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Pollution, what is it and why is it harmful?
Pollution is the introduction of chemicals to nature. Some chemicals may not be harmful to humans but it poses as a  threat to mother nature.

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Deforestation is the cutting of trees in a large area usually make way for the construction of roads, buildings and infrastructures or agriculture and animal grazing. Wood is also a good source for fuel, manufacturing and construction materials. Because wood can be used for many different things, sometimes, humans cut trees without permit from the government making the damage to the area unlimited. There are a lot of drawbacks to deforestation. Animals lose habitat, soil erosion will take place, flooding, but most importantly the increase of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere. This will undoubtedly cause climate change.

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Greenhouse gasses trap heat inside the planet causing climate change and it has already affected many species including humans. Greenhouse gasses include Methane, Nitrous Oxide, Industrial gasses namely Hydrofluorocarbons, Perfluorocarbons, Sulfur hexafluoride, Nitrogen trifluoride lastly, Carbon Dioxide. Major causes of greenhouse gasses include; The burning of fossil fuels that are used to produce energy, deforestation, Industrial waste and landfills, depletion of the ozone layer, air pollution, acidification of liquid bodies, etc.

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Plastic is mass produced because it is used worldwide. Plastic is almost in every man-made material. It can indeed be useful but because it is mass produced humans abuse the fact that it's difficult to run out of plastic. Plastic is thrown everywhere and there is approximately 400 Million tonnes of plastic waste per year. Plastic is both thrown on water and land and only sometimes burned. Marine wildlife is harmed in the process, their habitats filled with waste, intoxicating them. Soil can eat organic matter and it can prove to be useful to earth, fattening the soil, making it rich and capable of producing life. however inorganic matter like plastic can be extremely difficult for soil to digest. It can take even years or decades for it to fully disappear which makes the earth vulnerable to damage while plastic is in the soil. And in the cases of burning the plastic, if you think that this method would be the best, burning plastic produces chemicals in the air, specifically black carbon (soot) that contributes to air-pollution and climate change. Plastic not only harms the earth but also it's living organisms and think about it, once the planet is out of health everything living in it dies with it,.

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ijSzWxet49o
SOURCE: YouTube, Fully Charged Plus
DATE: Jun 22, 2020

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Air pollution in the modern world | Fully Charged Podcast

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https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/blog/pollution-environmental-public-service-announcements-look-back/
SOURCE&DATE: April 11, 2018 by Jennie Z. Rose in Beyond the Films

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In conjunction with the Independent Lens film What Lies Upstream, which is an exposé about what led to a major source of water becoming poisoned after a disastrous chemical spill and the government’s response thereto, take a trip down memory lane to look at how we used to warn people about pollution, chemicals, and other environmental hazards.

Ever wonder where the messages we call PSAs (public service announcements) come from? It’s a curious piece of broadcasting arcana. An agency called the War Advertising Council was created as a means to influence American society during World War II. Its name was later shortened to “Ad Council,” with all of its funding coming from government and nonprofits.

My digging showed that some of the funding behind the sponsorships of these PSAs exposes a little dirt. When the Clean Water Act (which helps protect drinking water for one-third of Americans) passed in 1972, we began to see an uptick in anti-pollution PSAs, particularly about water pollution. During this time, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, which is in the news again these days) released a series of ads to encourage consumers to take advantage of consumer confidence reports and other information about their drinking water.

It is during this era, alongside classic 1970s anti-drug campaigns (stay away from those creepy magicians, kids) and “Mr Yuk Is Mean” poison-prevention PSAs, we also find a surge in EPA-sponsored ads warning us not to get “duped” by “gas guzzlers.” We begin to hear the repetition of the following phrases: “Keeping America beautiful is your job”; “Stash your trash”; “Bit by bit, every litter bit hurts.”

Perhaps the best word to describe the tone of early environmental messaging is earnest. Stern voice-of-authority narration adds an especially vintage flavor.

Given what we now know about the current state of affairs at agencies that sponsor these PSAs, such as the EPA and the CDC, perspective on the messaging may feel different at the moment. “We are going to end the EPA intrusion into your lives,” said President Trump last February, signing an executive order calling for the EPA to review and roll back the Clean Water Rule.

But for now, let’s step back into the 1970s when….

… “CLEAN WATER IS EVERYONE’S NATURAL RIGHT”

This Clean water PSA  sponsored by the Coast Guard and a fiberglass company is unwittingly hilarious, especially considering how much more we now know about fiberglass as a source of toxic pollution.

One of the scariest water-related PSAs that we found isn’t anti-pollution, it’s anti-drowning. Which is something everyone of all political stripes can agree is bad. This is a British PSA voiced by creepy actor Donald Pleasance.

KEEP AMERICA BEAUTIFUL

This makes for a good segue into the “America the Beautiful” campaign. More widely known as the “Crying Indian” ad, this is the quintessential segment that deftly dodges corporate onus for chemical waste pollution.

The central crux of this message conveyed that the average American can and should shoulder the burden of caring for our lakes, rivers, streams, wetlands, and coastal areas.

What gave rise to the passing of the Clean Water Act in the first place was less about American citizens being sloppy with their soda cans and more about corporations like DuPont (now rebranded as Chemours) dropping thousands of tons of chemical waste into rivers; for example, in North Carolina.

But still, America the Beautiful insists that “Some people have a deep, abiding respect for the natural beauty that was once this country…” a deep voice scolds… “And some people don’t. People start pollution. People can stop it.” Which parallels the famous “Guns don’t kill people, people kill people” mantra of the NRA, but I digress.

IT’S ALRIGHT MA, IT’S ONLY DDT

This PSA harkens back to a time when chemical companies more brazenly wanted us to love and embrace their chemicals like the totally “harmless” DDT.  Hey kids, let’s enjoy our DDT! Why it’s so safe you can eat it.

DON’T MESS WITH TEXAS

No state of the union would not envy this campaign from the Texas Department of Transportation. Credited with reducing litter on Texas highways by roughly 72% over four years, road signs on major highways, television, radio and in print took the “Don’t Mess with Texas” stance. It all began with a series of bumper stickers and peaked at the premiere of a TV advertisement featuring the swagger of blues musician Stevie Ray Vaughan and The Fabulous Thunderbirds.

THE FINGER WAG

The 1970s brought about the era of what I like to call “the finger wag” PSA. These hammer home the message that it is individuals tossing garbage about willy-nilly that cause poisoned streams and rivers. Again: “People start pollution. People can stop it.”

AMERICA THE UGLY

This one serves up more of the same. Over a map of the US made entirely of matches we hear a male voice intoning that “One second with a match and ‘America the Beautiful’ becomes America the ugly.”

CARELESS KILLERS

In a series from the early 1960s, the National Forest Service came out with a straightforward message meant to educate the public about forest fire prevention.  Narrated by the Twilight Zone’s Rod Serling, the PSA shows hapless family man Ed Morgan driving his family home from vacation only to carelessly toss a match and become a “careless killer.”

RITA RACOON

In the 1970s PSAs targeted Saturday morning TV cartoon-watching kids, bringing more messaging about forest conservation and fire prevention. In this ad, a songbird raccoon with a voice like Joni Mitchell implores us to be careful with matches. Rita is fixed in the minds and hearts of many children of the late 1970s. “Rita needs a remix!” suggests one YouTube commenter. “Now forest fires are blamed on global warming.”

SMOKEY BEAR and WOODSY OWL

This era also brought a coterie of other woodland creatures including, famously, Woodsy Owl:

The perennial favorite and well-loved Smokey Bear is the longest running career of any of the Forest Service woodland mascots. I mean, who doesn’t love a talking bear?

The first ad we can identify is circa 1962.  The 1970s gave us an even groovier remix of Smokey Bear. But my personal favorite is when Smokey teams up with Betty White for a zany rendition of the same old song about preventing forest fires:

I WANT MY MTV

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WRlCVKnbDR0

When MTV first tickled our environmental consciences they used the unparalleled animation stylings of Bill Plympton in this PSA about acid rain.

Interesting that this wordless ad conveys the perils of living with acid rain loud and clear, but what’s missing is a call to action or message about what anyone should do about it.

This signals a very different era from the 1960s and 1970s when the message was that individuals ought to be stewards of the natural world.

Now you: What were some of your favorite environmental PSAs growing up and how do you think they’ve aged since then? What kind of impact did they have on you?

Tags

clean water act

environment

EPA

PSAs

public service announcement

what lies upstream

youtube

Jennie Z. Rose is a freelancer in solutions journalism. She writes about filmmakers, explorers, educators and social entrepreneurs.

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Remember These? A Look Back at Pollution Public Service Announcements

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Take a trip down memory lane to look at how we used to warn people about pollution, chemicals, and other environmental hazards.

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OqHp03RRTDs
SOURCE: YouTube, learning junction
DATE: Feb 14, 2017

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Learn about Pollution | Environment Defilement | Cartoon

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GFlMazT9HgE
SOURCE: YouTube, Anuzz Gleam World
DATE: Dec 15, 2021

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Speech on Pollution | Speech on Pollution in English | Effects on pollution | Anuzz Gleam World

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https://cargocollective.com/Alex_Anderson/Advocacy-Posters
SOURCE: NRDC, Alex Anderson
DATE: September 2012

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"The poster is the prime field for experimenting with visual language. It is the scene of changing ideas and aesthetics, of cultural, social and political events." - Pierre Bernard

Our first project of the semester was creating advocacy posters for an advocacy of our choosing. We began by looking at posters from the Graphic Imperative, which is a select retrospective of forty years of international sociopolitical posters. The 111 posters in this exhibition emphasize the issues of our turbulent times and endeavor to show the social, political, and aesthetic concerns of many cultures and divergent political realities.

After studying these famous posters we moved on to designing our own posters. We created two posters one using type and image and one using type as image. We were able to choose and research the following

1. The actual advocacy group that would sponsor the message

2. The specific issue/message of the poster

3. The targeted audience that the poster seeks to address

4. The remedy or action for the specific issue/problem.

My Group of Choice was the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC). I choose the issue of plastic pollution in our oceans as my focus. My concept statement for the project was:

This poster focuses on the problem of plastic pollution in our oceans and it affects on all marine life. Millions of pounds of plastics are thrown away every year and many of them make their way into the oceans. These plastics' can then be consumed or cause injury to all types of marine life. By appeal to young adults who need a reason to recycle the plastic they use and not allow it to harm marine life in our oceans.

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"The poster is the prime field for experimenting with visual language. It is the scene of changing ideas and aesthetics, of cultural, social and political events." - Pierre Bernard Our first project of the semester was creating advocacy posters for an advocacy of our choosing.

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https://memegenerator.net/img/instances/75987866.jpg
SOURCE: Memegenerator.net
Roll Safe 2

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hm6vXoLut90
SOURCE: YouTube; Waterford.org
Date: Apr 8, 2020

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"Pollution Rap" An Environmental Song by Waterford.org

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1RDc2opwg0I
SOURCE: YouTube, PBS NewsHour
DATE: Premiered Nov 28, 2019

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The Plastic Problem - A PBS NewsHour Documentary

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https://therevelator.org/pollution-books-august-2021/
SOURCE: The Revelator
August 19, 2021 - by John R. Platt

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Pesticides, sewage, mining waste, air pollution and trash - these new books address the toxic elements in our society.

It's a dirty world out there - but it doesn't have to be.

That message rings out from a slate of important new books covering the fight against various pollutants around the world. They examine everything from pesticides to air pollution and from mining waste to the trash that accumulates all around us. Along the way these books shine a light on some bigger stories - like our food system and human effects on complex ecosystems. They also dive deep into the racism, indifference, greed and ignorance that allow these toxic compounds to flourish in our world and in our bodies.

One group of pollutants didn't make it onto this list: greenhouse gases. We'll look at them in September's column, covering timely new books on climate change.

But for now, here are 13 new dirty books about filth for your perusal, along with their cover descriptions. Each title links to its publisher's site, but you should also be able to order these from any local or online bookseller or your favorite library.

"...a vivid introduction to America's largely unsung grassroots environmental groups - often led by activists of color and the poor - valiantly fighting back in America's so-called sacrifice zones against industries poisoning our skies and waterways and heating our planet. Through original reporting, profiles, artwork and interviews, we learn how these activist groups, almost always working on shoestring budgets, are devising creative new tactics, building sustainable projects to transform local economies and organizing people long overlooked by the environmental movement - changing its face along the way."

"Lee Johnson was a man with simple dreams. All he wanted was a steady job and a nice home for his wife and children, something better than the hard life he knew growing up. He never imagined that he would become the face of a David-and-Goliath showdown against one of the world's most powerful corporate giants. But a workplace accident left Lee doused in a toxic chemical and facing a deadly cancer that turned his life upside down. In 2018, the world watched as Lee was thrust to the forefront of one the most dramatic legal battles in recent history."

"Take a deep breath. You'll do it 20,000 times a day. You assume all this air is clean; it's the very breath of life. But in Delhi, the toxic smog is as bad for you as smoking 50 cigarettes a day. Even a few days in Paris, London or Rome is equivalent to two or three cigarettes. Air pollution is implicated in six of the top 10 causes of death worldwide, including lung cancer, heart disease, stroke and dementia. Breathless gives us clear facts about air pollution in our everyday lives, showing how it affects our bodies, how much of it occurs in unexpected places (indoors, inside your car), and how you can minimize the risks."

"Liboiron draws on their work in the Civic Laboratory for Environmental Action Research (CLEAR) - an anticolonial science laboratory in Newfoundland, Canada - to illuminate how pollution is not a symptom of capitalism but a violent enactment of colonial land relations that claim access to Indigenous land. Liboiron's creative, lively and passionate text refuses theories of pollution that make Indigenous land available for settler and colonial goals. In this way, their methodology demonstrates that anticolonial science is not only possible but is currently being practiced in ways that enact more ethical modes of being in the world."

"This book examines the tale of Marine Shale Processors, the world's largest hazardous waste company, and the women who fought to protect their community and their children. The lesson here is that a dedicated group of people fighting for what is right can win and it serves as an example for any community that wants to determine what their own environmental future."

"A comprehensive overview of this complex topic, presented by internationally recognized experts. Information presented will inform discussions on the use of herbicides in modern agricultural and other systems, and their potential non-target effects on human populations and various ecosystems. The book covers these matters in concise language appropriate to engage both specialists in the research community and informed persons responsible for legislative, funding and public health matters in the community at large."

"Every person on our home planet is affected by a worldwide deluge of man-made chemicals and pollutants - most of which have never been tested for safety. Our chemical emissions are six times larger than our total greenhouse gas emissions. They are in our food, our water, the air we breathe, our homes and workplaces, the things we use each day. This universal poisoning affects our minds, our bodies, our genes, our grandkids and all life on Earth. Julian Cribb describes the full scale of the chemical catastrophe we have unleashed. He proposes a new Human Right - not to be poisoned."

