# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Edutopia is a free source of information, inspiration, and practical strategies for learning and teaching in preK-12 education. We are published by the George Lucas Educational Foundation, a nonprofit, nonpartisan organization.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Note: Some links in this post may be affiliate links. If you click on these links, at no additional cost to you, Ditch That Textbook may receive a commission from your purchase.
Norman Webb's Depth of Knowledge model can help teachers create learning opportunities that hit a variety of complexity levels. It is a framework for evaluating the level of complex thinking required to complete a task.

The four levels of the Depth Of Knowledge framework.

From Now THAT'S a Good Question! by Erik Francis

DOK level 1: Recall. What is the knowledge? Who? What? When? Where?

DOK level 2: Skill/concept. How can the knowledge be used? How can you arrive at the answer?

DOK level 3: Strategic thinking. Why does it happen the way it does? How/why could the knowledge be used?

DOK level 4: Extended thinking. How else could you use the knowledge? What can you design, develop, do with it?

This DOK model provides us with a guide as we develop lessons that create opportunities for complex thinking. And it is a useful tool for evaluating the level of rigor we are adding to our lessons.
But we don't need to be at DOK level 4 all of the time.
In his article Using Webb's Depth of Knowledge to Increase Rigor, Gerald Aungst states, "DOK levels are not sequential. Students need not fully master content with Level 1 tasks before doing Level 2 tasks. In fact, giving students an intriguing Level 3 task can provide context and motivation for engaging in the more routine learning at Levels 1 and 2."

So how do we provide opportunities for students to complete tasks at all DOK levels? And what are the best strategies and activities at each depth of knowledge level?

In a past #Ditchbook chat, we asked the community to share their best strategies or activities to help students at each DOK level. And once again they came through!

Below you will find 30 activities for ANY Depth of Knowledge level. Note that the personalized instruction before, during, and after these activities can take an activity from one level to another. Also, be sure to check out this Wakelet collection to see the entire chat.

30 activities for ANY DOK level

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
30 activities for any Depth of Knowledge level

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Webb's Depth of Knowledge model is a useful tool for evaluating our lessons. What are the best strategies or activities to help students at each DOK level? Here are lots of ideas.

# data[].attributes.headline
Information on MATH Olympiad with Sample Problems (club option)

# data[].attributes.subject
Information on MATH Olympiad with Sample Problems (club option)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Math Olympiads for Elementary and Middle Schools – MOEMS

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Results: 1-40 of 194   |   Refined by: Part of: Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress   Remove Available Online   Remove

Classroom Material

Abraham Lincoln: Rise to National Prominence A selection of Library of Congress primary sources exploring Abraham Lincoln and his national role. This set also includes a Teacher's Guide with historical context and teaching suggestions. Speeches, correspondence, campaign materials...

Date: 1855

Classroom Material

After Reconstruction Students use Library of Congress primary sources to identify problems and issues facing African Americans immediately after Reconstruction.

Classroom Material

Alexander Hamilton Manuscripts, images, and historic newspapers document the life and accomplishments of Alexander Hamilton. This set also includes a Teacher's Guide with historical context and teaching suggestions. Manuscripts, images, and historic newspapers document...

Date: 1757

Classroom Material

America at the Centennial Students use Library of Congress primary sources to examine items and images of the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition of 1876.

Classroom Material

The American Dream Students use Library of Congress primary sources to examine 19th and 20th century social life in the United States in order to formulate ideas about the American Dream.

Classroom Material

Around the World in 1896 Students use Library of Congress primary sources to plan, take, and document a trip around the world in 1896.

Classroom Material

Baseball Across a Changing Nation A selection of Library of Congress primary sources exploring baseball and the various ways it was experienced by Americans between the close of the Civil War and the beginning of WWII. This...

Date: 1860

Classroom Material

Baseball, Race Relations and Jackie Robinson Students use Library of Congress primary sources to examine race relations in the mid-20th century United States through a close reading of two documents relating to Jackie Robinson's breaking of the racial...

Classroom Material

Billy the Kid: Perspectives on an Outlaw Students use Library of Congress primary sources to examine the role that gunfighters played in the settlement of the West and distinguish between their factual and fictional accounts.

Classroom Material

Charts and Graphs A selection of Library of Congress primary sources exploring charts and graphs. This set also includes a Teachers Guide with historical context and teaching suggestions.

