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in 1896 there was a Supreme Court case between Plessy v. Ferguson. Homer Plessy was the plaintiff , and John H. Ferguson was the judge who presided over his trial .Homer Plessy was a light-skinned African-American who was arrested for violating Louisiana's Separate Car Act, which mandated segregation on railroads. He challenged the act in court, arguing it violated the 13th and 14th Amendments. The ruling in this Supreme Court case upheld a Louisiana state law allowing for "equal but separate accommodations for the white and colored races." this court case was before the civil rights movement but was a starting point for change in racial segregation .

https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/plessy-v-ferguson

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson#:~:text=Ferguson%2C%20163%20U.S.%20537%20(1896,as%20%22separate%20but%20equal%22.

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The Supreme Court ruled that the racial segregation in the public schools was a violation of the 14th amendment and was marked unconstitutional. The historic decision marked the end of “the separate but equal.” U.S Supreme Court Justice Earl Warren was the one instructing the plans. On May 31,1955, Earl Warren read one of the Court’s unanimous decisions that is now referred to as Brown ll, instructing the states to begin desegregation plans.

https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/brown-v-board-of-education

https://oxfordaasc.com/page/2395

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She was arrested in Montgomery, Alabama, for refusing to give up her seat to a white man. Civil Rights leader Nixon bailed her out of jail, joined by white friends Clifford, an attorney, and wife, Virginia. Rosa Parks didn't win the case. She was fined 14,000, including court costs.

https://www.loc.gov/exhibitions/rosa-parks-in-her-own-words/about-this-exhibition/the-bus-boycott/rosa-parks-arrested/#:~:text=On%20December%201%2C%201955%2C%20Rosa,%2C%20and%20his%20wife%2C%20Virginia.

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The Montgomery bus boycott was a movement started when Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat to a white man on the bus. This sparked an entire movement lasting from December 5th, 1955, to December 20th, 1956. Civil Rights leaders Dr. Martin Luther King, Rosa Parks, and Jo Ann Robinson played crucial roles in the success of this peaceful movement. Their movement included protests all around Montgomery, but is most notable for the 381-day boycott against bus transportation.

https://www.history.com/articles/montgomery-bus-boycott

https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/montgomery-bus-boycott

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The Little Rock Nine was a group of black students who enrolled at a previously all-white high school in Little Rock, Arkansas, in September 1957. The group included Minnijean Brown, Elizabeth Eckford, Ernest Green, Thelma Mothershed, Melba Patillo, Gloria Ray, Terrence Roberts, Jefferson Thomas, and Carlotta Walls. The school board had adopted a plan for gradually integrating its schools. On September 25, 1957, the Little Rock Nine attended Central High for their first full day of classes, under the protection of the newly federalized Arkansas National Guard and the 101st Airborne Division.

https://www.history.com/articles/central-high-school-integration

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The Civil Rights Act of 1957 was a resulting law —the first significant measure to address African-American civil rights since 1875. It established the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights for two years, and created a civil rights division in the U.S. Justice Department, and authorized the U.S. Attorney General to seek federal court injunctions to protect the voting rights of African Americans. Advocacy groups like the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, as well as the Dwight D. Eisenhower administration were the important people of the Civil Rights Act. The Eisenhower administration pressured Congress to consider new civil rights legislation by doing non-violent protest.

What is the Civil Rights Act of 1975?

Important people in the Civil Rights Act of 1975

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Ezell Blair Jr, David Richmond, Franklin McCain, and Joseph McNeil had a small peaceful protest against segregation when they refused to leave the whites-only lunch counter at Wollworth's store.

Greensboro Sit-In - Facts, Date & Definition

Greensboro Lunch Counter Sit-In (Educational Materials: African American Odyssey)

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Ruby Bridges was a woman who, during her early life, was the first to attend an all white elementary school during the civil rights movement. She had faced racism from students, teachers, and parents who attended or were involved in the school. Protests were made against her by angry, rioting parents trying to send the message that they didn't want minorities in their schools. Hurtful slurs and language were thrown at her when she was only 6 years old.