"The David and Goliath story of ordinary people in El Salvador who rallied together with international allies to prevent a global mining corporation from poisoning the country's main water source."

"Over the past few decades, palm oil has seeped into every corner of our lives. But the palm oil revolution has been built on stolen land and slave labor; it's swept away cultures and so devastated the landscapes of Southeast Asia that iconic animals now teeter on the brink of extinction. This groundbreaking work of first-rate journalism compels us to examine the connections between the choices we make at the grocery store and a planet under siege."

"In conversations with archaeologists, biologists and tribal authorities, Williams traces how generations of humans have interacted with such species as geoducks, salmon, orcas, rockfish and herring. He sheds light on how warfare shaped development and how people have moved across this maritime highway, in canoes, the mosquito fleet and today's ferry system. The book also takes an unflinching look at how the Sound's ecosystems have suffered from human behavior, including pollution, habitat destruction and the effects of climate change."

"Cobb's obsession with a large plastic car part leads her to explore the violence of our consume-and-dispose culture, including her own life as a child of Los Alamos, where the first atomic bombs were made. The journey exposes the interconnections among plastic waste, climate change, nuclear technologies and racism. Using a series of interwoven narratives ― from ancient Phoenicia to Alabama ― the book bears witness to our deepest entanglements and asks how humans continue on this planet."

"While we see radical technological change in almost every other aspect of our lives, we remain stuck in a sanitation status quo - in part because the topic of toilets is taboo. Fortunately, there's hope - and Pipe Dreams daringly profiles the growing army of sewage-savvy scientists, engineers, philanthropists, entrepreneurs, and activists worldwide who are overcoming their aversions and focusing their formidable skills on making toilets accessible and healthier for all."

"All of Mumbai's possessions and memories come to die at the Deonar garbage mountains. Towering at the outskirts of the city, the mountains are covered in a faint smog from trash fires. Over time, as wealth brought Bollywood knock offs, fast food and plastics to Mumbaikars, a small, forgotten community of migrants and rag-pickers came to live at the mountains' edge, making a living by re-using, recycling and re-selling. Among them is Farzana Ali Shaikh, a tall, adventurous girl who soon becomes one of the best pickers in her community. Like so many in her community, Farzana, made increasingly sick by the trash mountains, is caught up in the thrill of discovery - because among the broken glass, crushed cans or even the occasional dead baby, there's a lingering chance that she will find a treasure to lift her family's fortunes." (Available in September.)

Keep reading: Explore the Revelator Reads archives for hundreds of additional book recommendations.

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13 New Books About Pollution - and How to Fight It * The Revelator

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Pesticides, sewage, mining waste, air pollution and trash - these new books address the toxic elements in our society. It's a dirty world out there - but it doesn't have to be. That message rings out from a slate of important new books covering the fight against various pollutants around the world.

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https://www.facebook.com/pg/pollutionawareness.gebd/posts/
SOURCE: Facebook
DATE: October, 2. 2018

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Log into Facebook to start sharing and connecting with your friends, family, and people you know.

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https://mrmjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40248-018-0128-5
SOURCE: BMC
Waleed M. Sweileh,

Samah W. Al-Jabi,

Sa’ed H. Zyoud &

Ansam F. Sawalha
DATE: 1900-2017

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Original research article

Open Access

Published: 01 June 2018

Multidisciplinary Respiratory Medicine volume 13, Article number: 15 (2018) Cite this article

38k Accesses

4 Citations

9 Altmetric

Metrics details

Abstract

Background

Outdoor air pollution is a major threat to global public health that needs responsible participation of researchers at all levels. Assessing research output is an important step in highlighting national and international contribution and collaboration in a certain field. Therefore, the aim of this study was to analyze globally-published literature in outdoor air pollution – related respiratory health.

Method

Outdoor air pollution documents related to respiratory health were retrieved from Scopus database. The study period was up to 2017. Mapping of author keywords was carried out using VOSviewer 1.6.6.

Results

Search query yielded 3635 documents with an h-index of 137. There was a dramatic increase in the number of publications in the last decade of the study period. The most frequently encountered author keywords were: air pollution (835 occurrences), asthma (502 occurrences), particulate matter (198 occurrences), and children (203 occurrences). The United States of America ranked first (1082; 29.8%) followed by the United Kingdom (279; 7.7%) and Italy (198; 5.4%). Annual research productivity stratified by income and population size indicated that China ranked first (22.2) followed by the USA (18.8). Analysis of regional distribution of publications indicated that the Mediterranean, African, and South-East Asia regions had the least contribution. Harvard University (92; 2.5%) was the most active institution/organization followed the US Environmental Protection Agency (89; 2.4%). International collaboration was restricted to three regions: Northern America, Europe, and Asia. The top ten preferred journals were in the field of environmental health and respiratory health. Environmental Health Perspective was the most preferred journal for publishing documents in outdoor pollution in relation to respiratory health.

Conclusion

Research on the impact of outdoor air pollution on respiratory health had accelerated lately and is receiving a lot of interest. Global research networks that include countries with high level of pollution and limited resources are highly needed to create public opinion in favor of minimizing outdoor air pollution and investing in green technologies.

Background

Outdoor air pollution is defined as the presence of one or more substances in the atmospheric air at concentrations and duration above the natural limits [1]. Such substances include ozone [O3], airborne lead [Pb], carbon monoxide [CO], sulphur oxides [SOx] and nitrogen oxides [NOx] [2]. Recently, air pollution with particulate matters (PM), especially those with less than 2.5 μm, has been the focus of most outdoor air pollution studies due to its ability to penetrate the lung tissue and induce local and systemic effects [2].

Air pollution has been described as one of the “great killers of our age” and as “major threat to health” due to its tremendous and various health effects on humans of all ages and in both genders [3, 4]. In 2014, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that 92% of the world population was living in places with less than optimum outdoor air quality. Furthermore, WHO reported that in 2012, outdoor air pollution caused around 3 million deaths worldwide and 6.5 million deaths (11.6% of all global deaths) were associated with indoor and outdoor air pollution together [5].

Air pollution was linked to cancer, respiratory diseases, negative pregnancy outcomes, infertility, cardiovascular diseases, stroke, cognitive decline, and other adverse medical conditions [6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13]. Nearly 90% of air-pollution-related deaths occur in low- and middle-income countries, with nearly 2 out of 3 occurring in South-East Asia and Western Pacific regions. The problem of outdoor pollution is not a new one, but the rapid urbanization, particularly in Asia, made the problem of air pollution more visible and its health burden more tangible [14,15,16,17].

Bibliometric analysis is the application of statistical methods on published literature to analyze publication trends with time and to shed light on influential researchers, countries, and institutions in the field. In the past decade, at least seven bibliometric studies on air pollution were published [18,19,20,21,22,23,24]. However, none of the published bibliometric studies have shed light on the air pollution - related respiratory health. Therefore, in the current study, we aim to analyze literature pertaining to outdoor air pollution and respiratory health. The size of the literature and research productivity in this field is a good indicator of national and international efforts to improve air quality and to decrease the health and economic burden of air pollution. Furthermore, the quality of the air we breathe is the responsibility of everyone including researchers and academics. This study comes in line with perceived personal responsibility toward better air quality.

Method

Search strategy

This study aimed to analyze the documents about outdoor air pollution – related respiratory health. Scopus database was used to retrieve relevant documents because of its advantages over other databases [25,26,27,28]. The search strategy developed for this study consisted of nine steps (Additional file 1). The first six steps utilized various keywords and search queries to retrieve the maximum number of documents. Keywords included in search queries were those found in recent relevant systematic reviews [6, 12, 13, 29, 30]. The combined result of search queries underwent a filtration process by adding exclusion and limitation components (steps 7 – 9).

False positive results were minimized by using title search. Therefore, all retrieved documents have the keywords of interest. Despite that, false positive results need to be searched by reviewing the retrieved documents. The review process was carried out on a sample of 200 documents chosen based on the number of citation. The review process was carried out by the authors (W.S and A.J) and approved by a third author (A.S). Keywords of the irrelevant documents (false positive results) were used in the exclusion step. A complete list of irrelevant keywords is written in Additional file 1. The exclusion of false positive results is not enough to confirm the validity of the search strategy. Therefore, the authors compared two different methods of data collection. In the first one, we collected data regarding research output for each of the most active authors as obtained through the search strategy, whilst in the second one, the research output of each of the most active authors was extracted and reviewed by exploring the author profile as presented by Scopus. The extent of agreement between the two methods is measured by interclass correlation coefficient using SPSS [31,32,33,34,35]. An excellent agreement between the two methods with an interclass correlation above 95% and a p less than 5% is indicative of high validity of the search strategy. In the current study, the interclass correlation was 0.98.7% and p was 0.001.

The retrieved data were also sorted based on the number of different country affiliations per article to calculate international collaboration. Documents with authors from different countries represent international or inter-country collaboration while documents in which all authors have one country affiliation represent intra-country collaboration. It should be emphasized that Scopus has the function which can separate documents with intra or inter – country collaboration. Therefore, the calculation of international collaboration was extracted from data provided by Scopus.

Bibliometric analysis versus systematic reviews

It should be emphasized that the bibliometric analysis is not the same as systematic reviews. In contrast to systematic reviews, bibliometric analysis focuses on quantitative and qualitative aspects of all documents retrieved from one electronic large database. In bibliometric analysis, the investigated research question is the volume of research published, how this volume of literature evolved with time, what major topics were of high interest, and the scientific impact of literature in a particular subject. However, in systematic reviews, a complete and exhaustive summary of current literature obtained from several electronic databases and relevant to a research question is provided.

In bibliometric analysis, only one large and well – known database, such as Scopus, is used. Therefore, the retrieved documents will not include any duplicates. On the other hand, duplicate documents might appear in systematic reviews because several databases are used to retrieve the required documents.

Data analysis and visualization

In this study, Hirsch-index (h-index) was used as a measure of impact of publications [36]. Graphs were created using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Hirsch - index is defined as the number of articles (n) that have received at least n citations [36]. VOSviewer software was used to create visualization maps while ArcMap 10.1 was used to create geographical distribution of the retrieved documents [37,38,39]. For VOSviewer mapping of most frequent author keywords, a minimum occurrence of 10 was used as a cut-off point for inclusion of the keyword in mapping analysis. Analysis also included distribution of publications based on World Health Organization (WHO) regions.

Results

Types and growth of publications

The search strategy yielded 3635 documents. The earliest document in this field was published in 1943 in American Journal of Epidemiology [40]. The analysis of the types of documents showed that research articles (2935, 80.7%) were the most common type followed by review articles (359; 9.9%). The remaining documents (341; 9.4%) were conference papers, letters, editorials, short surveys, and notes. English (2923, 80.4%) was the primary language of documents followed by French (156; 4.3%) and German (124; 3.4%). The subject areas of the documents were medicine (2772; 76.3%) followed by environmental science (1038; 28.6%) and biochemistry/ genetics/ molecular biology (317; 8.7%) with the possibility of overlap among different subject areas. The growth of publications showed a dramatic increase in the past decade. Figure 1 shows the annual growth of publications. There was a 72% increase in number of publications in 2017 compared to that in 2008.

Fig. 1

Annual growth of publications in Outdoor air pollution and respiratory health (1900 – 2017)

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Author keywords

Analysis of author keywords showed that the most frequently encountered author keywords were: air pollution (835 occurrences), asthma (502 occurrences), particulate matter (198 occurrences), and children (203 occurrences) (Fig. 2a). Further mapping of types of pollutants most commonly encountered in author keywords showed that particulate matter (198 occurrences), ozone (192 occurrences), nitrogen oxide (95 occurrences), PM10 (75 occurrences), PM2.5 (57 occurrences), and Sulfur dioxide (54 occurrences), were the most frequently encountered author keywords (Fig. 2b).

Fig. 2

Most frequent author keywords encountered in the retrieved documents (a) and most frequently encountered types of outdoor air pollutants encountered in the retrieved documents (b)

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Active journals

Table 1 shows the top ten journals that were involved in publishing the retrieved documents. Environmental Health Perspective was the most active journal (153; 4.2%) followed by Environmental Research (112; 3.1%) and American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine (100; 2.8%). The top ten active journals included four in the field of environmental health, four in the field of respiratory health, one in allergy/immunology, and the last one in toxicology field.

Table 1 Top active journals in publishing documents in air pollution – related respiratory health (1900 – 2017)

Full size table

Authorship analysis

The number of different author names who participated in publishing documents was 11,014; giving an average of 3.0 authors per document. Table 2 lists the top ten active authors with their affiliations. The top active authors were mainly from Western and Northern Europe, particularly from the Netherlands, Italy, and the United Kingdom [21]. Prof. Brunekreef, B. from the Netherlands was the most active researcher in this field with 77 (2.2%) documents. Authors with a minimum productivity of 20 publications were also visualized using network visualization map that showed research networking among active authors (Fig. 3). The map showed that active authors with minimum productivity of 20 publications existed in four clusters. The largest cluster consisted of eight authors (dark red color). The second cluster consisted of seven authors (green). The third cluster consisted of six authors (blue). The fourth cluster consisted of four researchers (dark yellow). Authors with minimum productivity of 20 publications who are not shown in the map are usually those who did not exist within a research network that has prominent productivity.

Table 2 Most active researchers in the field of air pollution – related respiratory health (1900 – 2017)

Full size table

Fig. 3

Network visualization map of authors with minimum productivity of 20 publications in the studied field and exist within a collaborative research group

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Active countries

Researchers from 92 different countries contributed to the retrieved documents. Table 3 lists the top ten countries actively involved in air pollution – related respiratory health. Researchers from the USA participated in publishing 1082 (29.8%) documents. The top 10 list included countries from Northern America, Western Europe, and Asia. Researchers from these top ten countries participated in publishing 2630 (72.3%) documents. Figure 4 shows worldwide geographical distribution of retrieved documents. Regional distribution of retrieved documents indicated that the regions of Americas, Europe, and Western pacific had the highest percentage of contribution while Mediterranean, Africa, and South-East Asia regions had the least contribution (Fig. 5).

Table 3 Top 10 active countries in publishing documents in air pollution – related respiratory health (1900 – 2017)

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Fig. 4

Geographical distribution of published research in outdoor air pollution and respiratory health (1900 – 2017)

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Fig. 5

Geographical distribution of published research in outdoor air pollution and respiratory health (1900 – 2017) based on WHO world region. WP: Western Pacific; EM: Eastern Mediterranean; E: Europe; SEA: South Eastern Asia; AM: Americas; AF: Africa

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International collaboration

International collaboration in air pollution – related respiratory health showed that there were three clusters. There was relatively adequate collaboration among countries within each cluster and there was adequate collaboration between countries in the two different clusters (Fig. 6). The first cluster consisted of 9 European countries shown in green color while the second cluster consisted of 9 countries in different regions in the world particularly those in Northern and Southern America, South East Asia, and Western Pacific regions. The third cluster consisted of one item, India with research connections with countries in both cluster number 1 and 2. International collaboration among countries in the Mediterranean region, Africa, or Eastern Europe and those in Northern America, Europe, or Asia did not show up in the map.

