other scripts were used as well. There are also new experimental Hmong scripts being developed, many of them in the Midwest. If you want more information, there are descriptions of each on this Wikipedia article.

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Hmong writing refers to the various writing systems that have been used for transcribing various Hmongic languages, spoken by Hmong people in China, Vietnam, Laos, the United States, and Thailand, these being the top five countries. Over a dozen scripts have been reported for Hmong, none of which is considered standard for transcribing the languages in the eyes of the speakers.

It is unknown whether a historic writing system existed for the Hmong. Several Hmong scripts have been noted in historical works, mostly in Chinese literature, as illustrated in the below sections. However, this evidence is disputed. For instance, according to Professor S. Robert Ramsey, there was no writing system among the Miao until the missionaries created them. Archaeologists are still searching for artifacts from periods of alleged Hmong literacy. These five scripts below are the most widely evidenced in primary literature sources:

From Chinese legends, the Nanman are largely considered to be the ancestors of the Hmong, also known as one of the "Four Barbarians" against the Huaxia, the ancestors of the Han. The Nanman lived originally in central-east China, but after battle losses and the expulsion of Chi You, who is allegedly considered a Godlike figure by the Hmong, the Nanman fled to the south. Different stories exist as to how their script and already encoded information disappeared: that the books were lost in a flood, that the Hmong had to eat the books as food due to the Chinese invasion, that they were eaten by other animals in their escapade from the Chinese, or that they had no way to cross the river without disposing of the books. All the stories have in common a loss of the books, water, and an invading Chinese tribe. This script has not been found.

In response to the Chinese invasion, the Hmong claim that they preserved their ancient writing system in the "flower cloth" of the women. This seems to be a common story in response to the deluge and loss of books in the aftermath of the alleged loss of the Nanman to the Huaxia. A modern script on the Internet known as the "Ancient Hmong Written System" claims to be a decipherment of this script, but no connection has been asserted from a neutral, reliable source.

It is unknown whether this script differs from that of the Nanman, but it is known that as far as the Qing dynasty, the Hmong used a writing system to record information. It is unclear for how long they used this script, as Han settlers largely moved into the southern regions of China (where the Hmong lived), only during the Ming and Qing dynasties. In attempts to coerce the Hmong, also known as the Miao, Hmong villages were burned and relics of Hmong culture were destroyed. Hmongs were also banned from transcribing their language, so it is not known whether any Hmong writing from the era remains or where it remains.

The "Book from Heaven" seems to be engraved in a Miao script, as reported in March 2012 from Shaoyang, Hunan. The Hunan Cultural Relic Department is reportedly investigating the script and any connections it may have. This may represent either the Qing script or the Nanman script, if dated, but any connections and authenticity are unclear.

A group of monuments across Southern China written in Chinese-looking characters are reported to be those of an "Old Miao script". A particular monument in Leigongshan, Guizhou has been found with a residual monument inscribing "This year is also a good year," and this is preserved in the Guizhou Provincial Museum. These characters are referred to in the Qing dynasty book, 洞溪纤志.

The Pollard script was published in 1922 by Sam Pollard for writing A-Hmao, a Hmongic language in Sichuan, China. Published sources seem to indicate that the use of the script was widespread amongst Hmong in Sichuan; however, its use is waning, although it is held in esteem by Hmong of the Christian community and by elders. The current extent of its use is unknown.

Pahawh Hmong is one of the most successful indigenous scripts to have ever been created by illiterates. It was created by Shong Lue Yang, who was born in 1930 to a farmer. He was seen by the Hmong people as a "Chao Fa," or "Lord of the Sky," which makes him akin to the son of God in Hmong culture. He has a long history that began with the receipt of a divine mandate from the deity "Va", of whom he proclaimed he was the son. He apparently was visited in an isolated round house by two men from God, who taught him the script over the course of 60 days. When he came out and taught people the script, it gained a widespread following. However, two political problems emerged. First, both the French government and the Lao government began to view him with enmity as a result of his influence. Second, due to the military success of Pa Chai's followers, these governments began to associate him with a military agenda, even though none is known to have existed. Thus, he was assassinated in 1971. His script survived through his followers, however, and he even created a script called Pahawh Khmu for the Khmu language.