Date: 1900

Classroom Material

Child Labor in America Students use Library of Congress primary sources to examine reformer/photographer Lewis Hine's photographs of child labor.

Classroom Material

Children's Lives at the Turn of the Twentieth Century A selection of Library of Congress primary sources exploring Children's Lives at the Turn of the Twentieth Century. This set also includes a Teachers Guide with historical context and teaching suggestions.

Date: 1890

Classroom Material

Civil War Music A selection of Library of Congress primary sources exploring historical perspectives about the American Civil War. This set also includes a Teacher's Guide with historical context and teaching suggestions.

Date: 1861

Classroom Material

The Civil War: The Nation Moves Towards War, 1850-61 Conflict between abolition and slavery marked the 1850s, preceding the election of 1860 and the attack on Fort Sumter that started the Civil War. The Kansas-Nebraska Act, Dred Scott, Harriet Beecher Stowe,...

Date: 1850

Classroom Material

The Constitution A selection of Library of Congress primary sources exploring the United States Constitution. This set also includes a Teacher's Guide with historical context and teaching suggestions.

Date: 1785

Additional Navigation

Teachers Home
The Library of Congress offers classroom materials and professional development to help teachers effectively use primary sources from the Library's vast digital collections in their teaching.

Analysis Tool & Guide
To help your students analyze these primary sources, get a graphic organizer and guides.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Search results from Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress, Available Online

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Library of Congress makes millions of unique primary sources available online to everyone, everywhere. There are a few different ways to discover the best primary sources for you.

Select from a curated set

Primary Source Sets - Each set collects primary sources on a specific frequently-taught topic, along with historical background information and teaching ideas.

Free to Use and Reuse Sets - Batches of primary sources on engaging topics.

U.S. History Primary Sources Timeline - Explore important topics and moments in U.S. history through historical primary sources from the Library's collections.

Search the online collections

Successful searches of the online collections of the Library of Congress, as with any archival research institution, begin with an understanding of what is likely to be found. Many considerations, including copyright, collection strengths, and how materials were acquired, factor into what can be digitized and made available online. The Library's online collections are extensive, but they do have limits, and are strongest in the nineteenth and early part of the twentieth century.

Use the search box at the top of the Library of Congress home page. A few tips:

Before starting your search take a moment to make a list of possible search terms.

Remember that different words or phrases may have been used to describe events or items in the past. For example: In the past the flu was sometimes known as the grippe.

People or places may have been identified differently or may have used different names previously. For example: Eleanor Roosevelt may be known as Mrs. Franklin D. Roosevelt.

There may be different spellings for names or places during the period you're researching.

Use the drop-down menu to the left of the search box to select a format, like Maps, before you search.

To the left you will see a list of ways to narrow your search results. Scroll to the bottom to Access Condition and select "Available Online."

Scroll back to the top and narrow your search results using the facets to the left of your search results, like Date and Location.

Select "Gallery" or "Grid" to change how you view the results. You can:

increase the number of items you see at one time at the bottom of the page;

change how the results are organized so they can be seen chronologically or in alphabetical order.

Find an item that is of interest? On the item page look to the right and find the subject headings listed. You can click on those to see what other items are listed under that same subject heading.

Explore related items at the bottom of the page.

Additional search tips can be found on the Library's Search Help page.

Explore online resources

Congress.gov - Explore current and historic information on bills, laws and the legislative branch of the government.

Chronicling America - Access historic newspapers from all fifty states and the District of Columbia for accounts of historic and everyday events as reported at the time they happened.

Digital Collections - Access digital versions of some of the Library of Congress collections.

Check with the experts

Teaching with the Library blog - Short (500 words or less) posts featuring primary sources and teaching ideas.

Other Library blogs offer tips on finding Library resources, suggestions for other search terms or research ideas, and expert secondary information.

Today in History - Provides information and links to primary sources about a specific event in history.

Research Guides - In-depth guides to Library resources on a wide variety of topics.

Ask a Librarian - Send a question to a Library of Congress reference librarian. We're happy to help!