Fig. 6

Network visualization map of research collaboration in outdoor air pollution and respiratory health (1900 – 2017)

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Table 3 shows the extent and the percentage of intra and inter (international) country collaboration for the top active countries. In terms of quantity, the USA had the largest number of documents (276; 25.5%) with international authors. However, this quantity represents only 25.5% of total research productivity from the USA which means that approximately 75% of USA research production in this field was produced by authors from the USA without collaboration with international researchers. Japan had the least percentage (22.2%) of international collaboration while Sweden had the largest percentage (58.0%) of documents with international collaboration.

Active institutions

Harvard University ranked first in research output (92; 2.5%) and in the impact of publications (h-index = 44). The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) ranked second in research output (89; 2.4%) and in the impact of publications (h-index = 36). Table 4 shows the top ten active institutions/organizations. The list included seven academic institutions and three research centers. Six of the top active institutions were American institutions, three were European, and one was Canadian.

Table 4 Top active institutions/organizations in publishing documents in air pollution – related respiratory health (1900 – 2017)

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Citation analysis

The total number of citations received by documents was 101,113, with an average of 27.8 citations per document. Range of citations was [0 – 4294]. The h-index of the retrieved documents was 137. Table 5 shows the top ten highly cited articles. The article that received the highest number of citations (4294) was published in 2002 in Journal of American Medical Association (JAMA) and discussed the relation between lung cancer, cardiopulmonary mortality and air pollution [40].

Table 5 Top 10 cited documents in air pollution – related respiratory health (1900 – 2017)

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Discussion

Growth of publications

In this study, we analyzed global research output in outdoor air pollution – related respiratory health. The results showed a noticeable increase in the number of publications in the last decade of the study period. This indicates that the level of air pollution and its health consequences reached serious levels. In 2012, air pollution was responsible for 3 million deaths, representing 5.4% of the total global deaths. In the same year, about 25% were due to lung cancer deaths, 8% were due to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) deaths, and about 17% of respiratory infection deaths were caused by outdoor air pollution [41]. A study indicated that the contribution of outdoor air pollution to global premature mortality could double by 2050 [42]. Another study concluded that outdoor air pollution contributes to the increase in global burden of COPD and that an increase of 10 μg/m⁽³⁾ in PM10 produced significant increase in COPD deaths and exacerbations that can be substantially reduced by controlling air pollution [43]. A cohort Chinese study concluded that the risks of mortality and years of life lost were elevated corresponding to an increase in current ambient concentrations of the air pollutants [44].

The contribution of researchers from /ifferent scientific fields led to an acceleration in the growth of publications in this field. Scientists in the fields of the environment, respiratory health, public health, and even molecular biology/genetics contributed to the retrieved documents [45,46,47,48,49]. The fact that air pollution is a multidisciplinary field created a large number of readers from different scientific fields and thus leading to large number of citations, reflected in the relatively high h-index value of documents. For example, the h-index of literature in global carbapenem resistance was 102 and that for literature in resistant tuberculosis was 76 [50, 51].

Active countries and institutions

Our results showed that China had the highest research productivity in terms of GDP per capita per year. In China, air pollution was previously estimated to contribute to 1.2 to 2 million deaths annually [52]. In its list of the world’s deadliest countries for air pollution, the WHO ranked China first followed by India, Russian Federation, Indonesia, Pakistan, Ukraine, Nigeria, Egypt, USA, and Bangladesh [53]. Out of the top 10 countries that have high total annual number of deaths from PM2.5 and PM10, only China and USA were among the top ten active countries in research output. The deadliest effects of air pollution in China led to the adoption of the Ambient Air Quality Standard in China in 2012 [54]. This system started a national Air Reporting System that now includes 945 sites in 190 cities.

The presence of active institutions and many high impact journals in the field of environmental health and respiratory medicine issued from the USA contributed to the leadership of USA in this field. Research output in any field is a function of money allocated to research as well as public health agendas of the country. The leadership of the USA was seen in several other scientific subjects [55,56,57,58]. The fact that English was the primary language of literature published in journals indexed in Scopus might have created some sort of bias toward English-speaking countries.

International collaboration

Outdoor air pollution is a global health concern and international collaboration in this field is necessary. In our study, the extent of international collaboration in research was relatively high, particularly within European countries and between USA and Asian countries. The WHO Collaborating Centre for Air Quality Management and Air Pollution Control (WHO CC) is working with member states in Europe and Asia to encourage collaboration in air quality programs through interaction and networking [59].

Highly cited documents

The top cited documents in the field was about the relationship between outdoor air pollution and lung cancer; and received a large number of citations suggestive of great importance. The International Agency for Research on Cancer [60], which is part of the WHO, has classified outdoor air pollution, as a whole, as a cancer-causing agent (carcinogen) [60]. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) concluded that outdoor air pollution causes lung cancer and is associated with increased risk for bladder cancer. Urgent action to minimize level of outdoor air pollution and exposure of population to such carcinogenic pollutants is necessary, particularly in cities with high levels of outdoor air pollution [61, 62].

Strength and limitations

It is the first to assess research activity in the field of outdoor air pollution – related respiratory health. Our study documented the accelerated increase in publications and the role of international collaboration. However, our study has a number of limitations. The Scopus database is a comprehensive and large database that includes different disciplines, but some peer – reviewed journals are not indexed in Scopus. This is particularly true for journals published from India, China, Indonesia, and other Asian and African countries where outdoor air pollution is a real public health problem. Therefore, documents published in un-indexed journals were not retrieved. Secondly, the results presented in this study reflect the search strategy implemented which is comprehensive in the subject but the presence of false positive and false negative results cannot be ruled out. This is true in all bibliometric studies [63,64,65,66,67]. Thirdly, when listing active authors and institutions, the authors depended on the outcome obtained from the Scopus. However, some authors might have more than one Scopus profile or might have their name written in different articles in different ways which will affect their research output and therefore their rank as well. Same applies to active institutions where the name of the institution might be written in different articles in different ways which will affect their research output and rank as well. Furthermore, the authors used the keyword “environment” in the search strategy in a strict way to avoid false positive results since not all environmental pollution could fit the scope of the current study which focused on outdoor air pollution and its impact on respiratory health. In this regard, the authors also avoided the use of the keyword “climate” in the search strategy to keep the research question focused on outdoor air pollution, particularly those produced by industry. Finally, it should be emphasized that the list of highly cited articles does not mean that these articles are the only influential ones in the field. The citation process is dynamic and sometimes high citation reflects self-citation rather than impact. There were many influential and highly cited articles in the field that were not listed in the highly cited article [68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79].

Conclusions

Growth of publications in outdoor air pollution – related respirator health is rapidly increasing. However, limited research output and international collaboration were seen in world regions such as the Middle East, Africa, and South-East Asia. International multidisciplinary research network, involving countries with high levels of air pollution and limited resources, are needed. Research in atmospheric pollution should also be directed toward prevention of air pollution problems by investing more in green technology.

The results presented in this study are indicative of how research activity is interacting with the urgent acceleration of the air pollution crisis at the global level. Furthermore, the research activity is indicative of the response rate adopted by certain countries to face this global problem in a responsible way. Pressure groups can use the research activity to enforce certain environmental and industrial agendas on politicians and political campaigns. Countries with high levels of outdoor air pollution, and therefore, poor air quality, need to get engaged in research pertaining to this field to provide health policymakers with baseline data for future action. Establishing research center for monitoring national air quality and level of air pollution is a step forward that needs to be adopted by all countries. Such centers could include scientists from different disciplines who can collaborate to convert research findings into national agendas and policies. At the national levels, different world countries need to adopt strict guidelines for air quality. Collaboration between industry and health authorities is needed to implement measures that could significantly reduce the levels of particulate matter. The outdoor air pollution is a global public health and therefore research networking between developed countries and developing countries with high levels of air pollution should be prioritized. The Chinese model in controlling air pollution and minimizing its health consequences could be of a global benefit. Finally, since the respiratory effects of air pollution are affecting children, there is a need to educate and increase the awareness of parents regarding this issue.

Abbreviations

IARC:

International Agency for Research on Cancer

IRB:

Institutional Review Board

WHO:

World Health Organization

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Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank An-Najah National University for giving the opportunities to this study.

Availability of data and materials

Data are available in additional file.

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Authors and Affiliations

1. Division of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Physiology, Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, An-Najah National University, Nablus, Palestine

Waleed M. Sweileh & Ansam F. Sawalha

2. Department of Clinical and Community Pharmacy, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, An-Najah National University, Nablus, Palestine

Samah W. Al-Jabi & Sa’ed H. Zyoud

Authors

1. Waleed M. Sweileh

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2. Samah W. Al-Jabi

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3. Sa’ed H. Zyoud

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4. Ansam F. Sawalha

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Contributions

AS conceptualized and designed the study, coordinated the study and data analysis, interpreted the data, and did the final write-up of the manuscript. WS, SZ, SA; designed the method, data extraction, data analysis, data interpretation, and writing the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Ansam F. Sawalha.

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Sweileh, W.M., Al-Jabi, S.W., Zyoud, S.H. et al. Outdoor air pollution and respiratory health: a bibliometric analysis of publications in peer-reviewed journals (1900 – 2017). Multidiscip Respir Med 13, 15 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40248-018-0128-5

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Received: 16 January 2018

Accepted: 18 April 2018

Published: 01 June 2018

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40248-018-0128-5

Keywords

Outdoor air pollution

Respiratory health

Bibliometric analysis

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Outdoor air pollution and respiratory health: a bibliometric analysis of publications in peer-reviewed journals (1900 – 2017) - Multidisciplinary Respiratory Medicine

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Background Outdoor air pollution is a major threat to global public health that needs responsible participation of researchers at all levels. Assessing research output is an important step in highlighting national and international contribution and collaboration in a certain field. Therefore, the ai…

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https://blog.breezometer.com/air-pollution-infographics
SOURCE&DATE: By Amalia Helen BreezoMeter
on March, 9 2021

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Air quality is a complicated topic to understand, so we're big fans of anything that helps to communicate the impact and nature of this complex subject in a powerful and visual way. Whether you're looking for impactful shareable content, or you're planning to create your own infographic on this subject, here are some of our favorites for inspiration:

Infographic #1) How the US AQI Works: Visual Capital
(See full size infographic)
Why We Love this Infographic

We know first hand how complicated the topic of AQIs can be; we frequently get questions about the differences between indexes and what they mean. For this reason, we thought it was a great idea to explain the USA AQI in an easy visual way. The infographic starts by explaining some of the common gases and particle sources in the air we breathe, and explains that it is the concentrations of these pollutants which dictates air quality - then moves on to illustrate how the US AQI scale of 0-500 is constructed.

The infographic then visualizes the 6 air quality categories comprising the US AQI in terms of health impact, with real world examples of AQI scores taken from January 2020 to highlight the range of geographical differences at any one time.
(See full size infographic)
Infographic #2) PM2.5 - in New York City: NYC Department of Health

Why We Love this Infographic

The NYC Department of Health created this highly engaging interactive infographic to raise awareness of the public health impact of traffic emissions in New York City, as detailed in this report, As an awareness initiative, it was a great idea to display the impact of their findings in this engaging and interactive way, which is far easier to engage with than a scientific-led academic report.
(See full size
infographic)
Starting off with a general introduction of PM2.5, what it is and the common sources for this pollutant in New York City, more information reveals itself to the user as they scroll down: The health impacts of PM2.5, the number of deaths attributed to PM2.5 in NYC each year and further interactivity, where users can choose to visualize how traffic pollution varies in different parts of the city.

Infographic #3) Air Pollution & Cardiovascular Disease by the World Heart Federation
(See full size infographic)
Why We Love this Infographic

As air quality relates to our breathing, many of us instinctively understand the risk to respiratory disease sufferers such as those with COPD and asthma, however a higher proportion of deaths linked to long-term air pollution exposure may actually occur among those at risk from heart disease and strokes. (See here). We think it's great the World Heart Federation is calling attention to this issue.
(See full size infographic)
The infographic starts by detailing the huge impact of air-pollution related deaths for heart-disease sufferers before exploring in more detail what air pollution actually does to the heart and the common sources of pollution indoors and outdoors. The infographic ends with practical guidance for the public - including monitoring the air pollution levels and avoiding highly polluted areas.

Infographic #4) Penetration of Particles Into the Body: See the Air
Got an infographic you think we should add? Let us know in the comments!
Why We Love this Infographic

We thought this simple infographic from our friend Sotirios at See the Air was an ingenious idea. Without even needing to scroll, viewers immediately understand the categories of Particulate Matter, the differences between them, real world examples for each, and the respiratory health impacts of different size particles. In particular, PM1 and PM0.1 are lesser known types; by reminding viewers that viruses are also in essence a type of particle, Sotirios also reasserts the importance of air quality awareness in the time of COVID-19.

Infographic #5) World's Most Polluted Cities: New York Times

Why We Love this Infographic

It's hard to understand the reality of air pollution through numbers alone, it's also hard sometimes to understand the true scale of difference when you see 'healthy' versus 'unhealthy air'. Focusing on particulate pollution, this New York Times visualization runs through some of the most polluted cities according to their data, then adds personal meaning to the information by automatically comparing the reader's own location (presumably based on IP location).

This New York Times article provides a wealth of educational information in terms of both the countries it speaks about and the sources of particulate matter across the globe (wildfires, industrial activity and more). By making all this information interactive and personally relevant, it really doesn't feel like so much - you'll find yourself hooked.

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5 Infographics that Help Explain Air Pollution: Our Top Picks

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Air quality is a complicated topic to understand, so we're big fans of anything that helps to communicate the impact and nature of this complex subject in a powerful and visual way.

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https://www.epa.gov/clean-air-act-overview/air-pollution-current-and-future-challenges
SOURCE: United States Environmental Protection Agency
DATE: March, 30. 2022

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Despite dramatic progress cleaning the air since 1970, air pollution in the United States continues to harm people's health and the environment. Under the Clean Air Act, EPA continues to work with state, local and tribal governments, other federal agencies, and stakeholders to reduce air pollution and the damage that it causes.

Outdoor air pollution challenges facing the United States today include:
Indoor air pollution, which arises from a variety of causes, also can cause health problems. For more information on indoor air pollution, which is not regulated under the Clean Air Act, see EPA's indoor air web site.

Air Pollution Challenges: Common Pollutants

Great progress has been made in achieving national air quality standards, which EPA originally established in 1971 and updates periodically based on the latest science. One sign of this progress is that visible air pollution is less frequent and widespread than it was in the 1970s.

However, air pollution can be harmful even when it is not visible. Newer scientific studies have shown that some pollutants can harm public health and welfare even at very low levels. EPA in recent years revised standards for five of the six common pollutants subject to national air quality standards. EPA made the standards more protective because new, peer-reviewed scientific studies showed that existing standards were not adequate to protect public health and the environment.