This script, known as the Romanized Popular Alphabet, was developed from 1951 to 1953 under the auspices of Yves Bertrais, G. Lindwood Barney, and William A. Smalley, and who were Christian missionaries working in the area. Due to the widespread existence of the Roman script, in the United States, this script remains the most widely adopted among Hmong diaspora. It is also widely used on the Internet. However, controversy surrounding the script includes its representation of consonants in clusters, where many Hmong argue that the consonants are distinct and should not be represented in clusters of two or three. It is gaining popularity in China, but it is relatively disdained by speakers of Hmong Leng. It is seen as a more "pragmatic" solution to Hmong writing but a less "faithful" solution, as Hmongs hold Shong Lue Yang, and less indicative of a Hmong "identity."

Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong script was used in the 1980s by United Christians Liberty Evangelical Church, a church founded by Reverend Chervang Kong Vang, which moved around California, Minnesota, Wisconsin, North Carolina, Colorado, and many other states. Initially, it was not as widely accepted outside of the members of the church. The script seems to bear strong resemblance to the Lao alphabet in structure and form and characters inspired from the Hebrew alphabets, although the characters themselves are different. The Unicode proposal for this script uses the name 'Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong script'. This script has been used by members of the United Christians Liberty Evangelical church in America for more than 25 years, in printed material and videos. It is reported to have some use in Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, France, and Australia. On March 5, 2019, Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong Script was officially published into the Unicode Standard version 12.0 with a total of 71 characters in the Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong Unicode block.

This is an alphabet that was used, at the very least, by Hmong residents of Sainyabuli Province (the script's namesake) in Laos, who came to a UN Refugee Camp in Chiang Kham, Thailand, as a result of the Vietnam War. It is called by anthropologists as "Ntawv Puaj Txwm.", which means "original writing." Nine volumes of texts reported to be 700-800 years old were handed over by Ga Va Her to Nina Wimuttikosol, an officer that Her had befriended while in the camp. Allegedly, these writings had been revealed by the Hmong deity La Bi Mi Nu, and the information in these manuscripts was then transcribed. Wimuttikosol gave it to Jacques Lemoine, a known French anthropologist in the field. It has a set of unusual features, which if discovered to be original, could dramatically alter the field of Hmong research. It is not known how much further research is currently being undertaken. The preliminary Unicode proposal for this script uses the name 'Eebee Hmong script'. It is used to write the Hmong Daw (White Hmong) dialect that is commonly spoken in Laos and in the United States.

Pa Chai was a leader of the Hmong in the early twentieth century. He was seen as the "Chao Fa" of the Hmong people before Shong Lue Yang, although his power was not as far-reaching. He was a leader in the movement against the French colonial empire, and one day, he was taken to the "Lord of the Sky and the Earth," known in Hmong as Lub Ntuj Lub Teb. He received a mandate to lead the Hmong people to change their way of life and develop a new writing system, and it is said that after he returned, he displayed magical powers. These manifested in the form of two years of successful resistance against the French. Apparently, although Pa Chai had instructed his people not to attack the Lao, they did, and this caused him to lose his supposed mandate, which caused the Hmong to begin losing, and in due course, in 1921, he was killed, ending the "War of the Insane", as it was known to the French. As Shong Lue was the next "Chao Fa," this alleged militant intention constantly hung over Shong Lue's head, which contributed to the acceleration of Shong Lue's defamation, mystery, and assassination. Pa Chai's script has reasonable success, with villagers reporting that they had seen Pa Chai's script, encoded laws, and writing methods during the French colonial rule. It is unknown what has survived.

This was a French version of the Hmong alphabet developed by Father Savina during French colonization of Indochina. Rather than resembling Ntour Hmongz (Hmong Vietnamese) or Ntawv Hmoob (RPA), it uses tone symbols, like Quốc ngữ writing used for Vietnamese today. It may have been in use before independence, but its use since has waned. Hmong people living in Vietnam may be using a form of this inadvertently in writing Hmong based on Vietnamese.

This alphabet, published in 1939 by missionary Homera Homer-Dixon for the Hmong Leng, was never particularly popular, but was similar to Savina's romanization in many respects. The main differences involve the closer use of Quốc ngữ writing, with an analogous convention of indicating tones with diacritics, as opposed to using tone letters, as in RPA systems. This script remains unused.

This was a Romanized style of writing Hmongic languages in Vietnam. It bears resemblance to the Quốc ngữ writing used for Vietnamese today, but uses the tone letters, in similarity to RPA. This Vietnamese RPA script is only known to a few in Vietnam, predominantly of Christian faith, and it is thought that it will not be in use for much longer.