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Finding Primary Sources | Getting Started with Primary Sources | Teachers | Programs | Library of Congress

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Library of Congress makes millions of unique primary sources available online to everyone, everywhere. There are a few different ways to discover the best primary sources for you.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
What Are Habits of Mind? - The Institute for Habits of Mind

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
For Teachers Ever find yourself doubting whether you are creative? Many people assume that creativity is a rare commodity that someone is either born with or not and that it is reserved for the elite among us: artists, writers, and composers, or the likes of Miles Davis, Steve Jobs, or Frida Kahlo.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
In outcomes-based learning environments, we generally see three elements in play: 1) learning objectives or targets are created from given standards; 2) instruction of some kind is given; and then 3) learning results are assessed. These assessments offer data to inform the revision of further planned instruction. Rinse and repeat.

But lost in this clinical sequence are the Habits of Mind that (often predictably) lead to success or failure in the mastery of given standards. In fact, it is not in the standards or assessments, but rather these personal habits where success or failure-in academic terms-actually begin. Below are all 16 Habits of Mind, each with a tip, strategy or resource to understand and begin implementation in your classroom.

See also What Are The Habits Of Mind?

The habits themselves aren't new at all, and significant work has already been done in the areas of these 'thinking habits.' However, in a 21st-century learning environment - one often inundated with information, stimulation, and connectivity - there may be a newfound context for their application.

And a renewed urgency for their integration.

The Habits of Mind (by Art Costa and Bena Kallick) don't simply represent fragments of practice to 'add on' to what you already do, but rather new ways to think about how people learn.

16 Strategies For Integrating The Habits Of Mind In The Classroom

1. Persisting

Have students identify characteristics of persistence shown by individuals in well-known events, or imagine what might have occurred if more or less persistence was shown in a given scenario.

2. Managing Impulsivity

Model the use of patience in the classroom, including wait time during discussion, or using helpful sentence stems that reflect intentional choice (such as "After reviewing all of the possible solutions . . . ").

3. Listening to Others with Understanding and Empathy

Identify the most common 'listening set-asides' in conversation so that students can begin to recognize common 'errors' that occur in everyday communication. These errors might include comparing, judging, placating, or giving advice instead of really listening and understanding a message.

4. Thinking Flexibly

Use RAFT assignments (Role, Audience, Format, Topic) where students must consider a situation, letter, speech or poem from a perspective other than their own, or that of the original speakers.

Ask students to map out their own thinking processes. This can be done simply at first, e.g., diagramming the relationship between a want and a need, a gesture and a need to gesture. Then make it increasingly complex - mapping out how characters from books or thinkers in history might have arrived at certain starting or stopping points in thought.

6. Striving for Accuracy and Precision

Use 'three before me,' a strategy that insists on any important assignment being checked by at least three other people before being handed in.

7. Questioning and Posing Problems

Create a 'parking lot' area in the classroom - stocked with post-it notes - where students can post questions that may not fit into the pace or format of a given class. Then highlight the better questions periodically, or use them as jumping-off points for discussion or even lesson planning.

8. Applying Past Knowledge to New Situations

Use question stems like "What do you remember about . . . ?", "When have you ever seen anything like this?" or "Tell me what you know about . . . " Whether you consider this activating schema, prior knowledge, or simply getting students more comfortable and in tune with what they already know, it can be a huge boost to the learning process.

9. Thinking and Communicating with Clarity and Precision

Remind students to avoid the vagueness and abstraction - and imprecision - of terms like always, never, all, everybody, teachers, celebrities, technology, they, we, should and must. Post these kinds of words or phrases where students can be reminded of them - and know to avoid them. And hopefully know why they should avoid them.

10. Gathering Data Through All Senses

Playfully allow students to 'cite' sources from sensory data in addition to traditional textual sources. Also consider including the compelling use of such data in a rubric for formal assessment.

11. Creating, Imagining and Innovating

Offer persistent sources of inspiring thought, design, art or multimedia through writing prompts, discussion points or simply as a daily class closure. This models not only creativity, but also expertise, and is readily available on YouTube, Pinterest, and Instagram.

12. Responding with Wonderment and Awe

Don't just allow opportunities for student choice in topics, formats or learning pathways - insist on it. Refuse to move the class forward until they are bringing their own passions into the learning experience.

13. Taking Responsible Risks

Create an environment where failure is analyzed, not punished.

14. Finding Humor

Point out humor where it is not immediately apparent, especially in stories and examples from your own life. This can help establish the 'relativity' of 'things,' which supports more accurate analysis. Humor makes everything better.