Status of common pollutant problems in brief

Today, pollution levels in many areas of the United States exceed national air quality standards for at least one of the six common pollutants:

Although levels of particle pollution and ground-level ozone pollution are substantially lower than in the past, levels are unhealthy in numerous areas of the country. Both pollutants are the result of emissions from diverse sources, and travel long distances and across state lines.

An extensive body of scientific evidence shows that long- and short-term exposures to fine particle pollution, also known as fine particulate matter (PM2.5), can cause premature death and harmful effects on the cardiovascular system, including increased hospital admissions and emergency department visits for heart attacks and strokes. Scientific evidence also links PM to harmful respiratory effects, including asthma attacks.

Ozone can increase the frequency of asthma attacks, cause shortness of breath, aggravate lung diseases, and cause permanent damage to lungs through long-term exposure. Elevated ozone levels are linked to increases in hospitalizations, emergency room visits and premature death.

Both pollutants cause environmental damage, and fine particles impair visibility.

Fine particles can be emitted directly or formed from gaseous emissions including sulfur dioxide or nitrogen oxides. Ozone, a colorless gas, is created when emissions of nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds react.

For unhealthy peak levels of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide, EPA is working with states and others on ways to determine where and how often unhealthy peaks occur. Both pollutants cause multiple adverse respiratory effects including increased asthma symptoms, and are associated with increased emergency department visits and hospital admissions for respiratory illness. Both pollutants cause environmental damage, and are byproducts of fossil fuel combustion.

Airborne lead pollution, a nationwide health concern before EPA phased out lead in motor vehicle gasoline under Clean Air Act authority, now meets national air quality standards except in areas near certain large lead-emitting industrial facilities. Lead is associated with neurological effects in children, such as behavioral problems, learning deficits and lowered IQ, and high blood pressure and heart disease in adults.

The entire nation meets the carbon monoxide air quality standards, largely because of emissions standards for new motor vehicles under the Clean Air Act.

In Brief: How EPA is working with states and tribes to limit common air pollutants

EPA's air research provides the critical science to develop and implement outdoor air regulations under the Clean Air Act and puts new tools and information in the hands of air quality managers and regulators to protect the air we breathe.

To reflect new scientific studies, EPA revised the national air quality standards for fine particles (2006, 2012), ground-level ozone (2008, 2015), sulfur dioxide (2010), nitrogen dioxide (2010), and lead (2008). After the scientific review, EPA decided to retain the existing standards for carbon monoxide. EPA strengthened the air quality standards for ground-level ozone in October 2015 based on extensive scientific evidence about ozone's effects.

EPA has designated areas meeting and not meeting the air quality standards for the 2006 and 2012 PM standards and the 2008 ozone standard, and has completed an initial round of area designations for the 2010 sulfur dioxide standard. The agency also issues rules or guidance for state implementation of the various ambient air quality standards - for example, in March 2015, proposing requirements for implementation of current and future fine particle standards. EPA is working with states to improve data to support implementation of the 2010 sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide standards.

For areas not meeting the national air quality standards, states are required to adopt state implementation plan revisions containing measures needed to meet the standards as expeditiously as practicable and within time periods specified in the Clean Air Act (except that plans are not required for areas with "marginal" ozone levels).

EPA is helping states to meet standards for common pollutants by issuing federal emissions standards for new motor vehicles and non-road engines, national emissions standards for categories of new industrial equipment (e.g., power plants, industrial boilers, cement manufacturing, secondary lead smelting), and technical and policy guidance for state implementation plans. EPA and state rules already on the books are projected to help 99 percent of counties with monitors meet the revised fine particle standards by 2020. The Mercury and Air Toxics Standards for new and existing power plants issued in December 2011 are achieving reductions in fine particles and sulfur dioxide as a byproduct of controls required to cut toxic emissions.

Vehicles and their fuels continue to be an important contributor to air pollution. EPA in 2014 issued standards commonly known as Tier 3, which consider the vehicle and its fuel as an integrated system, setting new vehicle emissions standards and a new gasoline sulfur standard beginning in 2017. The vehicle emissions standards will reduce both tailpipe and evaporative emissions from passenger cars, light-duty trucks, medium-duty passenger vehicles, and some heavy-duty vehicles. The gasoline sulfur standard will enable more stringent vehicle emissions standards and will make emissions control systems more effective. These rules further cut the sulfur content of gasoline. Cleaner fuel makes possible the use of new vehicle emission control technologies and cuts harmful emissions in existing vehicles. The standards will reduce atmospheric levels of ozone, fine particles, nitrogen dioxide, and toxic pollution.

Learn more about common pollutants, health effects, standards and implementation:

Air Pollution Challenges: Climate Change

EPA determined in 2009 that emissions of carbon dioxide and other long-lived greenhouse gases that build up in the atmosphere endanger the health and welfare of current and future generations by causing climate change and ocean acidification. Long-lived greenhouse gases, which trap heat in the atmosphere, include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and fluorinated gases. These gases are produced by a numerous and diverse human activities.

In May 2010, the National Research Council, the operating arm of the National Academy of Sciences, published an assessment which concluded that "climate change is occurring, is caused largely by human activities, and poses significant risks for - and in many cases is already affecting - a broad range of human and natural systems." The NRC stated that this conclusion is based on findings that are consistent with several other major assessments of the state of scientific knowledge on climate change.

Climate change impacts on public health and welfare

The risks to public health and the environment from climate change are substantial and far-reaching. Scientists warn that carbon pollution and resulting climate change are expected to lead to more intense hurricanes and storms, heavier and more frequent flooding, increased drought, and more severe wildfires - events that can cause deaths, injuries, and billions of dollars of damage to property and the nation's infrastructure.

Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas pollution leads to more frequent and intense heat waves that increase mortality, especially among the poor and elderly. Other climate change public health concerns raised in the scientific literature include anticipated increases in ground-level ozone pollution, the potential for enhanced spread of some waterborne and pest-related diseases, and evidence for increased production or dispersion of airborne allergens.

Other effects of greenhouse gas pollution noted in the scientific literature include ocean acidification, sea level rise and increased storm surge, harm to agriculture and forests, species extinctions and ecosystem damage. Climate change impacts in certain regions of the world (potentially leading, for example, to food scarcity, conflicts or mass migration) may exacerbate problems that raise humanitarian, trade and national security issues for the United States.

The U.S. government's May 2014 National Climate Assessment concluded that climate change impacts are already manifesting themselves and imposing losses and costs. The report documents increases in extreme weather and climate events in recent decades, with resulting damage and disruption to human well-being, infrastructure, ecosystems, and agriculture, and projects continued increases in impacts across a wide range of communities, sectors, and ecosystems.

Those most vulnerable to climate related health effects - such as children, the elderly, the poor, and future generations - face disproportionate risks. Recent studies also find that certain communities, including low-income communities and some communities of color (more specifically, populations defined jointly by ethnic/racial characteristics and geographic location), are disproportionately affected by certain climate-change-related impacts - including heat waves, degraded air quality, and extreme weather events - which are associated with increased deaths, illnesses, and economic challenges. Studies also find that climate change poses particular threats to the health, well-being, and ways of life of indigenous peoples in the U.S.

The National Research Council (NRC) and other scientific bodies have emphasized that it is important to take initial steps to reduce greenhouse gases without delay because, once emitted, greenhouse gases persist in the atmosphere for long time periods. As the NRC explained in a recent report, "The sooner that serious efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions proceed, the lower the risks posed by climate change, and the less pressure there will be to make larger, more rapid, and potentially more expensive reductions later."

In brief: What EPA is doing about climate change

Under the Clean Air Act, EPA is taking initial common sense steps to limit greenhouse gas pollution from large sources:

EPA and the National Highway and Traffic Safety Administration between 2010 and 2012 issued the first national greenhouse gas emission standards and fuel economy standards for cars and light trucks for model years 2012-2025, and for medium- and heavy-duty trucks for 2014-2018. Proposed truck standards for 2018 and beyond were announced in June 2015. EPA is also responsible for developing and implementing regulations to ensure that transportation fuel sold in the United States contains a minimum volume of renewable fuel. Learn more about clean vehicles

EPA and states in 2011 began requiring preconstruction permits that limit greenhouse gas emissions from large new stationary sources - such as power plants, refineries, cement plants, and steel mills - when they are built or undergo major modification. Learn more about GHG permitting

On August 3, 2015, President Obama and EPA announced the Clean Power Plan - a historic and important step in reducing carbon pollution from power plants that takes real action on climate change. Shaped by years of unprecedented outreach and public engagement, the final Clean Power Plan is fair, flexible and designed to strengthen the fast-growing trend toward cleaner and lower-polluting American energy. With strong but achievable standards for power plants, and customized goals for states to cut the carbon pollution that is driving climate change, the Clean Power Plan provides national consistency, accountability and a level playing field while reflecting each state's energy mix. It also shows the world that the United States is committed to leading global efforts to address climate change. Learn more about the Clean Power Plan, the Carbon Pollution Standards, the Federal Plan, and model rule for states

The Clean Power Plan will reduce carbon pollution from existing power plants, the nation's largest source, while maintaining energy reliability and affordability. The Clean Air Act creates a partnership between EPA, states, tribes and U.S. territories - with EPA setting a goal, and states and tribes choosing how they will meet it. This partnership is laid out in the Clean Power Plan.

Also on August 3, 2015, EPA issued final Carbon Pollution Standards for new, modified, and constructed power plants, and proposed a Federal Plan and model rules to assist states in implementing the Clean Power Plan.

On February 9, 2016, the Supreme Court stayed implementation of the Clean Power Plan pending judicial review. The Court's decision was not on the merits of the rule. EPA firmly believes the Clean Power Plan will be upheld when the merits are considered because the rule rests on strong scientific and legal foundations.

On October 16, 2017, EPA proposed to repeal the CPP and rescind the accompanying legal memorandum.

EPA is implementing its Strategy to Reduce Methane Emissions released in March 2014. In January 2015 EPA announced a new goal to cut methane emissions from the oil and gas sector by 40 - 45 percent from 2012 levels by 2025, and a set of actions by EPA and other agencies to put the U.S. on a path to achieve this ambitious goal. In August 2015, EPA proposed new common-sense measures to cut methane emissions, reduce smog-forming air pollution and provide certainty for industry through proposed rules for the oil and gas industry. The agency also proposed to further reduce emissions of methane-rich gas from municipal solid waste landfills. In March 2016 EPA launched the National Gas STAR Methane Challenge Program under which oil and gas companies can make, track and showcase ambitious commitments to reduce methane emissions.

EPA in July 2015 finalized a rule to prohibit certain uses of hydrofluorocarbons -- a class of potent greenhouse gases used in air conditioning, refrigeration and other equipment -- in favor of safer alternatives. The U.S. also has proposed amendments to the Montreal Protocol to achieve reductions in HFCs internationally.

Learn more about climate science, control efforts, and adaptation on EPA's climate change web site
Air Pollution Challenges: Toxic Pollutants

While overall emissions of air toxics have declined significantly since 1990, substantial quantities of toxic pollutants continue to be released into the air. Elevated risks can occur in urban areas, near industrial facilities, and in areas with high transportation emissions.

Numerous toxic pollutants from diverse sources

Hazardous air pollutants, also called air toxics, include 187 pollutants listed in the Clean Air Act. EPA can add pollutants that are known or suspected to cause cancer or other serious health effects, such as reproductive effects or birth defects, or to cause adverse environmental effects.

Examples of air toxics include benzene, which is found in gasoline; perchloroethylene, which is emitted from some dry cleaning facilities; and methylene chloride, which is used as a solvent and paint stripper by a number of industries. Other examples of air toxics include dioxin, asbestos, and metals such as cadmium, mercury, chromium, and lead compounds.

Most air toxics originate from manmade sources, including mobile sources such as motor vehicles, industrial facilities and small "area" sources. Numerous categories of stationary sources emit air toxics, including power plants, chemical manufacturing, aerospace manufacturing and steel mills. Some air toxics are released in large amounts from natural sources such as forest fires.

Health risks from air toxics

EPA's most recent national assessment of inhalation risks from air toxics estimated that the whole nation experiences lifetime cancer risks above ten in a million, and that almost 14 million people in more than 60 urban locations have lifetime cancer risks greater than 100 in a million. Since that 2005 assessment, EPA standards have required significant further reductions in toxic emissions.

Elevated risks are often found in the largest urban areas where there are multiple emission sources, communities near industrial facilities, and/or areas near large roadways or transportation facilities. Benzene and formaldehyde are two of the biggest cancer risk drivers, and acrolein tends to dominate non-cancer risks.

In brief: How EPA is working with states and communities to reduce toxic air pollution

EPA standards based on technology performance have been successful in achieving large reductions in national emissions of air toxics. As directed by Congress, EPA has completed emissions standards for all 174 major source categories, and 68 categories of small area sources representing 90 percent of emissions of 30 priority pollutants for urban areas. In addition, EPA has reduced the benzene content in gasoline, and has established stringent emission standards for on-road and nonroad diesel and gasoline engine emissions that significantly reduce emissions of mobile source air toxics. As required by the Act, EPA has completed residual risk assessments and technology reviews covering numerous regulated source categories to assess whether more protective air toxics standards are warranted. EPA has updated standards as appropriate. Additional residual risk assessments and technology reviews are currently underway.

EPA also encourages and supports area-wide air toxics strategies of state, tribal and local agencies through national, regional and community-based initiatives. Among these initiatives are the National Clean Diesel Campaign, which through partnerships and grants reduces diesel emissions for existing engines that EPA does not regulate; Clean School Bus USA, a national partnership to minimize pollution from school buses; the SmartWay Transport Partnership to promote efficient goods movement; wood smoke reduction initiatives; a collision repair campaign involving autobody shops; community-scale air toxics ambient monitoring grants; and other programs including Community Action for a Renewed Environment (CARE). The CARE program helps communities develop broad-based local partnerships (that include business and local government) and conduct community-driven problem solving as they build capacity to understand and take effective actions on addressing environmental problems.
Learn more about air toxics, stationary sources of emissions, and control efforts
Learn more about mobile source air toxics and control efforts
Air Pollution Challenges: Protecting the Stratospheric Ozone Layer

The ozone (O₃) layer in the stratosphere protects life on earth by filtering out harmful ultraviolet radiation (UV) from the sun. When chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other ozone-degrading chemicals are emitted, they mix with the atmosphere and eventually rise to the stratosphere. There, the chlorine and the bromine they contain initiate chemical reactions that destroy ozone. This destruction has occurred at a more rapid rate than ozone can be created through natural processes, depleting the ozone layer.

The toll on public health and the environment

Higher levels of ultraviolet radiation reaching Earth's surface lead to health and environmental effects such as a greater incidence of skin cancer, cataracts, and impaired immune systems. Higher levels of ultraviolet radiation also reduce crop yields, diminish the productivity of the oceans, and possibly contribute to the decline of amphibious populations that is occurring around the world.