This refers to the set of Hmong scripts that are based on the Lao alphabet, primarily used for transcribing the Green and White varieties of Hmong. Two versions are thought to have been initially developed. The first version was developed by Lor Fong, the brother of Hmong leader Fai Dang Lor, in 1948. After a meeting held by General Vang Pao at Long Tieng in 1964, a revised version was developed by Christian missionaries. It was used extensively in Laos before the communist takeover; however, its influence and use has waned. Apparently, people who are literate in Lao will not find too much trouble in reading and writing the script.

It is known that there was a distinct Hmong Lao script supported by the Kingdom of Laos, and one supported by the Pathet Lao communists. The connection between the Pathet Lao-supported script and the script designed by Lor Fong, is not very clear, however. Since Fai Dang Lor is a known communist supporter, and since Vang Pao is a known supporter of the Royal Lao government, the selection and revision of the Hmong Lao script described in the previous paragraph is unclear in allegiance. If the Lor Fong script is indeed the Pathet Lao-supported script, there may only be one or two scripts that were created. If the Lor Fong script is the royalist-accepted script, then there may have been up to three Hmong Lao scripts created. Yet, as the Pathet Lao has been accused of widespread genocide of the Hmong people in coordination with the North Vietnamese armies, the Hmong Lao script remains widely unaccepted. Nonetheless, the contemporary system of transcribing Hmong in Lao may inadvertently still use a form of this script.

This represents two scripts designed by Doris Whitelock, a missionary in the area during the 1960s and 1970s. She first developed a Thai-based system for writing Hmong in the 1960s. However, the Thai system was never widely used, even though Hmong people may be unconsciously be using a similar system in Thailand today. In the 1970s she developed a Lao-based system; however, this became the subject of widespread criticism, as it was considered a "Lao counterfeit," and so was not adopted by the Hmong people of Laos. While neither system became popular, both are still used to an extent by missionaries working in Thailand and Laos, and people who can read the scripts may still exist.

This system was published in 1932 by a Vietnamese missionary, C. K. Trung. The system uses Thai characters but reorients the system to fit the Hmong Leng language more closely. The system reportedly never gained much of a following.

In 1912, in Sichuan, a French officer named d'Ollone is said to have discovered some members of the Miao people reading and writing using Chinese characters, but they were allegedly very secretive about this script's existence and many members of the community vehemently denied it.

A vast majority of experimental scripts are based in the United States of America, specifically in the Midwest, where there is a relatively large population of Hmong refugees, primarily from Laos and Vietnam.

This was developed by Cher Ze Xiong, who died in May 2013 in Chicago. He allegedly developed the script in the 1950s while still in Laos. His script is distinct in that he uses left radicals, as in Chinese, to indicate the meaning of the words, with right radicals, or syllables, to indicate the pronunciation. In this way, it represents a fusion of Chinese and Pallava-based alphasyllabaries. It is not known if anyone else could read the script.

This script was developed by Ian James for writing Hmong Daw and Hmong Njua. It is based on Pallava script, from which a vast majority of scripts in Southeast Asia descend. He reportedly intended to represent what Hmong 'would have looked like' had Hmong followed the same evolutionary descent from Pallava.

This script was developed by Tchuyi Vang in St. Paul, Minnesota, in the 1990s. It is called Ntawv Neej Hmoob, or "Hmong Life Script" by the author. It allegedly includes influences of the Chinese language.

This script has appeared over the Internet as the "Ancient Hmong Written Language" and is allegedly the reading guide to the Pa Ntau flower cloths referenced historically. It is, however, only being promoted in America, and based on Internet testimony, there seems to be Hmong schools in the United States who teach it in official settings, and Hmong female adults who teach it to their kids. Whether or not this transcription does represent the true transcription of the flower cloth is currently unverified by reliable, neutral sources.

This script supposedly contains consonants and vowels in the form of clan names, but this script has not properly been attributed in languages other than RPA Hmong, so international information is scarce. This script, however, is established enough to have a keyboard. Use of the keyboard is unknown. Additionally, its relationship to the purported Flower Cloth script mentioned above needs to be explored in greater depth, as the forms and strokes of characters in the two scripts bear some resemblance.

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Hmong writing refers to the various writing systems that have been used for transcribing various Hmongic languages, spoken by Hmong people in China, Vietnam, Laos, the United States, and Thailand, these being the top five countries. Over a dozen scripts have been reported for Hmong, none of which is considered standard for transcribing the languages in the eyes of the speakers.