15. Thinking Interdependently

Using digital and social media imposes at least a topical need for interdependence from the beginning. The more thinking is published and shared, the more opportunity there will be for cognitive interdependence, though even opportunities don't guarantee that it will happen.

16. Learning Continuously

Intermittently revisit old ideas, writing, and projects to identify areas for development, improvement, or revision. This is especially natural in digital domains, where content is more fluid - updated, shared, hyperlinked, curated, reformatted into more or less visual terms, then shared again.

I know that these are just the tip of the iceberg and that there are many approaches one can take. Which of these Habits of Mind needs the most support for your students? How do you integrate these habits into your classroom?
This post was originally written by Terry Heick for edutopia.org

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Integrating The Habits Of Mind In The Classroom

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
In outcomes-based learning environments, we generally see three elements in play: 1) learning objectives or targets are created from given standards; 2) instruction of some kind is given; and then 3) learning results are assessed. These assessments offer data to inform the revision of further planned instruction. Rinse and repeat.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.provider_name
The Institute for Arts Integration and STEAM

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Teaching with the Habits of Mind can be done in many different ways. Here's a guide with free lesson ideas, video clips, and templates.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Jacob's Ladder is a supplemental reading program for the William & Mary language arts units; Jacob's Ladder targets reading comprehension and critical thinking skills in high-ability learners. In the form of three skill ladders connected to individual readings in poetry, myths/fables, and nonfiction, students move from lower-order, concrete thinking skills to higher-order, critical thinking skills. For example, Ladder A moves students from Sequencing to Cause and Effect to Consequences and Implications. These materials are now available from gifted education publisher Routledge.

Grades K-8

The skill ladders in Jacob's Ladder correspond with the higher-level critical thinking skills targeted in the William & Mary language arts units; both are based on Paul's (1992) Reasoning Model [pdf].

Jacob's Ladder is a learning journey for students which begins with targeted readings from short stories, poetry, essays, and nonfiction sources and moves through an inquiry process from basic understanding to critical analyses of the texts read. There are five levels available that are targeted to students in grades K to 8, but can be used at different grade levels depending on student ability. The units are designed to enhance reading comprehension. Tasks have been organized by skill ladders with questions and activities within each. Ladder rungs are organized to increase complexity in intellectual demand. The skill ladders in Jacob's Ladder correspond with the higher-level critical thinking skills targeted in the William & Mary language arts units; both are based on Paul's(1992) Elements of Reasoning model [pdf].

The teacher's guide provides an explanation of the nature and substance of supplementary tasks in reading comprehension that will help prepare students for their state assessment tests. At the same time, these tasks will move them from basic reading comprehension skills to more critical reading behaviors. Also included are an overview of the goals and objectives of Jacob's Ladder tasks and implementation suggestions.

Jacob's Ladder Curriculum (Original Reading Comprehension Program)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Jacob's Ladder Reading Comprehension Program

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Jacob's Ladder is a supplemental reading program for the William & Mary language arts units; Jacob's Ladder targets reading comprehension and critical thinking skills in high-ability learners. In the form of three skill ladders connected to individual readings in poetry, myths/fables, and nonfiction, students move from lower-order, concrete thinking skills to higher-order, critical thinking skills.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Developmentally-Appropriate Printables for 4-6

Click on the links below to access a selection of our downloadable active learning plans, graphic organizers, and more! Over 200 lessons are included in a Habits of Mind for Grades 4-6 subscription.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Middle School Resources - Habits of Mind Kids

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Click on the links below to access a selection of our downloadable active learning plans, graphic organizers, and more! Over 200 lessons are included in a Habits of Mind for Grades 4-6 subscription.

# data[].attributes.headline
Information on Push in/Pull out Programs

# data[].attributes.subject
Information on Push in/Pull out Programs

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Our Community Projects program encourages students to apply our problem-solving process to service-learning to create lasting change.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Gifted Guru's Amazon Page - Middle Grade Books

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Shop recommended products from Gifted Guru on www.amazon.com. Learn more about Gifted Guru's favorite products.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Who Can Participate. Any Utah student in grades 4-12

Is the program limited to Utah history? No. Topics can be selected from local, national, and world history.

What are the five creative categories NHD offers? Students can choose to create an exhibit, a documentary film, a paper, a live performance, or a website to present their work.