In brief: What's being done to protect the ozone layer

Ensure that refrigerants and halon fire extinguishing agents are recycled properly.

Ensure that alternatives to ozone-depleting substances (ODS) are evaluated for their impacts on human health and the environment.

Ban the release of ozone-depleting refrigerants during the service, maintenance, and disposal of air conditioners and other refrigeration equipment.

Require that manufacturers label products either containing or made with the most harmful ODS.

Countries around the world are phasing out the production of chemicals that destroy ozone in the Earth's upper atmosphere under an international treaty known as the Montreal Protocol. Using a flexible and innovative regulatory approach, the United States already has phased out production of those substances having the greatest potential to deplete the ozone layer under Clean Air Act provisions enacted to implement the Montreal Protocol. These chemicals include CFCs, halons, methyl chloroform and carbon tetrachloride. The United States and other countries are currently phasing out production of hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), chemicals being used globally in refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment and in making foams. Phasing out CFCs and HCFCs is also beneficial in protecting the earth's climate, as these substances are also very damaging greenhouse gases.

Also under the Clean Air Act, EPA implements regulatory programs to:

Continuing to provide forecasts of the expected risk of overexposure to UV radiation from the sun through the UV Index, and to educate the public on how to protect themselves from over exposure to UV radiation.

Continuing to foster domestic and international partnerships to protect the ozone layer.

Encouraging the development of products, technologies, and initiatives that reap co-benefits in climate change and energy efficiency.

Learn more About EPA's Ozone Layer Protection Programs
These vital measures are helping to protect human health and the global environment.

The work of protecting the ozone layer is not finished. EPA plans to complete the phase-out of ozone-depleting substances that continue to be produced, and continue efforts to minimize releases of chemicals in use. Since ozone-depleting substances persist in the air for long periods of time, the past use of these substances continues to affect the ozone layer today. In our work to expedite the recovery of the ozone layer, EPA plans to augment CAA implementation by:

References

1 National Research Council (2010), Advancing the Science of Climate Change, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., p. 3.

2 National Research Council (2010), Advancing the Science of Climate Change, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., p. 286.

3 USGCRP (2009). Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States. Karl, T.R., J.M. Melillo, and T.C. Peterson (eds.). United States Global Change Research Program. Cambridge University Press, New York, NY, USA.

4 CCSP (2008). Analyses of the effects of global change on human health and welfare and human systems. A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research. Gamble, J.L. (ed.), K.L. Ebi, F.G. Sussman, T.J. Wilbanks, (Authors). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, USA.

5 Confalonieri, U., B. Menne, R. Akhtar, K.L. Ebi, M. Hauengue, R.S. Kovats, B. Revich and A. Woodward (2007). Human health. In: Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability . Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Parry, M.L., O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, (eds.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom.

6 Ibid.

7 An explanation of observed and projected climate change and its associated impacts on health, society, and the environment is included in the EPA's Endangerment Finding and associated technical support document (TSD). See EPA, " Endangerment and Cause or Contribute Findings for Greenhouse Gases under Section 202(a) of the Clean Air Act," 74 FR 66496, Dec. 15, 2009. Both the Federal Register Notice and the Technical Support Document (TSD) for Endangerment and Cause or Contribute Findings are found in the public docket, Docket No. EPA-OAR-2009-0171.

8 EPA, Endangerment Finding, 74 FR 66535.

9 U.S. Global Change Research Program, Climate Change Impacts in the United States: The Third National Climate Assessment, May 2014.

10 EPA, Endangerment Finding, 74 FR 66498.

11 National Research Council (2011) America's Climate Choices: Report in Brief, Committee on America's Climate Choices, Board on Atmospheric Sciences and Climate, Division on Earth and Life Studies, The National Academies Press, Washington, D.C., p. 2.

12 EPA, 2005 National-Scale Air Toxics Assessment (2011).

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Air Pollution: Current and Future Challenges | US EPA

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Despite the dramatic progress to date, air pollution continues to threaten Americans' health and welfare. The main obstacles are climate change, conventional air pollution, and ozone layer depletion.

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https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0255166
SOURCE:
PLOSONE

Guangqin Li,

Qiao He,

Dongmei Wang,

Bofan Liu

DATE:

August 12, 2021

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Guangqin Li,

Qiao He,

Dongmei Wang,

Bofan Liu

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Abstract

Based on the panel data of environmental Non-Governmental Organizations (ENGOs) and air pollution in OECD countries, this paper uses econometric model to investigate the governance effect of ENGOs on air pollution. The results show that: ENGOs have a positive impact on the improvement of environmental quality, and the results are still valid after a series of robustness tests; Further mechanism analysis found that the environmental improvement by ENGOs is mainly achieved by increasing investment in environmental protection. This study provides empirical evidence for the effect of ENGOs on air pollution, and further provides ideas for environmental governance.

Citation: Li G, He Q, Wang D, Liu B (2021) Environmental non-governmental organizations and air-pollution governance: Empirical evidence from OECD countries. PLoS ONE 16(8): e0255166. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0255166

Editor: Ming Zhang, China University of Mining and Technology, CHINA

Received: March 5, 2021; Accepted: July 11, 2021; Published: August 12, 2021

Copyright: © 2021 Li et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are available on Harvard Dataverse: https://dataverse.harvard.edu/dataset.xhtml?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/WDINMX.

Funding: This work was supported by the Research Project of Anhui University of Finance and Economics (Green Development Effect of China's Green Credit Policy, Recipient GL), the Research Project of Sun Yat-sen University (13000-31610513, Recipient: BL), Shandong natural science foundation project (ZR2020QG043), and the social science foundation project of Shandong Province (20DJJJ033, Recipient: Not applicable).

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

1. Introduction

In the process of industrialization, environmental pollution and its governance have become a global concern. With deteriorating environmental pollution, ENGOs have gradually developed into an important force in promoting environmental governance in countries around the world. From the history of developed countries, ENGOs have gone through the processes of environmental movement, litigation and governance. While it is no longer a major issue in developed counties in the west, environmental pollution still remains their main concern, as the environmental quality is not as good as it used to be. Whether there is a correlation between ENGOs and environmental quality is a topic worth in-depth study.

The U-shaped relationship (Environmental Kuznets Curve) between per capita income and pollutants has been confirmed by a number of empirical studies [ 1- 3]. A review of EKC studies summarized that regulation is the dominant factor to illustrate the decline in pollution when countries grow beyond middle-income phase [ 3]. Meanwhile, Grossman & Krueger [ 1] captioned that policy driven by vigilance and advocacy plays an important mediating role in the relationship between per capita income and various pollution indicators. Hence, Neumayer & Perkins [ 4] concluded that any factors that have significant power on environmental policy could affect the environmental outcomes.

Among other factors, ENGOs are the primary driving force for vigilance and advocacy of the environmental policy [ 2]. ENGOs started to take part in environmental governance since 50's last century [ 5]. Since then, ENGOs have been transformed from a pure organizer of environmental movements to a key player in environmental litigation and governance. For example, it played a crucial role in the passing and enforcement of the Clean Air Act in the United States [ 6].

Despite the outstanding contribution of ENGOs to environmental protection, literatures in discussing their effect on environmental outcomes are relatively rare. The main focus of current literatures is how ENGOs can influence individuals, enterprises and government behaviors. For example, some studies found that ENGOs can encourage the public to act upon environmental issues through education [ 7]. Furthermore, ENGOs push enterprises to take greener behavior through such actions as sending complaint letter, organizing mass protest and lodging civil litigation [ 8, 9]. Moreover, ENGOs in corporation with a company's stakeholders have strong impact on its environmental behavior [ 10- 12]. Then, there are plenty of studies on the impact of ENGOs on government environmental behavior, most of which investigated from a qualitative perspective about how ENGOs can affect environmental quality of a country or region [ 4, 10, 11], and how they put pressure on policymakers to protect the environment together with their international counterparts [ 13].

The majority of current literature on ENGOs and environmental governance is categorized to public management, with qualitative analysis or case study being a main research direction. From the perspective of environmental economics, the current emphasis on the participation of ENGOs in environmental governance is insufficient [ 14], especially on quantitative research, which can hardly match the development of ENGOs and their role in environmental governance. Therefore, this study uses the cross-border panel data of OECD countries to investigate the impact of ENGOs on the atmospheric environment quality of these countries, so as to bridge the gap of ENGOs' effect on environmental outcomes.

The rest of the article is arranged as follows: Section 2 of this paper reviews the related literature and provides our hypothesis. Section 3 describes the research design and the following section tests robustness of our model. In section 4, we employ regression analysis to investigate how ENGOs affects various pollution indicators. The last section presents the conclusions and provides some policy implications.

2. Literature review and theoretical hypothesis

2.1 Literature reviews

To sum up, there are several ways for ENGOs to participate in Environmental Governance: first, ENGOs can raise their environmental awareness by holding environmental campaigns [ 15]; second, if their domestic ENGOs are relatively weak, they can improve their environmental discourse right by cooperating with international ENGOs in other developed countries [ 13]; third, in order to better participate in environmental governance, ENGOs take the initiative to establish interactive relations with enterprises and the government, so as to promote the realization of the normal functions of ENGOs [ 16, 17]; fourth, ENGOs cooperate with media organizations to transmit environmental information to the public through the media, and improve the public's environmental awareness [ 18]; fifth, for some countries with relatively small land area, environmental governance needs transnational cooperation, and ENGOs also need to cooperate closely with ENGOs in other countries to jointly deal with cross-border pollution problems [ 16, 19- 21]; Sixth, ENGOs regularly publish reports on the environmental behavior of the government or enterprises to the public through information disclosure, so as to promote the government and enterprises to adopt more green environmental behavior [ 22- 25]. With the growth of ENGOs, the fields of different ENGOs are constantly subdivided, and the ways to ENGOs participate in environmental governance are constantly changing.

2.2 Theoretical hypothesis

What is the relationship between ENGOs and environmental quality? The following is an analysis of the development of ENGOs in the UK, the United States, Germany and South Korea, which have experienced environmental pollution problems in the process of industrialization.

The United Kingdom, the first industrialized country, was most severely affected by environmental pollution, as evidenced by the smog incident in London in the 1950s [ 26]. ENGOs that rise with environmental pollution have developed rapidly in the UK, going through three stages characterized by elitism, populism and strategicism, and played the role of a third-party manager in making up for the failure of the state and the market [ 27]. After more than a century of development, the number of ENGOs registered in the UK has reached 200 according to Hilton et al. [ 28].

In the United States, ENGOs are a substantial environmental force outside all levels of government and scientific research institutions [ 29]. As a principal organ of environmental protection movements, they lodge lawsuits to court, appeal to parliament and lobby for specific environmental issues, and eventually realize management, compensation, supervision and control over pollution and ecological destruction through legislation. As the largest ENGO in the US, the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) has 1.2 million members across the country and international branches in dozens of countries, including China [ 30]. In addition to large organizations, there are also many small ENGOs in the US, such as the Pacific Environment and Resource Center established in 1987.

In the 1950s and 1960s, Germany was eager to emerge from the backwardness of its post-war situation and took a path of pollution before treatment, leading to increasingly severe environmental pollution, where industrial waste filled Rhine River and no blue sky could be seen at Ruhr industrial zone [ 31]. The ecological environment in Germany today, however, has been improved exceptionally, thanks to ENGOs' immense contribution. Germany has over a thousand ENGOs, large and small, with more than two million employees. The largest one is the Nature Conservancy, with a history of over 100 years and about 400,000 members.

South Korea has also experienced serious pollution caused by rapid industrialization that has spawned a group of socially responsible ENGOs, of which the Environmental Movement Alliance is the largest, with branches and 85,000 members in 47 regions. Driven by the organization, South Korea's ENGOs have been growing and played a pivotal role in the environmental struggle from 1988 to 1992 mainly by participating in the environmental campaign against the construction of new nuclear power plants.

Developed countries have experienced the stages from pre-industrialization to industrialization and then post-industrialization; therefore, their environmental governance has correspondingly gone through the stages of pollution before treatment, control while pollution and re-control with less pollution, which ENGOs have been growing in this process. It can be seen from such developed countries as the United Kingdom, the United States, Germany and South Korea that ENGOs have been associated with environmental pollution and become major participants and promoters of environmental pollution control. Therefore, we believe that there is a hypothetical relationship between the development of ENGOs in these countries and the environmental quality of these countries:

Hypothesis 1: With the growth of a country's environmental NGOs, the country's environmental pollution will be reduced (environmental quality will be improved).

Environmental governance can be classified into formal and informal regulation [ 32, 33]. Formal environmental regulation mainly refers to the administrative and economics measures taken by a government [ 34]. The former includes implementing administrative orders to reduce pollution emissions or the use of chemical energy, restricting entry access for enterprises with certain industrial attributes, and shutting down pollution enterprises compulsorily. The effect of administrative measures is remarkable. The economic measures include taxation to pollutants, where the result is determined by tax severity and the ability of enterprises to bear the tax, or the provision of subsidy to nice and cleaner technology. Informal environmental regulation mainly refers to the way to restrict environmental behavior by improving residents' moral level and environmental awareness [ 35]. While formal environmental regulation addresses environmental issues directly, informal regulation exerts little immediate effect on environmental governance; instead, it achieves such effect through the influence of other factors to reduce environmental pollution and improve environmental quality. The role of ENGOs is informal regulation in environmental governance [ 25]. It can be seen from the previous analysis that ENGOs can influence environmental pollution. But how ENGOs affect environmental pollution is still unknown. Fig 1 shows the main ways of how ENGOs influence environmental quality improvement.

As is shown in Fig 1, the traditional mechanism of environmental governance of ENGOs mainly consists of two parts. First, ENGOs ameliorate environmental quality mainly through education and information disclosure [ 19, 25]. As the publicity becoming more aware of environmental problems, they push the government to increase budget on environmental expenditure [ 7]. In addition, ENGOs meliorate environmental quality by influencing government environmental expenditures (including enterprises' environmental protection expenditure). However, due to data constraints, it is hard to obtain environmental awareness gained by residents through ENGOs' education, but we can estimate the effect of environmental expenditure on ENGOs' improvement of environmental quality. Based on this, we propose the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 2: ENGOs ameliorate environmental quality by means of increasing environmental expenditure, and further accelerate life expectancy and birth rate of the birth rate of the whole society.

3. Methodology and data

3.1. Model specification

According to Hypothesis 1, we construct the following econometric model to investigate the impact of ENGOs on environmental pollution emissions: (1) where subscripts i and t represent country and time respectively; Pollutant is the dependent variable, representing the emission of air pollution; engo is the key explanatory variable, representing the measurement index of ENGOs; Z is other control variables that affect the Pollutant; λ is the corresponding coefficient matrix of control variables; μ and ν are regional fixed effect and time fixed effect, respectively, indicating unobservable factors affected by region and time; ξ is the random disturbance term; β is the coefficient of our concern, where if it is less than zero, it shows that ENGOs have the emission reduction effect of environmental pollution, and the Hypothesis 1 can be verified.