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Political and Historical Facts
- Indigenous to China
- Migrated south to other Southeast Asian countries after the Qing Dynasty perpetuated the genocide and persecution of the Hmong people in the 17th-19th centuries
- Lived primarily as self-sufficient farmers in the mountainous regions of countries such as Laos and Vietnam
- Recruited by the CIA and the US military in the 1960s to fight against the communist regimes in North Vietnam and Laos
- After the Vietnam War, these regimes persecuted and killed many Hmong people
- Hmong refugees began coming to the US in 1975 (primarily to Minnesota, Wisconsin and California) and many settled permanently
Religion
- The traditional Hmong religion is Shamanism, which includes beliefs in spirits, ancestor worship and healers (shamans and others)
- Hmong religious and cultural beliefs are often intertwined- often even Hmong Christians practice some traditional Hmong shamanist traditions
- Life events such as births, weddings and deaths are very important in Hmong culture
- Hmong religious rituals typically take place in the home
Resources to learn more:
https://religionsmn.carleton.edu/exhibits/show/hmong-religiosity/hmong-shamanism/what-is-hmong-shamanism-
https://www.hmongamericancenter.org/hmong-history/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hmong_people

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In 1973 at the end of the Vietnam War, the communist regimes in Laos and North Vietnam were victorious. These regimes began targeting Hmong people, because the US had recruited Hmong men to aid them in the war effort. The Hmong people were hunted down and put in concentration camps, and their homes and farmlands were destroyed. 35,000 people, around 10% of the Hmong population in Laos, are estimated to have died in the Vietnam War or in its wake. Hmong people then began to come to the US as refugees, where many settled permanently.

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The Hmong migrated from southern China in the nineteenth century to the mountainous areas of Laos, Vietnam and Thailand. During the Vietnam War the Hmong worked with the American CIA in the "secret war" in Laos, and therefore were forced to flee their homeland after the victory of the communists. After spending time in refugee camps in Thailand, many Hmong settled in a third country including Australia, France, Canada, Germany and the United States.

Have you ever wondered what life was like for a typical Hmong family in Laos? The Hmong people were farmers, most living in small villages high in the mountains. After helping the American CIA during the Vietnam War, the Hmong people were forced to flee for their lives. The old way of life was very different from their new way of life.

There are only two seasons in Laos, the rainy season and the dry season. It is warm year around. Homes and other buildings are made of bamboo and wood. There is no electricity for the mountain people, no machinery, and no roads. The Hmong walk to their farms and carry home the produce. All work is done by hand. They grow and make everything needed to sustain the family. They were independent self-sufficient people.

The Hmong In Wisconsin
Who are the Hmong?
The Hmong are an ethnic group of people with specific language and culture. The Hmong originally came from China with over 4,000 years of history. Some Hmong left China to Vietnam, Laos, Thailand and Burma beginning in the early 1800's as a result of land expansion by the Chinese government. Since 1975, after the U.S. pulled out of South Vietnam, thousands of Hmong have moved out of Laos to seek asylum in many European and Western countries including Australia, France, Canada, Germany, and the United States. According to the 2010 U.S. Census, there were about 260,000 Hmong Americans living in the United States, with the majority living in the states of California, Minnesota and Wisconsin.
What were the Hmong's roles with the U.S. during the Vietnam War?
In the early 1960's, the U.S. CIA sought out the Hmong and recruited them to fight a "secret war" against the North Vietnamese and the communist Pathet Lao. The Hmong played many critical roles under the directions of the U.S. CIA, including harassing the communists on the Ho Chi Minh Trail, providing intelligence about enemy operations, guarding U.S. strategic radar installation, and rescuing down American pilots.

After the war in 1973, the Hmong were singled out by the victorious communist governments of Laos and Vietnam. The Hmong were hunted down, taken to concentration camps, put into hard labor and persecuted. Their villages were sprayed with chemical weapons and bombed with napalm. It is estimated that more than 10% (35,000) of the entire Hmong population in Laos died as a result of the war and its aftermath. Many who survived suffered physically, mentally, and emotionally until this day.
Why are the Hmong in Wisconsin?
Unlike past immigrant groups, the Hmong were political refugees who fled their country because of war and persecutions. The Hmong refugees were legally admitted to the United States by the U.S. government and were initially resettled by church organizations such as Catholic Charities and Lutheran Social Service. Area churches sponsored Hmong families here in Wisconsin and other states in the U.S. The 2010 U.S. Census has shown that there are 49,240 Hmong Americans living in Wisconsin. Community with significant Hmong population include: Milwaukee, Wausau, Sheboygan, La Crosse, Madison, Eau Claire, Green Bay, Appleton, Oshkosh, Manitowoc, Stevens Point, Wisconsin Rapids, Menomonie, and Fond du Lac.