Can I participate if my school does not? YES! No teacher sponsor is necessary to compete as an independent student in the local regional competition.

What is the cost? It is FREE!
Utah History Day Teacher of the Year Award
Since 2017, the Utah History Day Teacher of the Year Award is given to an outstanding UHD teacher in honor of Mike Johnson, who directed this program from 1991-2006. Mike was respected and loved by the teachers and schools he served throughout the state, and he cultivated a dynamic approach to history education through what was then called the Utah History Fair.

Winners receive $500 and are nominated for the national Patricia Behring Teacher of the Year Award.

2021: Elizabeth Halloran, Westland Elementary

2020: Lisa Pockrus, Ogden High School

2019: Melissa Crandall, Union Middle School (Sandy)

2018: Lynda Boyle, Monticello High School (Monticello)

2017: Laura Lefler, Timberline Middle School (Alpine)

2016: Kim Perry, Clayton Middle School (SLC); Tacy Hymas, Mount Logan Middle School (Logan)

2015: Candace Peters, Centerville Elementary; Chris Sweeney, Carbon High School (Price)

2014: Sara Hacken, Lakeridge Jr. High School (Orem)

2013: Michael Wagner, Tabiona Public School; Jeff Low, Thomas Edison Charter School North (Logan); JoLyne Merchant, Thomas Edison Charter School South (Logan)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Utah History Day | Utah Division of State History

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Who Can Participate. Any Utah student in grades 4-12 Is the program limited to Utah history? No. Topics can be selected from local, national, and world history. What are the five creative categories NHD offers? Students can choose to create an exhibit, a documentary film, a paper, a live performance, or a website to present their work.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
KidCitizen provides a growing set of interactive Episodes where K-5 students work with primary source photographs to explore Congress and Civic Engagement. The episodes work on Macs, PCs, Chromebooks, iOS and Android tablets.

# data[].attributes.body
William and Mary (curriculum option)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A Navigator is a collection of questions and activities intended to support group or independent study of a selected novel or picture book. The Navigator series was developed by the Center for Gifted Education at William & Mary as a language arts resource for teachers and students.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Introduction to the Prompts of Depth and Complexity - Project Linking Learning

# data[].attributes.headline
Teaching Vocab with Depth and Complexity

# data[].attributes.subject
Teaching Vocab with Depth and Complexity

# data[].attributes.headline
Information on Depth and Complexity Icons

# data[].attributes.subject
Information on Depth and Complexity Icons

# data[].attributes.headline
Videos on teaching Depth and Complexity Icons through ME

# data[].attributes.subject
Videos on teaching Depth and Complexity Icons through ME

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
This page failed to load. Our development team has been informed of the issue.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Notes from Utah Administrative Rule R277-707-3B 

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Research shows that talent development and gifted education are effective, but more research is needed into how well they work for specific populations of students.
For decades, Americans have held conflicting views about the wisdom of offering advanced educational courses of study - such as honors classes, Advanced Placement (AP) courses, and special programs for "gifted" students - in the public schools. On one hand, supporters argue that these programs benefit not just the students but all of us, since they identify and nurture talented individuals who will go on to play leading roles in society. On the other hand, critics decry advanced programming as elitist, inequitable, and (on balance) harmful to the country, since they tend to benefit children who are already advantaged, while taking resources away from those who can't participate.

In recent years, policy makers and the media have generally taken a positive view of advanced education programs, especially AP, which has seen its enrollments grow rapidly across much of the country, more than doubling between 2009 and 2019. Today, however, advanced programs are coming under fire once again, especially in urban school districts, and with particular urgency given the present economic crisis and heightened concerns about systemic racism.

Much of the current criticism is familiar from past debates: "Those kids will be fine on their own, without special programs." "You shouldn't separate students based on ability; teachers can just differentiate for every student in the regular classroom." "Advanced programs are biased against lower-income students."

The counterarguments, too, are familiar: "All children should have the opportunity to learn something new in school every day." "Curriculum should be challenging to all students." "Students who come to school learning well above grade level should be given the opportunity to go beyond."

From our perspective, advocates make the stronger case.