We take the natural log of all the dependent variables to render their distribution less skewed, thus mitigating potential problems with heteroscedasticity. With respects to the explanatory variables, we take the natural log of all cardinal variables, namely income, ENGO and business lobby strength, literacy, population density and the Gini coefficient, to allow an easy understanding of elasticity interpretation. In addition, a log-linear form is also commonly used in the EKC literature and exhibited a better fit with data at hand. As for the concerns of the income variable, given the result from the EKC literature suggesting non-linear effects on population, we include income squared in the model to be estimated. If both the linear and the squared term are insignificant, it is a typical sign that their relationship is more complex and a cubed income term is added to the estimations. Theory does not predict non-linear effects of other explanatory variables, which is why they all enter the estimations in linear form only.

3.2. Variables and data

3.2.1 Key explanatory variables.

According theoretical literature, the strength of ENGOs is based on their financial resources and membership quantity. However, poor availability of these data makes it impossible to conduct any empirical research on them. Therefore, many studies use the number of ENGOs per capita as proxy for measuring the strength of ENGOs (Binder & Neumayer, 2005). Although some argue that the number of ENGOs does not represent the participation of ENGOs in public affairs, it is regarded as the best proxy at present. Therefore, we adopt it to measure the influence of ENGOs in a given country.

The data of numbers of ENGOs comes from the online library of United Nation (website: https://research.un.org/en/ngo), where there is a database of NGOs and Sustainable Development registered with the United Nations (website: http://esango.un.org/civilsociety/1ogin.do) that provides four searching catalogues, i.e., by region, status, field of activity and type of organization. We searched the directory of environment-related NGOs in the database by field of activity, entered the directory homepage of ENGOs ( http://esango.un.org/civilsociety/withOutLogin.do?method=getFieldsOfActivityCode&orgByFieldOfActivityCode=8&orgByFieldOfActivityName=Sustainable%20Development&sessionCheck=false&ngoFlag=), and obtained 16,683 NGOs that meet our requirements and defined them as ENGOs, all of which provided information including organization name, registration address, contact information, main practice areas, activity regions and countries. After sorting out the data, we managed to make a panel database about the numbers of ENGOs in OECD countries from 2000 to 2014. The data of population are derived from World Bank.

Given that we can pinpoint the time of its establishment in the directory of ENGOs, this paper builds a panel database of the number of ENGOs owned by OECD countries by year and by country. Considering the comparative of ENGOs among different countries, we build two indexes, i.e., engo_pop and engo_sq, where engo_pop is defined as the variable of numbers of ENGO per capita while engo_sq is defined as the numbers of ENGOs per miles of a country. Hence, we get the following formula: (2) (3) where, pop it and sq it respectively refer to the population and territory of country i at time t, using millions of people and ten thousand square kilometers as units. The above two indicators respectively represent the number of ENGOs owned by one million people and the number of ENGOs owned by ten thousand square meters of public land. Taking the United Kingdom as an example, there were 41 national ENGOs registered with the United Nations by the end of 2015, which means that for every 1.7 million people of per 6000 square kilometers, there was one ENGO. Population and area data for OECD countries in a calendar year is from the OECD Statistical Information Network ( https://stats.oecd.org/).

3.2.2 Dependent variable.

There are many indicators that can measure the effectiveness of environmental governance. Among the data provided by the OECD statistical database, the indicators that can represent environmental quality are mainly air pollution indicators, but the statistics of other pollution indicators are not substantial. In this regard, this paper tests five common air pollutants, namely, PM 2.5, Greenhouse-gas, NO, NO ₂.

We use the mean concentration of PM 2.5 as the indicator of haze index, which was calculated in OECD statistical database. Its average maximum concentration in OCED countries is 30.6μg/m ³ and the average minimum concentration is 13.6 μg/m ³. The overall air quality is good, but large differences exist among regions. Meanwhile, we use the proportion of population exposed to air with PM 2.5 exceeding 10μg/m ³ as the indicator of air pollution intensity. As for the rest pollutants indicators, they are all measured by total emission quantity. We take the form of log in the estimation process to avoid coefficient bias caused by unit differences. All the data for the five pollution indicators comes from OECD database from 2000-2014.

Taking PM 2.5 as an example, we analyzed the trend of air pollution in OECD countries from 2000 to 2015. In 2000, the 34 OECD countries can be divided into three groups according to PM 2.5 concentration. The least polluted group includes Canada, Australia, Ireland and Nordic countries, with an average concentration of less than 10 μg/m ³; while the number was beyond 20 μg/m ³ in the most polluted group with countries like Mexico, Korea and some eastern European countries. The rest countries of OECD belong to the medium polluted group, with a concentration level between 10-20 μg/m ³.

Compared with 2000, most of the 34 OECD countries showed a downward trend of haze pollution concentration in 2005. The average concentration of smog pollution in Mexico, Sweden and Chile decreased by over 2 μg/m ³, over 1 μg/m ³ in Italy, the United States, Greece, Israel, Norway, Germany, South Korea and Belgium decreased, and less than 1μg/m ³ in 12 other countries. However, the number rose in 10 other countries, i.e. Hungary by 3.5μg/m ³, Slovakia by 2.8μg/m ³, and the Czech Republic, Portugal, Austria, Poland and Estonia by 1-2μg/m ³. In addition, slight deterioration was observed in Finland, Slovenia and Canada.

Compared with five years ago, smog pollution in Mexico, the United States and South Korea fell further in 2010 by 3.7μg/m ³, 2.9μg/m ³ and 2.1μg/m ³ respectively. Meanwhile, the smog pollution in Slovenia, Austria, Canada, Portugal and Hungary shifted from deterioration to improvement, decreasing by 2.3μg/m ³, 2.1μg/m ³, 2.0μg/m ³, 2.0μg/m ³, 0.9μg/m ³, respectively. However, smog pollution worsened in nine other countries, including Iceland, Sweden, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, Israel, Greece and Turkey. As a result, the number of countries with reduced smog dropped from 24 to 20. Among them, Israel, Poland, Greece and Turkey saw the steepest deterioration, with the numbers rising by 3.0μg/m ³, 3.7μg/m ³, 5.1μg/m ³, 7.4μg/m ³, respectively. Compared with 2010, the number of countries with ameliorated haze pollution in 2015 fell to 17, accounting for half of the 34 countries. The situation slightly deteriorated by rising less than 1μg/m ³ in six other nations, including the United States, New Zealand, Spain, Portugal, Chile and Australia. South Korea saw the most serious smog pollution with the number reaching 5.3μg/m ³. Austria, Switzerland, Slovenian, Italy, Mexico and other countries saw the number rising more than 2μg/m ³. However, Poland, Turkey and the Netherlands with smog pollution deterioration five years ago became the countries with highest improvement, where the numbers decreased by 7.4μg/m ³, 3.2μg/m ³ and 3.1μg/m ³, respectively.

Overall, air pollution levels in the 34 OECD countries have shown a trend of improvement, but there are still fluctuations in some areas. This is related to the level of economic development, industrial structure changes and other factors in certain years.

3.2.3 Controlled variables.

Drawing on existing researches [ 36, 37], and combining the availability and comparability of data, we mainly choose the following indicators as control variables.

Manufacturing structure ( Second): measured by the share of manufacturing value added in GDP. It is used to examine the relative development rate of manufacturing. The higher the proportion of manufacturing, the greater the likelihood of environmental quality deterioration. Its impact coefficient on each environmental pollution variables is expected to be positive.

Manufacturing growth rate ( Secondr): measured by the real growth rate. It is used to examine the relative growth rate of manufacturing. It can be used to determine the growth rate of the manufacturing comparing with its base period, and to further decide whether it will accelerate or slowdown based on its current status. Given that the accelerated development of a manufacturing is bound to cause environmental degradation, we expect the rate symbol to be positive.

Structure of construction industry ( Build): measured by the added value of the construction industry in proportion of GDP. It is mainly used to investigate the degree of environmental pollution affected by the construction industry. The higher the proportion of the construction industry, the more dust and garbage will be in the construction process, which can also accelerate the deterioration of environmental quality. In addition, the construction industry may cause environmental quality deterioration, so its impact coefficients of various environmental pollution variables are expected to be positive.

Growth rate of construction industry ( Buildr): measured by the growth rate in real terms. It is used to examine the relative development rate of the construction industry, as a way to determine whether the growth of the construction industry can lead to the environmental deterioration. Its coefficient is expected to be positive.

Electricity consumption ( Ele): measured by electricity generation. Because of the instantaneity of electricity production and consumption, electricity generation equals to electricity consumption when dismissing export and import of national electricity. This index is mainly used to investigate the degree of environmental pollution caused by power generation process. Due to the lack of data on the proportion of clean energy, the impact of this variable on environmental pollution is uncertain.

Environmental investment (Env_i): measured by the proportion of environmental expenditure in total expenditure. Financial expenditure related to environmental protection and its share of total fiscal expenditure are decisive in a country's environmental quality improvement. The more a country spends on environmental protection, the more importance it attaches to environmental governance, hence the more secure its environmental quality will be accordingly. Therefore, its coefficient is expected to be positive.

Woo et al. [ 37] also controlled variables such as FDI and technological progress in their research. Because the indicators of FDI and technological progress are incomplete in the time of this study, these factors are not taken into account. Due to the relatively substantial data in 2000 and the late accession of Lithuania to the OECD, this paper does not consider Lithuania for the time being. In addition, many data from the OECD Statistical Information Network after 2015 is not complete, so we selected the data of the 34 OECD countries from 2000 to 2014 as our sample. Table 1 provides descriptive statistics of the main variables.

4. Results and discussion

4.1. PM2.5 emission reduction effect of ENGOs

Table 2 reports the estimation result of ENGOs on PM 2.5 emission reduction effect. Column (1) controls the region fixed effect, but not the year fixed effect, while column (2) controls the year fixed effect, but not the region fixed effect. The estimation results show that the value of goodness-of-fit rises from 0.028 to 0.059, suggesting that the interpretation ability of the model is dramatically enhanced, after controlling year fixed effect. However, the change in the coefficient of ENGOs is far from obvious, with the number being -0.287 and -0.291, both significantly negative at the level of 1% beyond. It shows that the impact of ENGOs on PM 2.5 is relatively stable and hardly affected by the fixed effect of region or time. Therefore, we can infer that the development level of ENGOs in a country has a notable negative impact on its average PM 2.5 concentrations; that is, it has the effect of mitigating environmental pollution. More precisely, with an increase of 1 unit in the number of ENGOs per million people, the average PM 2.5 concentration value drops by 0.29 unit. Hence, hypothesis 1 is verified.

The estimation results in columns (3) and (4) show that the coefficients of ENGOs are notably negative at the level of 5% beyond, being -0.162 and -0.176 respectively, indicating that there is no noticeable change in the coefficients after controlling year fixed effect. However, a conspicuous change exists when comparing the coefficients from columns (1) and (2), indicating that environmental non-governmental organizations may affect PM 2.5 through other control variables. Among the control variables, the growth rate of manufacturing and the proportion of manufacturing in GDP are both distinctly positive, marking that the development of manufacturing industry has indeed increased its average concentration of PM 2.5. Yet, the growth rate and proportion of construction industry have no noticeable impact on PM 2.5, which can be attributed to the following two reasons: first, the proportion of construction in OECD countries is much lower than that of manufacturing; second, the construction industry in OECD countries is relatively fully developed and it follows a sound standard, where such pollutants as construction dust are better controlled, so its impact on PM 2.5 is not conspicuous. Electricity consumption has no distinct impact on PM 2.5. As we expected, the higher the proportion of environmental investment in public expenditure, the lower the average concentration of PM 2.5, demonstrating that environmental investment has a distinct emission reduction effect. In general, ENGOs have a perceptible negative impact on PM 2.5, which is not affected by the fixed effect of time and region, but may have an interaction with other control variables, thus weakening the environmental governance effect.

The ENGO's governance effect on PM 2.5 is also reflected in its impact on the proportion of people exposed to an average concentration of PM 2.5 above 10μg/m ³. As is shown in columns (5) and (6), the coefficients of ENGOs to PM 2.5 _pop are significantly negative at 1% level, which are -1.955 and -2.967, respectively, indicating that for each additional unit of ENGOs, the proportion of the population exposed to an average concentration of PM 2.5 above 10μg/m ³ will decrease by 2%-3% after controlling other influencing factors. For rest controllable variables, the growth rate of manufacturing and construction industry has no obvious impact on PM 2.5 _pop; while the share of manufacturing and construction in GDP has a marked positive effect on it; the influence of power generation on it is notably negative; and the proportion of environmental investment in public expenditure has no obvious impact on it. The main reason is that the proportion of population exposed to PM 2.5 above 10μg/m ³ is affected by the population density and economic development level of a country. For countries with the same PM 2.5 concentration level, their residents may be completely exposed to PM 2.5 above or below 10μg/m ³.

4.2. Carbon emission reduction effect of ENGOs

As the main contributor of greenhouse gases, CO ₂ is the main cause of global warming. The environmental problems caused by global warming have an important destructive effect on the survival of human beings. Therefore, this part mainly discusses the relationship between ENGOs and CO ₂. Table 3 reports the carbon emission reduction effects of ENGOs on carbon dioxide. The two models control the region fixed effects and their F-test values are high, which have passed the significance test. The R ² of the two models are both greater than 0.6, an indicator of their strong explanatory power. The column (1) does not control the year fixed effects while column (2) controls the year fixed effects. The estimation coefficients of the engo_pop in two models are significantly negative. the ENGO's coefficients are -0.209 and -0.212 respectively, suggesting that when engo_pop increase by one unit, Carbon dioxide emissions will be reduced by about 21%, which means that the estimate results are relatively robust and credible. Hypothesis 1 is verified.

Among the control variables, the share of manufacturing in GDP has a major negative impact on CO ₂, showing that the manufacturing in OECD countries has become a high-end industry and the manufacturing process does not produce too many CO ₂. In addition, the growth rate of manufacturing, the proportion and growth rate of construction have no prominent impact on CO ₂. The proportion of electricity production and environmental protection expenditure have a significant positive impact on CO ₂, which may be linked to the fact that coal is still used to generate power, emitting a large amount of CO ₂, and that environmental spending may not be used to address CO ₂ but other pollutants that directly threaten human life, thus crowding out governance investment for CO ₂, leading to a rise in greenhouse gas instead of decline.

4.3. Oxynitride emission reduction effect of ENGOs

Oxynitride includes a variety of compounds with different toxicity, such as N ₂O, NO, NO ₂, N ₂O ₃, N ₂O ₄ and N ₂O ₅, etc. In the air, however, most oxynitride are extremely unstable, and when exposed to light, humidity and heat, they become NO and NO ₂. Therefore, as for oxynitride, it is ENGOs' emission reduction effect on NO and NO ₂ that is mainly investigated.