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On may 14, 1961, the Greyhound bus was the first to arrive in Anniston, Alabama. There was an angry mob of about 200 white people surrounding the bus causing the causing the driver to continue past the bus station.The mob followed the bus in automobiles, and when the tires on the bus blew out, someone threw a bomb into the bus. The Freedom Riders escaped the bus as it burst into flames, only to be brutally beaten by members of the surrounding mob.The second bus, a Trailways vehicle, traveled to Birmingham, Alabama, and those riders were also beaten by an angry white mob Photographs of the burning Greyhound bus and the bloodied riders appeared on the front pages of newspapers throughout the country and around the world the next day, drawing international attention to the Freedom Riders’ cause and the state of race relations in the United States.

https://www.history.com/articles/freedom-rides#Freedom-Riders-Face-Bloodshed-in-Alabama

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In May 1963, in  Birmingham, Alabama, a pivotal nonviolent protest during the civil rights movement took place. Reverend Martin Luther King Jr, Fred Shuttlesworth,

and James Bevel were all a huge part of it. Shuttlesworth was the leader of the Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights (ACMHR). James Bevel was a staff member of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). Nonviolent direct action was used during mass civil disobedience in the form of protests, and marches to expose the injustices of segregation and demand change.

https://cypp.rutgers.edu/key-figures-birmingham-childrens/

https://nmaahc.si.edu/explore/stories/childrens-crusade

https://www.learningforjustice.org/magazine/spring-2005/announcing-the-childrens-march

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On June 10, 1963, President John F. Kennedy federalized National Guard troops and deployed them to the University of Alabama to force its desegregation. The next day, Governor Wallace yielded to the federal pressure, and Malone and Hood were able to complete their enrollments. people involved were President John F. Kennedy, Alabama Governor George Wallace, and the first African American students, Vivian Malone and James Hood. strategies they used was force to help create equality.

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University of alabama segregation hi-res stock photography and images - Alamy

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Find the perfect university of alabama segregation stock photo, image, vector, illustration or 360 image. Available for both RF and RM licensing.

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The march on Washington was a massive civil rights movement on august 29th 1963.

250,000 people gathered and demanded civil rights for minority's. During the March Martin Luther King Jr. performed his famous speech.

Important people in the movement were Philip Randolph,Whitney Young and Martin Luther King Jr. the people at the March on Washington used nonviolent protesting to get their point across and sway public opinion.

https://www.accfb.org/marchonwashington/

https://www.nps.gov/articles/march-on-washington.htm

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Marking the 57th Anniversary of the March on Washington - Alameda County Community Food Bank

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My dream is that one day we will celebrate the anniversary of the day my ancestor’s dreams came true. Until then, in the words of Dr. King, “We can never be satisfied.”

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The Assassination of John F. Kennedy (1963)

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The Assassination of John F. Kennedy (1963)

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On November 22, 1963, in Dallas, President John F. Kennedy was assassinated by Lee Harvey Oswald. JFK was in a convertible with public officials and his wife Jaqueline Kennedy, who sat right beside him when he was shot. Lee Harvey Oswald was a Marxist and former Soviet citizen that held a grudge against America. He tried to create change by causing an uproar in America.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy

https://www.britannica.com/event/assassination-of-John-F-Kennedy

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The Civil rights act of 1964 prohibited discrimination in public places, provided for the integration of schools and other public facilities, and made employment discrimination illegal. In the 1960 election, John F. Kennedy received strong support from black voters. President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 into law on July 2, 1964. The strategy used for change was legislative strategy. My sources are

https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/civil-rights-act#:~:text=This%20act%2C%20signed%20into%20law,civil%20rights%20legislation%20since%20Reconstruction and

https://www.britannica.com/event/Civil-Rights-Act-United-States-1964

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On February 21st, 1965, at the Audubon Ballroom, a Nation of Islam Activist, Malcolm Little, also known as Malcolm X, was giving a speech in support of understanding a nonviolent movement for black equality. Shortly into his speech, 3 men ran towards the stage, guns drawn towards Malcolm. Shooting and killing him instantly. The assassination grew nationwide, creating a bigger attention to what Malcolm was fighting for.

https://www.history.com/articles/malcolm-x-assassination

https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/malcolm-x

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Bloody Sunday; a march from Selma to Montgomery ends in violence as local police block and attack civil rights marchers

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U.S. Rep. John Lewis' Firsthand Account of Surviving "Bloody Sunday" | Oprah’s Master Class | OWN

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Voting Rights Act of 1965 enacted
What did it do?