These attempts to dismiss the benefits of advanced programs tend to be thinly sourced, if they contain any supporting research at all. For example, the SDAG report has 37 citations, the majority of which are newspaper stories, think pieces, or a report of the SDAG - in other words, not research. By contrast, where analysts have taken a careful and even-handed approach to reviewing the evidence in this area (as in, for example, the recent report commissioned by the Massachusetts Department of Education; Ansel, 2019), they have arrived at generally positive conclusions about the effectiveness of advanced education.

Consideration of what kinds of programs we should or should not offer in public schools - by school boards, superintendents, state legislatures, or the general public - may well lead to the conclusion that the pros of advanced programming are outweighed by the cons, or that other investments should have priority. However, if the debate is to be rational, it is important that those who weigh in are informed about the existing defensible evidence rather than relying on false, one-sided assertions or biased "popular" claims.

Reviewing the evidence

However, if we lack gold-standard research, that doesn't mean we lack evidence. In fact, there is a great deal of intervention research regarding the effectiveness of programs for advanced learners. Below, we summarize the evidence base for various types of interventions. Because randomized experimental studies aren't available in large numbers for every intervention, we rely on studies offering a preponderance of evidence that an intervention is effective, with a bias toward experimental studies when available.

Asking these kinds of specific questions about specific programs is much more useful than lumping together a wide variety of interventions and trying to measure their overall effectiveness.

Also, we have chosen to focus on studies that measure the effectiveness of educational models and interventions. Some researchers have attempted to examine "gifted programs" , and they have found that gifted education produces meager effects (e.g., Adelson, McCoach, & Gavin, 2012; Bui, Craig, & Imberman, 2014). However, that makes no more sense than concluding that "science education" has meager effects. One has to ask: What of science education? How was it being taught? What curricula are we talking about? How are the teachers prepared? Asking these kinds of specific questions about specific programs - whether we're discussing science education or gifted education - is much more useful than lumping together a wide variety of interventions and trying to measure their overall effectiveness.

The following synopses provide overviews of the available research support for specific kinds of advanced educational programs, roughly in order from most to least support. Although we assume that the interventions studied below were well- designed and carefully implemented, we caution that not every strategy works the same every time, even in similar contexts, for every student.

Strategies that have the strongest research base

One of the most-studied intervention strategies for advanced learners, acceleration refers to moving particular students forward more quickly than is typical, such as by having them enter kindergarten early, skip grades, study a telescoped curriculum (i.e., compressing material into a shorter time frame ), or participate in dual enrollment or early college programs. Researchers have gathered overwhelming evidence that acceleration has positive effects on student achievement, and the evidence also dispels the myth that acceleration is detrimental to students' social engagement or emotional well-being. No doubt, the research base could be strengthened by additional experimental studies, as well as evaluations of acceleration's effects on diverse populations. Overall, though, evidence that acceleration increases student learning is hard to question, at this point.

Although the evidence of the effectiveness of ability grouping is not as clear cut as the data supporting acceleration, researchers have provided convincing evidence that flexible ability grouping (i.e., grouping that can change as student abilities and needs change) is a net positive for the learning of our most and least advanced students. Of course, the important distinction here is the contrast between the concept of flexible grouping and tracking. Flexible grouping (often implemented as cluster grouping; see Gentry, 2018) provides students with opportunities to be grouped and regrouped for instruction across and between different academic areas, with student placements shifting across time as developmental differences emerge or a student responds differentially to instruction. Tracking, on the other hand, involves placing students in rigid groups from which they rarely move, a practice for which there is little research support.

In a comprehensive analysis of existing research on this topic, Steenbergen-Hu and colleagues (2016) found that within-class ability grouping was the most effective grouping strategy for promoting advanced learning, and the research suggests students in the top and bottom achievement quartiles may benefit the most from ability grouping, with students in the middle quartiles experiencing little to no benefit or deficit (Plucker & Callahan, 2014). For the positive effects to appear, students must receive an appropriately differentiated curriculum, by, for example, being assigned tasks such as reading poems that are a higher level of complexity or require deeper levels of understanding or simply learning activities from a more advanced grade level.