Hmong culture places great importance on the family. Most Hmong move to Wisconsin from other states to join with families, relatives, and clan leaders. Wisconsin also provides opportunities for Hmong families struggling to create a new life in the United States. Wisconsin cities offer a peaceful and healthy lifestyle as well as educational opportunities for both children and adults. Furthermore, Wisconsin provides agricultural opportunities such as farming and gardening for many Hmong families.
Do the Hmong want to integrate into American society?
The Hmong are integrating into American society. They are making great strides during the past 37 years. A significant number of Hmong are graduating from high schools and colleges. 95% of all able body Hmong-Americans are participating in the local workforce. Nearly 70% of all Hmong families have become homeowners. In addition, a growing number of Hmong families are starting businesses such as grocery stores, restaurants, specialty stores, and small manufacturing companies.

For the most part, Hmong children are doing well in schools. An increasing number of Hmong high school graduates have gone on to colleges or universities. Many have graduated from college and are returning to the community to work and serve as bridges between the Hmong and the larger communities.

The majority of Hmong have become U.S. citizens. The Hmong-Americans are getting more involved in the community, and generally doing the varied things that one would expect in any community. In essence, they have become productive and contributing members of the community.
How are the Hmong involved in hunting and the outdoors?
Traditionally, Hmong have always enjoyed the outdoors. Hunting and fishing have always been a part of the Hmong's way of life. In Wisconsin, there are thousands of Hmong participating in fishing, hunting and other outdoor activities each year. Hmong are friendly and respectful people. They will treat other people with courtesy and respect and expect the same treatment from others.
Are there more Hmong coming to the United States?
There are no more Hmong coming to Wisconsin or the U.S. The last group of Hmong refugee families that came to the United States was between 2004 and 2006. The U.S. government has no plan to bring additional Hmong refugees to this country. The Thai government has repatriated most Hmong refugees in Thailand back to Laos. In December 2009, more than 4,500 Hmong refugees in Thailand were returned to Laos. There was fear that the Lao communist government might imprison or even persecute Hmong leaders and men who were returned because of their roles during the Vietnam War under the U.S. CIA and their resistance against the communist Lao government after the war.
How can Wisconsin residents learn more about their Hmong neighbors?
The best way to know more about the Hmong is to learn more about them and why they came to Wisconsin. Local Hmong organizations can provide more information and presentations about the Hmong to community groups or businesses.

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The Hmong migrated from southern China in the nineteenth century to the mountainous areas of Laos, Vietnam and Thailand. During the Vietnam War the Hmong worked with the American CIA in the "secret war" in Laos, and therefore were forced to flee their homeland after the victory of the communists.

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Traditionally, the Hmong religion is animistic, based on a belief in spirits, souls and ancestor worship. Traditional beliefs place great importance on shamans and other healers. Hmong beliefs are fairly heterogeneous, especially because many Hmong people in the US practice Christianity as well. However,  Hmong culture and religious beliefs place a lot of importance on family and the home. For many Hmong people, their cultural identity as Hmong and their religious belief in shamanism are intertwined. One Hmong man surveyed by Carleton College here in Minnesota said that he "[did] not see Hmong Shamanism as a religion, but simply as a way of life."
Important Hmong rituals surround life events, such as birth, weddings and deaths, and healing rituals are also important. These practices take place in private houses, not in a temple or church like many other religions. Hmong weddings are seen as a union of two families, and are traditionally taken very seriously and take two days to complete.
This was just a simple introduction to Hmong beliefs. If you want to read more about Hmong spirituality, the website I used to write this section is https://religionsmn.carleton.edu/exhibits/show/hmong-religiosity/hmong-religiosity-and-shamanis
and it contains more detailed information.

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Hmong Religiosity and Shamanism in the Twin Cities · Hmong Religiosity and Shamanism In The Twin Cities · Religions in Minnesota

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“Without Hmong Religiosity, we will just become another Asian face.” – Paj Ntaub Lee, txiv neeb/shaman

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Hmong is primarily spoken in two dialects by Hmong Americans, green and white. Although they differ in some aspects, two people speaking different dialects can communicate easily.