Gave the government the ability to enforce the 15th Amendment

Outlawed discriminatory voting practices, such as literacy tests

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EnlargeDownload Link Citation: An act to enforce the fifteenth amendment to the Constitution of the United States and for other purposes, August 6, 1965; Enrolled Acts and Resolutions of Congress, 1789-; General Records of the United States Government; Record Group 11; National Archives View All Pag…

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"By the end of 1965, a quarter of a million new Black voters had been registered, one-third by federal examiners. By the end of 1966, only four out of 13 southern states had fewer than 50 percent of African Americans registered to vote."

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At 6:05 P.M. on Thursday, 4 April 1968, Martin Luther King was shot dead while standing on a balcony outside his second-floor room at the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee. James Earl Ray (The murderer of MLK), Dr. Martin Luther King (the Victim or murderer), Jr Dr. Jerry T. Francisco ( Medical examiner) were all involved. King’s death energized the Black Power Movement. Black Americans felt even more distrustful of white institutions and America’s political system. Membership in the Black Panther Party and other Black Power groups surged. Local organizations grew into national networks. The number of black soldiers in Vietnam supporting Black Power increased dramatically. Polls revealed that some white Americans supported King’s goals, but many remained unmoved.

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https://www.archives.gov/research/jfk/select-committee-report/part-2a.html

https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/assassination-martin-luther-king-jr

https://nmaahc.si.edu/explore/stories/mourning-death-martin-luther-king-jr

https://www.ajc.com/news/photos/photos-anniversary-martin-luther-king-assassination/OrvChEY9kA3oCc1yCJfybJ/

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The Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute

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Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr.

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Civil Rights Act of 1968 enacted
What did it do?

Also known as the Fair Housing Act

Outlawed housing discrimination based on race

Did not completely end housing discrimination

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Civil Rights Acts (1964, 1968)

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 is labor law legislationthat outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.It ended unequal application of voter registration requirements and racial segregation in schools, at the workplace and by facilities that served the general public (public accommodations). Initially, the powers given to enforce the act were weak, but they were supplemented in later years. Congress asserted its authority to legislate via several different parts of the Constitution, principally its power to regulate interstate commerce, its duty to guarantee all citizens equal protection of the laws through the 14th Amendment, and its duty to protect voting rights under the 15th Amendment.

In response to a campaign against fair housing discrimination, President Johnson urged the passage of The Fair Housing Act of 1968, one week after the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. Its primary prohibition makes it unlawful to refuse to sell, rent to, or negotiate with any person because of that person's inclusion in a protected class. The goal is a unitary housing market in which a person's background (as opposed to financial resources) does not arbitrarily restrict access. Calls for open housing were issued early in the twentieth century, but it was not until after World War II that concerted efforts to achieve it were undertaken. While the act stopped some of the more egregious instances of housing discrimination, it should be noted that the nation is far from fair when it comes to one's ability to obtain housing. Race is still an issue and has been despite the efforts made through the acts listed here.

Notable Supreme Court Cases:

Selected Library Resources:

Robert D. Loevy, ed., The Civil Rights Act of 1964: The Passage of the Law that Ended Racial Segregation, KF4757 .C59 1997

June Manning Thomas and Marsha Ritzdorf, eds., Urban Planning and the African American Community: In the Shadows, HT167 .U7277 1997 (available from the Founders Library Auxiliary Collection)

Bernard Grofman, ed., Legacies of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, KF4757 .L44 2000 (available from the Founders Library Auxiliary Collection)

David C. Carter, The Music has Gone Out of the Movement: Civil Rights and the Johnson Administration, 1965-1968, E185.615 .C3517 2009 (available from the Founders Library Auxiliary Collection)

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HUSL Library: A Brief History of Civil Rights in the United States: Civil Rights Acts (1964, 1968)

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Civil Rights Acts (1964, 1968) The Civil Rights Act of 1964 is labor law legislationthat outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.It ended unequal application of voter registration requirements and racial segregation in schools, at the workplace and by facilities that served the general public (public accommodations).

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Robert F. Kennedy assassinated by Sirhan Sirhan at his hotel in Los Angeles, CA after winning the California presidential primary

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Senator Robert Kennedy is shot at the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles after winning the California presidential primary. Immediately after he announced to his cheering supporters that the country was ready to end its fractious divisions, Kennedy was shot several times by the 22-year-old Palestinian Sirhan Sirhan. He died a day later.