A growing body of evidence suggests implementation of pre-differentiated, prescriptive curricula for advanced learners - those who have provided evidence of excelling in particular domains of learning - tends to result in more advanced outcomes than grade-level curricula or less-structured enrichment opportunities (Plucker & Callahan, 2014). These pre-differentiated curricula are characterized by clearly stated learning outcomes, strategies for formative assessment accompanied by direction on how to use data effectively in modifying curricular and instructional decisions, lesson plans that reflect the modification based on student data, and assessments that reflect the varied learning levels. Both standardized achievement tests and specific curricular assessments have shown that students who were randomly chosen to participate in lessons using these curricula achieved at higher levels than did similar students who were offered standard lessons. To date, strong evidence for these benefits has been found in a number of subject areas - science, social studies, reading, language arts, and mathematics (e.g., Callahan et al., 2015; Gavin et al. 2009; VanTassel-Baska, 2002; VanTassel-Baska, 2009) - as well as in homogeneous classrooms, pull-out classes, and heterogeneous classrooms. Several of the curricula also show promise in boosting the achievement of advanced students in underserved settings, specifically those in Title I classrooms (VanTassel-Baska et al., 2009) and in low-income, rural schools (Callahan et al., in press).

Strategies that have strong evidence, but require additional research

Enrichment programs with a focus on the development of process skills (creative thinking, higher-level thinking skills, etc.) and with a focus on language arts at the elementary level are among the most widely used forms of advanced education (Callahan, Moon, & Oh, 2017), but the research literature includes relatively few third-party or experimental studies - although that situation has been improving (see Reis et al., 2011). The available research is mixed but generally promising, especially for residential summer enrichment programs such as those offered on university campuses or at satellite locations but operated by such programs as the Center for Talented Youth at Johns Hopkins University or Center for Talent Development at Northwestern University (e.g., Aljughaiman & Ayoub, 2013; Hany & Grosch, 2007; Kim, 2016). To date, though, there have been few high-quality research studies on the value of enrichment programs for underserved populations.

We suspect that it would be particularly helpful if researchers were to study enrichment programs using experimental methods to determine whether they have positive impacts on a range of highly desirable soft skills (such as communication, collaboration, creativity, and the development of personal interests) without any negative impact on student test scores. We suspect this will be the case, but given the mixed research on enrichment to date, this research needs to be prioritized. Given the interest-driven nature of enrichment programs, this is likely one of the best, if not the best, interventions for developing creativity, and if researchers were to find that it has no negative effects, that would make it an even more attractive strategy for advanced learning.

Research on Advanced Placement and International Baccalaureate provides ample positive data from surveys of teachers and students (Callahan & Hertberg-Davis, 2018), but the experimental research is mixed in quality (often failing to control for demographic and aptitude variables) and has mixed results regarding student outcomes (e.g., Dickson, Perry, & Ledger, 2018). Although it appears that students who were successful in AP classes are more likely to be successful in college, the predictive strength varies by course. And there are signs that these courses may be detrimental for some students who do not achieve above minimal AP test scores.

It is commendable that many states have implemented policies designed to help more students of color to participate and succeed in AP classes, and the work of Chester Finn and Andrew Scanlan (2019) offers case-study evidence of positive effects of AP participation for poor and minority students. What we need next, however, are more experimental studies that can provide solid evidence of the effectiveness of these policies and associated practices and that can help determine what will be most beneficial for the greatest number and range of students.

A strategy supported by few causal studies

Among the oldest strategies for advanced education are public high schools that selectively choose high-performing students based on entrance exam scores (hence the label "exam schools"). However, despite the long history of this approach to advanced learning, very few experimental studies have been conducted on such schools, and other sophisticated research designs have produced mixed-to-negative results regarding whether attendance at selective high schools improves student outcomes (Abdulkadiroğlu et al., 2014; Dobbie & Fryer, 2014). In essence, the research issue for selective schools is not whether their students have impressive accomplishments (e.g., admission to highly selective colleges, major academic awards, high SAT and ACT scores) but whether their students would not have the same accomplishments if they attended another, non-exam high school.

The issues surrounding exam schools are complex and controversial (Finn & Hockett, 2012), replete with long-standing questions about lack of diversity in these schools, their value-added for students, and their ability to close excellence gaps, but advocates and policy makers should not expect the research to provide much insight in this area.