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Hmong have a native religion that involves animism and shamanism, but Buddhism and Christianity are practiced by some.
PBS - THE SPLIT HORN: Hmong Rituals

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Soul-Calling
The Hmong religion is traditionally animist (animism is the belief in the spirit world and in the interconnectedness of all living things). At the center of Hmong culture is the Txiv Neeb, the shaman (literally, "father/master of spirits"). According to Hmong cosmology, the human body is the host for a number of souls. The isolation and separation of one or more of these souls from the body can cause disease, depression and death. Curing rites are therefore referred to as "soul-calling rituals". Whether the soul became separated from the body because it was frightened away or kidnapped by an evil force, it must return in order to restore the integrity of life.

Soul-Calling: The Seed Ceremony
In THE SPLIT HORN, shaman Paja Thao is worried that his family is drifting away from Hmong traditions. This causes him concern, so he arranges a special seed ceremony to see if his family's souls have wandered.

The Trance
A shaman is transported to another world via a "flying horse," a wooden bench usually no wider than the human body. The bench acts as a form of transportation to the other world. Buffalo horn tips are thrown to the ground to determine which way the soul has gone. The shaman wears a cloth mask while he or she is reaching a trance state. The mask not only blocks out the real world, so the shaman can concentrate, but also acts as a disguise from evil spirits in the spirit world. During episodes when shamans leap onto the flying horse bench, assistants will often help them to balance. It is believed that if a shaman falls down before his soul returns to his body, he or she will die.

String-Tying
One way in which a shaman returns the soul to the body is through a string-tying ritual. White, red, black or blue strings are tied to shield the person from evil spirits in the form of sickness. These strings signifying the binding up and holding intact of the life-souls.

The String-Tying Ritual
When Paja and his wife became sick and depressed, he asked his aunt, a shaman, to perform a healing ceremony for them. During this ceremony, strings are tied around their wrists to restore their souls to their bodies.

The Hmong Funeral
When a Hmong dies, his or her soul must travel back to every place the person lived until it reaches the burial place of its placenta. Only after the soul is properly dressed in the "placental jacket" can it travel on to be reunited with ancestors and to be reincarnated as the soul of a new baby. The Hmong revere their elders, and believe that anyone who is not accorded the proper funerary rites - being washed, dressed in special clothes, honored with animal sacrifices, verbally guided back to where the placenta is buried, lamented with musical instruments and laid to rest will have a lost, naked and wandering soul. Funeral rituals often last three to four days.

The Chicken Crows:
A Funeral Ritual
During funeral rituals of the Thaos' relative Uncle Por, family members sacrifice a chicken for Por to carry on his journey to find his ancestors.

Animal Sacrifice
Shaman attempt to heal illnesses through offerings to the spirits, such as with meals or with a sacrifice of a chicken, pig, cow or other animal. In Hmong culture, the souls of sacrificial animals are connected to human souls. Therefore a shaman uses an animal's soul to support or protect his patient's soul. Often healing rituals are capped by a communion meal, where everyone attending the ritual partakes of the sacrificed animal who has been prepared into a meal. The event is then ended with the communal sharing of a life that has been sacrificed to mend a lost soul.

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Soul-Calling The Hmong religion is traditionally animist (animism is the belief in the spirit world and in the interconnectedness of all living things). At the center of Hmong culture is the Txiv Neeb, the shaman (literally, "father/master of spirits"). According to Hmong cosmology, the human body is the host for a number of souls.

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HMONG ABC

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Gary Yia Lee | Hmong Anthropologist

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Gary Yia Lee is a Hmong anthropologist and author based in Sydney, Australia. Born in Xieng Khouang, Laos, in 1949. Gary received his Ph.D. in Social Anthropology/ Community Development, from the University of Sydney, Australia, in 1981.

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Hmong Contemporary Issues: Topic Index

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hmong contemporary issues culture history women diaspora kao-ly yang problematic literature arts pictures photo scholar research studies problems

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Topic Index Page. Trilingual website in English, French and Hmong with stories, poems, essays, and analyses on the Hmong issues. This website has been existing since 2002.

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Many Hmong refugees have had little to no formal education. For those past the critical age of language acquisition, this can make learning written language difficult. Additionally, Hmong language did not enter written form until the 1950. Young Hmong students may be learning to write both their native language and English. 10vang.pmd (ed.gov)