The summer of 1968 was a tempestuous time in American history. Both the Vietnam War and the anti-war movement were peaking. Martin Luther King Jr. had been assassinated in the spring, igniting riots across the country. In the face of this unrest, President Lyndon B. Johnson decided not to seek a second term in the upcoming presidential election. Robert Kennedy, John's younger brother and former U.S. Attorney General, stepped into this breach and experienced a groundswell of support.

Kennedy was perceived by many to be the only person in American politics capable of uniting the people. He was beloved by the minority community for his integrity and devotion to the civil rights cause. After winning California's primary, Kennedy was in the position to receive the Democratic nomination and face off against Richard Nixon in the general election.

As star athletes Rafer Johnson and Roosevelt Grier accompanied Kennedy out a rear exit of the Ambassador Hotel, Sirhan Sirhan stepped forward with a rolled up campaign poster, hiding his .22 revolver. He was only a foot away when he fired several shots at Kennedy. Grier and Johnson wrestled Sirhan to the ground, but not before five bystanders were wounded. Grier was distraught afterward and blamed himself for allowing Kennedy to be shot.

Sirhan, who was born in Palestine, confessed to the crime at his trial and received a death sentence on March 3, 1969. However, since the California State Supreme Court invalidated all death penalty sentences in 1972, Sirhan has spent the rest of his life in prison. According to the New York Times, he has since said that he believed Kennedy was "instrumental" in the oppression of Palestinians. Hubert Humphrey ended up running for the Democrats in 1968, but lost by a small margin to Nixon.

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Senator Robert Kennedy is shot at the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles after winning the California presidential primary. Immediately after he announced to his cheering supporters that the country was ready to end its fractious divisions, Kennedy was shot several times by the 22-year-old Palestinian Sirhan Sirhan. He died a day later.

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Both JFK and RFK were connected to the Civil Rights Movement and worked closely with leaders like MLK during their careers

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After the Kennedy Presidency

Shortly after being sworn in following President Kennedy's assassination, President Lyndon B. Johnson urged the passage of the Civil Rights Act be carried out in honor of the late president.

Johnson used his connections and experience gained as former Senate Majority Leader to sucessfuly negotiate support for the bill. On July 2, 1964, a little more than a year after President Kennedy introduced the bill, President Johnson officially signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 into law. The act made discrimination in public facilities and federally funded programs illegal.

Robert Kennedy left the Johnson Administration when he was elected as a U.S. Senator to New York. As a senator, he continued his support for the Voting Rights Act of 1965. He also continued to travel the country, expanding his views on race and poverty in America. In 1968, Kennedy made his own presidential bid. He quickly garnered overwhelming support from the Black community and other minorities who felt he would be their greatest advocate in the Oval Office.

On the evening of April 4, 1968, Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated.

Kennedy was scheduled to deliver a campaign speech that night in Indianapolis, IN to a crowd of predominantly Black Americans. As he delivered the shocking news of King's assassination, he empathized with his supporters and encouraged them to find peaceful and productive ways to channel their sorrow. The text and video of the speech are linked here.

As violence broke out across many American cities that evening, Indianapolis stayed peaceful. John Lewis would later say, "He {Kennedy} became the one man who could soothe the savage pain that swept through the city of Indianapolis, and there were no violent outbreaks there. I do remember calming my own sorrow in that dark hour by thinking, Dr. King is gone, but we still have Bobby."

Two months later, Robert Kennedy was assassinated.

Although Senator Kennedy was assassinated in 1968, his legacy continues through the nonprofit, Robert F. Kennedy Human Rights. This nonprofit continues the work of Senator Kennedy, advocating for human rights and social justice. In 1995, President Clinton visited Indianapolis' Martin Luther King Jr. Park to dedicate the "Landmark for Peace" memorial commemorating the site where Robert Kennedy delivered his immortal words on the night of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr's assassination. In 2018, the site was added to the African American Civil Rights Network.

"Each time a man stands up for an ideal, or acts to improve the lot of others, or strikes out against injustice, he sends forth a tiny ripple of hope, and crossing each other from a million different centers of energy and daring those ripples build a current which can sweep down the mightiest walls of oppression and resistance."
- Robert F. Kennedy. University of Capetown, Capetown, South Africa. June 6, 1966

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The Kennedys and the Civil Rights Movement (U.S. National Park Service)

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Shortly after being sworn in following President Kennedy's assassination, President Lyndon B. Johnson urged the passage of the Civil Rights Act be carried out in honor of the late president. Johnson used his connections and experience gained as former Senate Majority Leader to sucessfuly negotiate support for the bill.