Table 4 reports the estimated effects of oxynitride emission reduction by ENGOs. According to the estimation results of columns (1) and (2), whether the time fixed effect is controlled or not, ENGOs have a notable negative effect on lnNO. Their coefficients are -0.179 and -0.186 respectively, meaning that when engo_pop increases by a unit, nitric oxide will decrease by 18%~19%. Meanwhile, the estimated coefficients in columns (3) and (4) are significantly negative, being -0.179 and -0.186 respectively, indicating that when engo_pop increases by a unit, nitrogen dioxide will decrease by 26%~28%. Among the control variables, the coefficient of manufacturing is significantly negative, demonstrating that the manufacturing industry in those countries have developed into a more advanced stage which can reduce nitrogen oxide emissions. On the contrary, there is a conspicuous positive relationship between power generation and nitrogen oxide emissions. Besides, the higher the proportion of environmental investment, the more nitrogen oxide emissions will be. The higher the proportion of construction, the higher the nitrogen oxide emissions, which may because of the fact that some of the raw materials used in construction industry are heavy industrial products that produce a large amount of nitrogen oxides during the production process.

5. Robustness check

5.1. PM2.5 emission reduction effect of ENGOs

In the estimation above, we use the number of ENGOs owned by per million people as the core explanatory variable, yet its effect is different for countries with the same number of ENGOs but not the same size of population. Therefore, we use the number of ENGOs per ten thousand square kilometers as an alternative variable to test the robustness of the regression equation.

Table 5 shows the estimation result. Columns (1) and (2) consider the impact of engo_sq on PM 2.5 emission. The results show that the coefficients of ENGOs are significantly negative, signaling that the relationship between ENGOs and PM 2.5 emission is relatively stable. The coefficients, however, are relatively small, which is related to the measurement units of ENGOs. When engo_sq increases by a unit, the average concentration of PM 2.5 will decrease to 1.3μg/m ³. Columns (3) and (4) show the effect of ENGOs per ten thousand square kilometers on the proportion of people exposed to PM 2.5 concentration above 10μg/m ³. The coefficients here are -1.404 and -1.104 respectively, which are extensively negative, indicating that when engo_sq increases by a unit, the proportion of population exposed to PM 2.5 higher than 10μg/m ³ will decrease by 1.1%-1.4%. Among the control variables, the proportion of manufacturing and construction has a positive impact on PM 2.5 emission; while power generation and environmental investment have a certain negative impact on PM 2.5, but it has no distinct impact on the proportion of population exposed to PM 2.5 above 10μg/m ³.

5.2. The mitigation effect of ENGOs on other air pollutants emission

Table 6 reports the estimation results of CO 2 and oxynitride. Column (1) lists the estimated result of carbon dioxide mitigation effect after controlling time and region fixed effect, with a coefficient of -0.066, passes the significance test at a level of 1%. Columns (2) and (3) consider the impact of engo_sq on nitric oxide ( LnNO) and nitrogen dioxide ( LnNO 2) respectively. The estimation results show that both coefficients are significantly negative, and there is narrowly no difference when comparing them with those from Table 4, implying that the estimation results of oxynitride emissions are also robust. Meanwhile, the estimated results of other controlled variable are basically consistent with the previous results.

6. Mechanism analysis

6.1. Econometric model of mechanism test

According to the theoretical mechanism diagram and theoretical hypothesis 2, we used the mediation effect model to test whether ENGOs would affect environmental quality through environmental investment. The specific model are as follows: (4) (5) (6) (7)

In formula ( 4), the coefficient c represents the total effect of engo_pop on PM 2.5 emission. In formula ( 5), the coefficient b represents mediation effect of engo_pop on Env_I. In formula ( 6), the coefficient b represents the effect of the intermediate variable Env_I on the dependent variable PM 2.5 after controlling the influence of engo_pop; the coefficient c′ is the direct effect of engo_pop on PM 2.5 after controlling the influence of Env_I. In formula ( 7), the coefficient ab represents the intermediate effect, which is also referred as indirect effect. The total effect is equal to the direct effect plus the indirect effect. Z is the corresponding coefficient matrix of controlled variables, μ and v represent the unobservable factors affected by region and time respectively, and ξ it, ς it, ζ it are random disturbance terms.

6.2. Mechanism test results

We used the external command sgmediation of Stata 16.0 to estimate the formula ( 4)-( 7). Table 7 reports the estimation results. It can be found that Sobel, goodman-1, goodman-2 and each coefficient. all passed the significance test at 5% level, a sign that the mediation effect model is reasonable. From the results of column (1), engo_pop has a major negative impact on PM 2.5 with a coefficient of -0.201. In column (2), the impact coefficient of engo_pop on Env_I is 0.05, which is exceptionally positive. In column (3), engo_pop still has a significant negative impact on PM 2.5, but the coefficient decreases to -0.176, and Env_I exerts a prominent negative impact on PM 2.5 with a coefficient of -0.5. Through the comparison of coefficients, it can be found that when engo and Env_I are added at the same time, the coefficient of engo_pop on PM 2.5 decreases obviously, while the coefficient of Env_I on PM 2.5 is notably negative, which indicates that the effect of Env_I on PM 2.5 weakens the effect of engo_pop on PM 2.5. It also shows that Env_I does play a role of intermediate variable in the influence of engo_pop on PM 2.5.

In columns (1) and (3), the estimated results of each control variable are basically the same, and there is nearly no difference with the estimation results above. The results in column (2) show that higher proportion of manufacturing industry will promote investment in environmental protection, which can serve as an explanation to the policy of control while polluting. Nevertheless, the growth rate of manufacturing has a negative effect on environmental investment, suggesting that rapid growth of manufacturing industry will crowd out the investment in environmental protection. This is in line with the current situation of treatment after pollution. Moreover, power generation, the proportion and growth rate of construction industry all have a positive effect on environmental investment, which can also explain the policy of control while polluting.

7. Conclusions and policy implication

This paper selects relevant indicators of development level and environmental quality of ENGOs in OECD countries, investigates their effect on pollution mitigation and the mechanism they apply, and verifies that the existence of ENGOs can improve air quality in OECD countries. This paper concludes that first, the development of ENGOs in OECD countries can indeed reduce the average concentration of PM 2.5 and the proportion of people exposed to PM 2.5 above 10μg/ m ³ to a certain extent, and reduce CO 2 emission and overall emission of greenhouse gas (including CO 2, NO 2, NO etc.). This conclusion is supported by consequential results that are measured by the number of ENGOs owned whether by one million people or ten thousand square kilometers. Second, through mechanism analysis, we verify that environmental investment plays an intermediate role between ENGOs and environmental quality.

Our empirical results encompass strong policy implications. As the growth of ENGOs improves environmental quality, a flourishing development of ENGOs and their environmental protection actions should be highly encouraged to curb polluting and reduce pollutants directly or indirectly. Given that environmental investment is essential for ENGOs in reducing pollution, more investment opportunities should be created for them by providing financial support, broadening investment channels or streamlining bureaucratic process.

References

1. 6. Melnick R. S. 2010. 'Regulation and the courts: The case of the Clean Air Act'. Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press.

2. 29. Hilton M. Crowson N. Mouhot J. F. and McKay J. 2012. 'A Historical Guide to NGOs in Britain: Charities Civil Society and the Voluntary Sector since 1945'. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan UK Press.

3. 30. Lewis D. Kanji N. and Themudo N. S. 2020. 'Non-governmental organizations and development'. Routledge.

4. 32. Huang L. 2015. 'Analysis and Research on Sustainable Growth of Environmental Resources Management'. In 2015 International Conference on Education Management Information and Medicine. Atlantis Press.

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Environmental non-governmental organizations and air-pollution governance: Empirical evidence from OECD countries

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Based on the panel data of environmental Non-Governmental Organizations (ENGOs) and air pollution in OECD countries, this paper uses econometric model to investigate the governance effect of ENGOs on air pollution.

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https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-01960-7
DATE PUBLISHED: 25/6/2019
Author:
Xiangdong Li ,

Ling Jin &

Haidong Kan
from Nature

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Each year, more than 4 million people die early because of outdoor air pollution, according to the World Health Organization (WHO). The main culprits are fine particles with diameters of 2.5 micrometres or less (PM 2.5). These can penetrate deep into the lungs, heart and bloodstream, where they cause diseases and cancers.

But global average estimates such as this assume that these particles are the same the world over. They are not: PM 2.5 is a cocktail of chemicals (hydrocarbons, salts and other compounds given off by vehicles, cooking stoves and industry) and other, natural components such as dust and microorganisms. The mix - and its toxicity - varies from place to place and over time, in ways that are not tracked, understood or managed.

For example, in Asia, soot from residential heating and cooking is the biggest source of PM 2.5. In European countries, Russia, Turkey, South Korea, Japan and the eastern United States, agricultural emissions such as ammonia are the leading source. Desert dust boosts air pollution in northern Africa, the Middle East and central Asia. It is not clear which source is the most dangerous.

Levels of PM 2.5 alone give only a rough guide to the toxicity of air pollutants in a particular place. Reducing PM 2.5 by the same amount in different places will not deliver the same health benefits everywhere. To protect millions more lives, scientists need to help governments and municipalities to determine the most hazardous constituents of air pollution and mitigate them first. Researchers and policymakers need to rethink methods for assessing health risks and regulatory measures for reducing those risks.

Unequal toxicities

Evidence is mounting of geographical differences in health responses to air pollution (see 'Deadly combinations'). For example, although the associated death tolls are high in China and India - industrializing cities are heavily polluted and lots of people live there - the relative risks to city dwellers in Europe and the United States are greater. Europeans and North Americans are more likely to die from heart disease and from acute respiratory attacks than are people in China, when exposed to similar levels of PM 2.5.

Risks from dirty air vary between cities. Londoners and New Yorkers are at greater risk of dying when smog concentrations surge than are inhabitants of Beijing. Each milligram of PM 2.5 in dirty air in Milan is more likely to generate reactive species of oxygen (free radicals) that stress the body than it is in Lahore or Los Angeles. Residents of cities in eastern China, such as Shanghai, Hangzhou and Nanjing, have a higher death risk per unit increase of PM 2.5 concentration (despite medium to lower concentrations of total PM 2.5) than do residents in cities elsewhere in the country. To put it another way, each milligram of PM 2.5 in these eastern cities is more toxic than it is in the rest of China. And Beijing's winter smog is more deadly than that in Guangzhou - a similarly sized city located much farther south.

Cell and animal studies back up these findings (it is unethical to test the toxicity of air pollutants directly on humans). For example, the lungs of mice that had been exposed for 24 hours to PM 2.5 from California were more inflamed than those of mice exposed to similar concentrations of PM 2.5 in air from China. The difference could reflect higher levels of organic carbon and copper in Californian traffic fumes, although it is hard to translate findings from animal models to humans.

Mixtures of air pollutants might also be more harmful than their constituents in isolation. For example, the combined effects of outdoor and indoor air pollution and tobacco smoke could be responsible for 2-3 times the number of premature deaths globally than the WHO currently estimates.

Few studies of the health impacts of air pollution consider these variations. Most simply look at masses of PM 2.5 particles and assume a single recipe. For example, the Global Burden of Disease project captures health risks in one 'exposure-response' function, which the WHO also uses. This derives the likelihood of someone who has inhaled a certain mass of PM 2.5 dying later from a related disease. It is based on hundreds of epidemiological studies, mostly done in Europe and the United States.

But we know little about how real smog affects health. Some substances are known to be harmful when inhaled. For example, transition metals, including iron and copper, produce oxygen free radicals. Links between prenatal exposure to free radicals in PM 2.5 and low birth weight have been reported across 31 cities in Ontario, Canada. By contrast, sulfates, nitrates and ammonium are much more common in smog but are less harmful than metals.

Some dangerous pollutants remain to be discovered. For example, toxic metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons accounted for less than 40% of the overall potential of PM 2.5 to generate oxygen free radicals in Beijing and Guangzhou in January 2014.What explains the rest?

Possibilities include secondary organic aerosols. These are derived from photochemical reactions of organic compounds such as isoprene (which is produced by plants and animals, and is found in natural rubber). Other 'humic' organics are released from soil and coal. Plasticizers such as bisphenols and phthalates affect the endocrine system. But the toxicities of all of these substances in air breathed by humans remain to be assessed.

Biological components such as bacteria and fungi are rarely considered in health studies. These can be toxic in themselves or can interact with other chemicals to affect health. Pathogens and allergens need to be evaluated. Floating in Beijing's winter smog, for example, is a common bacterium that can cause pneumonia ( Streptococcus pneumoniae) and a fungal allergen ( Aspergillus fumigatus) that can invade the airways of people with immune deficiencies. Compounds in the cell walls of bacteria (endotoxins) can induce inflammation, and other products of fungi (mycotoxins) can lead to respiratory conditions and infections.

The list is long. But the most important question is: which pollutants are the most dangerous in a given location and most crucial to mitigate urgently?

Next steps

First, the focus of air-pollution studies should shift to measuring health effects, not just emissions and atmospheric chemistry. This must involve specialists from fields as diverse as molecular biology, toxicology, health sciences and economics. Researchers should rank sources of PM 2.5 by how harmful they are, and examine the toxicity of samples of real air.

Next, that knowledge must be translated into local measures to control the most hazardous types of pollution. For example, efforts to reduce emissions from residential energy might be the best way to reduce premature deaths from air pollution in China and India; in that regard, northern China's 2018 shift from using coal for wintertime heating to using natural gas needs to be evaluated. Similarly, clean fuel and energy-efficiency measures might be prioritized in the United States. And inorganic emissions from agriculture should be addressed in rural areas.

To achieve this, WHO data should be used to identify hotspot countries - those where particular health concerns are arising from PM 2.5 pollution (see 'Deadly combinations'). Niger, India, Egypt and Nepal should be included because they have high levels of particulates and high death rates. PM 2.5 in Nigeria, Chad, Yemen, Sierra Leone and Cote D'lvoire might be targeted as being particularly hazardous because of these countries' relatively high baseline death rates, which can be further exacerbated by medium to low concentrations of PM 2.5.

The WHO, the United Nations Environment Programme and the World Bank should fund a network of flagship stations to monitor the chemistry of air at key locations, starting with these hotspots and expanding to others. In situ cell and animal studies should also be conducted across cities. Methodologies will need to be standardized for studies of cells, animals and humans. For cell-based assays, the toxicities of PM 2.5 mixtures could be quantified relative to the impacts of other chemicals, as is done in water-quality assessments, for example.

Data from different locations and seasons should be openly shared and synthesized in a global database of toxicity, similar to the WHO data on global mortality related to air pollution (see go.nature.com/2fiq3tr). A toxicity database could also collect personalized air-quality data, for example from wearable sensors, and determine links between individual exposure to pollutants and health conditions.