Strategies with little evidence of effectiveness

Given the strategies and evidence described above, educators and policy makers can reasonably conclude there are research-supported interventions to promote advanced learning. However, most students who would benefit from advanced education spend most of their time in heterogeneous classrooms, with some having access to a pull-out classroom for a very limited time period each day (typically less than an hour per week) with a focus on enrichment learning activities (Callahan, Moon, & Oh, 2017). The heterogeneous classroom approach relies heavily on teachers' willingness, skill, and time to differentiate curriculum and instruction for the wide range of student performance levels in their classrooms, including students who want and need a greater challenge (Peters et al., 2017). However, there is evidence that only a limited cadre of teachers are effective at doing so (Hertberg-Davis, 2009 ), and few studies have produced evidence that differentiation has a positive effect on student learning (Ober, 2016). Many teachers themselves appear to recognize how difficult it is to provide this sort of instruction effectively (Loveless, Parkas, & Duffett, 2008).

For their part, researchers note that the evidence base is thin in this area. For example, little is known about how working in heterogeneous classrooms affects teachers' sense of efficacy, whether teachers improve over time at providing differentiated instruction, and more (Subban, 2006). Indeed, in our experience, those who advocate for differentiation as the primary strategy for addressing academic diversity have little to offer as evidence of its effectiveness beyond lists of districts that are trying this approach. And, as with other strategies for providing advanced education, there is little to no research on the effects of instructional and curricular differentiation on outcomes for racially, ethnically, or socioeconomically diverse students.

Increasingly, in recent years, we've heard educators make the claim that advanced education programs are no longer necessary in their school district, given the benefits of newly adopted psychosocial interventions - such as those targeting growth mindset, grit, or learning styles. Moreover, we continue to hear educators make the familiar argument that advanced education can cause psychosocial harm to students (e.g., Boaler, 2018; Matthews & Foster, 2013; Scott, 2013).

However, a review of the relevant research literature concluded that psychosocial interventions such as those noted above are not suitable for routine use in schools and may not work at all to promote advanced achievement and close excellence gaps (Plucker & Peters, 2018). Since that review, the research has turned significantly more negative, with major studies and reviews finding mixed to little evidence that psychosocial interventions provide learning benefits for any group of students - and especially advanced students (e.g., Burgoyne, Hambrick, & Macnamara, 2020; Burnette et al., 2020; Gandhi & Raver, 2020; Sisk et al., 2018). Even though these interventions (as well as differentiation) are often proposed as alternatives for strategies with a more solid research base, they do not, on their own, offer the level of sustained challenge that enables advanced students to develop growth mindsets and progress toward reaching their potential.

A path forward

Do we need more and better research into advanced education programs, especially on how to ensure they work for students of different races, ethnicities, genders, and economic backgrounds? Absolutely, but that can be said about almost any educational intervention. For now, educators, policy makers, and advocates should be aware of and confident in the empirical support for some specific approaches to providing advanced education - and the lack of support for others.

In addition, educators and researchers should avoid pitting the various interventions against each other, as though one is superior to all others, even though, in practice, these strategies may overlap considerably. Instead of seeking the one best strategy for every situation, it may be better to ask which set of strategies will be best in a given context for a given student or group of students. As the research base continues to grow, we'll be more and more able to answer these questions.
References
Boaler, J. (2018). Rethinking giftedness film. Stanford, CA: Youcubed at Stanford University.

Keep, B. (2019, September 7). Do gifted and talented programs work? [Blog post]. . Age of Awareness https://medium.com/age-of-awareness/do-gifted-and-talented-programs-work-aaee7dcaaa30

Matthews, D. & Foster, J. (2013, January 7). Mindsets and gifted education: Transformation in progress [Blog post]. Blog. Mindset Works http://community.mindsetworks.com/blog-page/home-blogs/entry/mindsets-and-gifted-education-transformation-in-progress

Scott, C. (2013, January 10). Our obsession with "natural" talent is harming students [Blog post]. . The Conversation http://theconversation.com/our-obsession-with-natural-talent-is-harming-students-11549

VanTassel-Baska, J., Zuo, L., Avery, L.D., & Little, C.A. (2002). A curriculum study of gifted-student learning in the language arts. Gifted Child Quarterly, 46 , 30-44.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The evidence base for advanced learning programs - kappanonline.org

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Research shows that talent development and gifted education are effective, but more research is needed into how well they work for specific populations of students. For decades, Americans have held conflicting views about the wisdom of offering advanced educational courses of study - such as honors classes, Advanced Placement (AP) courses, and special programs for "gifted" students - in the public schools.