More data should be collected on people's behaviours and perceptions, to find out how human activity determines exposure to air pollution. For example, such data could be translated into personalized air-quality and health-management alerts and recommendations. Smart travel warnings could be produced for sensitive individuals to help them to avoid hazardous exposures, such as when traffic emissions are high or weather conditions are likely to form haze.

Upcoming sessions on air pollution at the International Society of Environmental Epidemiology's August conference, the December meeting of the American Geophysical Union and other international scientific events should pave the way for the research collaborations that are needed.

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Air pollution: a global problem needs local fixes

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Researchers must find the particles that are most dangerous to health in each place so policies can reduce levels of those pollutants first, urge Xiangdong Li and colleagues. Researchers must find the particles that are most dangerous to health in each place so policies can reduce levels of those pollutants first, urge Xiangdong Li and colleagues.

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https://www.pureearth.org/the-pollution-blog/
DATE: June, 13. 2022
SOURCE: PureEarth

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Sign up to stay informed on our life saving work around the world.

You will receive our quarterly e-newsletter, hear updates from the field about lives we are transforming together, and learn about opportunities to get involved. #SolvePollution

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Sign up to stay informed on our life saving work around the world. You will receive our quarterly e-newsletter, hear updates from the field about lives we are transforming together, and learn about opportunities to get involved. #SolvePollution

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https://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/programs/geh/geh_newsletter/2014/4/articles/index.cfm
Date: 2014, April
Source: Paula Whitacre of the US National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences

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Air Pollution Accounts for 1 in 8 Deaths Worldwide, According to New WHO Estimates
By Paula Whitacre
Air pollution accounts for 1 in 8 deaths worldwide - approximately 7 million deaths in 2012, according to new data from the World Health Organization (WHO). The findings, released in late March, doubled previous estimates from just a few years ago in 2008. WHO now characterizes air pollution as "the world's largest single environmental health risk."

"The risks from air pollution are now far greater than previously thought or understood, particularly for heart disease and strokes," said Dr. Maria Neira, director of WHO's Department for Public Health, Environmental and Social Determinants of Health. "Few risks have a greater impact on global health today than air pollution; the evidence signals the need for concerted action to clean up the air we all breathe."
A Look at the Numbers
According to the WHO estimates, ambient air pollution (AAP), also known as outdoor air pollution accounted for 3.7 million deaths in 2012, most of them (88 percent) in low- and middle-income countries. Household air pollution (HAP) from such things as cooking and heating accounted for 4.3 million deaths, again mostly in low- and middle-income countries. The total number of estimated deaths is 7 million, rather than 8 million, to account for overlap among those who may have been affected by both AAP and HAP. South East Asia and the Western Pacific bear the largest burden from both sources of pollution.

The large increase in the estimates, WHO explains, is due to three main reasons:

Air pollution can now be linked to a larger number of conditions, including cardiovascular diseases and cancer, in addition to acute respiratory infections and chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD) (See box).

Researchers can make more refined assessments of pollutants due to improved measurement and tools

Non-communicable diseases that may be exacerbated by pollutants are on the rise.

Of the 7 million deaths, 46 percent were men over age 25, 41 percent were women over age 25, and 13 percent were children under age 5. WHO does not have similar data on children and young adults between ages 5 and 25.

Household air pollution results from cooking and heating homes with solid fuels, the effect of which is worsened with inadequate ventilation. Globally, 2.9 billion people, or 41 percent of households worldwide, are exposed to HAP from cooking-78 percent of those in Africa and 63 percent in Southeast Asia. Because of the division of labor in most households that relegates cooking to women, women and younger children who spend more time indoors are disproportionately affected by HAP.
NIEHS and Air Pollution Research
Although not involved in developing the WHO estimates, NIEHS has funded some of the key research identifying the human health impacts of both ambient and indoor air pollution. "NIEHS research provided the impetus for exploring if HAP was related to overall global health measures," noted Kimberly Gray, Ph.D., a health science administrator at NIEHS.

In addition to research support, NIEHS scientists also co-chair a working group on cookstove activities across NIH and a White House federal agency taskforce on cookstoves. These efforts bring together initiatives from throughout the U.S. government. "Coordination is essential and fruitful so we share lessons learned and scientific discoveries," Gray said.

NIEHS has also supported research to study the effects of AAP created by vehicles, power plants, and other sources. In early April, several NIEHS grantees shared their findings with regulators, public health advocates, and others at a conference on "Health Effects of Fine Particles from Vehicular Emissions," cosponsored by NIEHS and the Energy Future Coalition, and hosted by the Institute of Medicine.

During the opening session of the conference, NIEHS Director Linda Birnbaum, Ph.D. said, "The NIEHS investment in the past two decades has aided in understanding biological plausibility for the health effects observed in epidemiological studies." Birnbaum underscored that NIEHS-supported research has shown not only respiratory effects, but has also added to our current knowledge on cardiovascular impacts, as well as impacts on the nervous system and birth defects.
Next Steps
WHO plans to release Indoor Air Quality Guidelines in late 2014. These guidelines on the impacts of different fuels and technologies on air pollution and health will help member countries set their own standards and policies. WHO will also set up what it calls a Global Platform on Air Quality and Health as a way to stimulate coordination and information exchange. They will also continue to track and monitor air quality and health impacts, as well as to cooperate with international initiatives on air quality, energy, and health.

As a WHO Collaborating Center, NIEHS will continue to work with U.S. and global partners to further understand air pollution's health impacts and to improve public health as a result. "I think by keeping the NIEHS agenda in air pollution and health on the map and in the public eye," said Gray, "it will enhance our visibility, help us recruit innovative research, achieve our strategic goals in enhanced exposure biology response measures, improve exposure measure technologies, and identify early health effects."

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Feature Articles: Air Pollution Accounts for 1 in 8 Deaths Worldwide, According to New WHO Estimates

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By Paula Whitacre Air pollution accounts for 1 in 8 deaths worldwide - approximately 7 million deaths in 2012, according to new data from the World Health Organization (WHO). The findings, released in late March, doubled previous estimates from just a few years ago in 2008.

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https://www.denr.gov.ph/index.php/news-events/press-releases/3482-denr-air-pollution-levels-in-parts-of-metro-manila-shoot-up-during-new-year-revelry#:~:text=The%20initial%20report%20of%20the,hours%20of%20January%201%2C%202022.
DATE: January, 5. 2022
Source: Department of Environment and National Resources.

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The initial report of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources-Environmental Management Bureau (DENR-EMB) has shown that air pollution levels in two Metro Manila cities have exceeded the safe standards during the first two hours of January 1, 2022.

The DENR-EMB report showed that the air pollution levels in the cities of Marikina and Manila went beyond the standard of 150 micrograms per normal cubic meter (ug/Ncm) of particulate matter 10 or PM10.

Meanwhile, it is still conducting manual monitoring of 11 stations and is expected to come out with the laboratory analysis results on January 7.

"Now more than ever we should work together to correct this way of celebrating New Year revelries as we are all aware of the pulmonary health risks these firecrackers carry," DENR Secretary Roy A. Cimatu said.

To prevent spikes in air pollution levels, Cimatu encouraged the local government units to strictly enforce Executive Order No. 28 series of 2017 or the Regulation and Control of the Use of Firecrackers and Other Pyrotechnic Devices.

The DENR chief also called on Filipinos to use alternative ways to welcome the New Year such as making noise with pots and pans and blowing party horns or trumpets.

PM10 in firecrackers consists mainly of residues of the explosive powders wrapped in paper which consists of a mixture of sulfur (S), carbon (C), and potassium nitrate (saltpeter, KNO3), and other fine minerals which contain heavy metals.

According to health experts, particles in PM2.5 are able to travel deeply into a person's respiratory tract and can cause ill health effects and worsen the medical conditions of people with asthma or heart diseases.

Based on the data from the DENR-EMB, Marikina City's PM10 peaked at 347 ug/NCM around 2 a.m. of January 1, 2022, with an average concentration of 271 ug/NCM monitored from 12 a.m. to 2 a.m., or a 215 percent increase compared to the 2021 New Year's eve PM10 data.

In Manila, PM10 reached 156 ug/NCM between 1 a.m. and 2 a.m. but with an average concentration of 116 ug/NCM from 12 a.m. to 2 a.m., or a 68 percent increase compared to the 2021 New Year's eve PM10 data.

The short-term limit for 24-Hour Averaging Time for PM10 is 150 ug/Ncm under the National Ambient Air Quality Guideline Value (NAAQGV) of Republic Act 8749 or the Clean Air Act.

For PM2.5, only the Manila monitoring station in Mehan Garden recorded a maximum concentration of 113 ug/Ncm and an average concentration of 84 ug/Ncm from 12 a.m. to 2 a.m. on January 1, 2022.

The reading accounts for a 71 percent increase from 49 ug/Ncm obtained during the same period in 2021.

The short-term limit for PM2.5 is 35 ug/Ncm under the NAAQGV.

Outside Metro Manila, five air quality monitoring stations (AQMS) recorded an increase in the average concentration of PM10 between 12 a.m. and 2 a.m. of January 1, 2022, compared to 2021.

These are the San Fernando City Station in Pampanga at 77 percent (from 86 ug/Ncm in 2021 to 152 ug/Ncm in 2022); Antipolo City Station at 188 percent (from 16 ug/Ncm in 2021 to 46 ug/Ncm in 2022); Biñan City Station at 27 percent (from 11 ug/Ncm in 2021 to 14 ug/Ncm in 2022); Puerto Princesa City Station at 34 percent (from 32 ug/Ncm in 2021 to 43 ug/Ncm in 2022) and Calinan, Davao City Station at 55 percent (from 20 ug/Ncm in 2021 to 31 ug/Ncm in 2022).

On the other hand, a drop in concentration of PM10 was recorded in the Zamboanga City Station at 22 percent (from 9 ug/Ncm in 2021 to 7 ug/Ncm in 2022); Iligan City Station at 3 percent (from 34 ug/Ncm in 2021 to 33 ug/Ncm in 2022); and Davao International Airport Station at 32 percent (from 25 ug/Ncm in 2021 to 17 ug/Ncm in 2022).

In terms of PM2.5 concentration, three air quality monitoring stations recorded an increase in the average concentration of PM2.5 from 12 a.m. to 2 a.m. of January 1, 2022, namely the Calinan, Davao City Station at 217 percent (from 6 ug/Ncm in 2021 to 19 ug/Ncm in 2022); Iligan City Station at 67 percent (from 15 ug/Ncm in 2021 to 25 ug/Ncm in 2022); and Zamboanga City Station at 13 percent (from 8 ug/Ncm in 2021 to 9 ug/Ncm in 2022).

Three AQMS recorded a decrease in the concentration of PM2.5 in the ambient air, namely the Puerto Princesa City Station at 46 percent (from 37 ug/Ncm in 2021 to 20 ug/Ncm in 2022), Davao International Airport, Davao City Station at 20 percent (from 10 ug/Ncm in 2021 to 8 ug/Ncm in 2022); and Sta. Rosa City, Laguna Station at 11 percent (from 27 ug/Ncm in 2021 to 24 ug/Ncm in 2022). ###

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DENR: Air pollution levels in parts of Metro Manila shoot up during New Year revelry

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The initial report of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources-Environmental Management Bureau (DENR-EMB) has shown that air pollution levels in two Metro Manila cities have exceeded the safe standards during the first two hours of January 1, 2022.

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https://www.the-scientist.com/tag/pollution
Information on pollution from 2020-2022
Source: TheScientist

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Q&A: Pollution Linked to 15 Percent Increase in COVID-19 Deaths

Jos Lelieveld of the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry explains how fine particulate might contribute to deaths from COVID-19.

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Pollution News, Articles | The Scientist Magazine®

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Q&A: Pollution Linked to 15 Percent Increase in COVID-19 Deaths Jos Lelieveld of the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry explains how fine particulate might contribute to deaths from COVID-19.

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https://www.sunstar.com.ph/article/1823985/davao/local-news/air-quality-in-davao-city-still-good
DATE: June, 22. 2022 (Wednesday)
Author: Sunstar
RALPH LAWRENCE G. LLEMIT
Location: Davao City

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THE air quality in Davao City is still safe despite the presence of haze covering parts of the city during daytime.

Haze is an atmospheric phenomenon in which dust, smoke, and other dry particulates obscure the clarity of the sky.

The latest incident came after a forest fire hit Indonesia, wherein thousands of fires intended to clear agricultural land for plantations created thick clouds of smoke that forced disruptions in work, school, and air travel.

The haze, brought about by the fires, has reached neighboring countries like Singapore, Malaysia, and the Philippines.

In the country, it has reached some parts in Visayas and Mindanao due to the low pressure area and the habagat (southwest monsoon).

The Department of Environment and Natural Resources-Environmental Management Bureau (DENR-EMB) ambient air quality monitoring unit head Melvin Dapitanon said the city had an overall "good air quality."

Based on the air quality index (AQI) as of 8 a.m. Thursday, September 19, the sensors at the Francisco Bangoy International Airport recorded particulates reaching 29 micrograms per normal cubic meter, as conducted by the Particulate Matter (PM) 10 test, while sensors at the Calinan National High School recorded 61 micrograms per normal cubic meter.

According to the AQI, air quality is good between 0 and 51, fair between 55 and 154, and acutely unhealthy between 355 and 454.

"Our air quality is good all throughout, although there have been some increase. But, overall it is in a good condition," Dapitanon told SunStar Davao in a phone interview.

He said the haze had reached the city last September 14, where there was a significant increase of air pollutants.

Dapitanon said the haze is visible during daytime brought about by the saturated humidity of the air.

"The concentration of the particulate matter reduces in the afternoon or in the evening," he said.

However, he said the pollutants had reached its lowest level last September 17.

He said air quality is also "good" in the areas of the Francisco Bangoy International Airport (Davao International Airport), which is good for conducting air flights.

"Possibly, we would be experiencing it for days until next week wherein there will be changes in the wind direction," Dapitanon said.

Meanwhile, the Department of Health (DOH)-Davao, in its official Facebook page, reminded the public to take precautionary measures as the air pollution brought by the haze could pose respiratory tract infections and cardiac ailments.

DOH said elderly, children, and those with the above-mentioned conditions should stay indoors with good ventilation, wear appropriate face masks when going outside, refrain from physical activities in heavily polluted areas, and exercise extreme caution when on the road to prevent accidents.

The health agency also reminded motorists to use headlights or fog lights while driving during the night, and to stay away from low-lying areas where smoke and suspended particles may settle.

The DOH also reminded patients suffering from difficulty in breathing, coughing, chest pain, and nose/throat irritation to consult a doctor for medical intervention.

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THE air quality in Davao City is still safe despite the presence of haze covering parts of the city during daytime. Haze is an atmospheric phenomenon in which dust, smoke, and other dry particulates obscure the clarity of the sky.