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The diagram of a reflex arc picture to show sensory input, spinal cord connections, and motor output.

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Reflex arc is a fast and is a automatic process in our nervous system that helps us react to things without thinking about it. For example, if you touch something hot the receptor's in your body senses it. The receptor sends a signal through a sensory neuron to your spinal cord, where an interneuron helps process the information. Then, the signal travels to a motor neuron, which tells a muscle to move, like when you quickly pull your hand away from something hot.Then, the signal moves to a motor neuron, which tells a muscle to react, like pulling your hand away from the hot surface.

Reflex arcs can be called monosynaptic, where the sensory and motor neurons are directly connected (like when your knee jerks), or more complex, called polysynaptic, which involves extra neurons (like pulling your hand away quickly). These reflexes are important because they help us react fast to danger and stay balanced. The scientist Charles Sherrington also discovered how nerve signals move between neurons at synapses, which helps explain how reflexes happen in our bodies. He introduced the idea of synaptic transmission, showing how nerve impulses travel across synapses between neurons.

resources

Lippman, J. (2007). Sherrington and the Study of Reflexes. Journal of Neurology & Neurosurgery, 8(2), 45-48. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnn.2007.121342

Glickstein, M. (2000). Charles Sherrington: From the Integrative Action of the Nervous System to Reflexology. Oxford University Press.

Sherrington, C. (1904). The spinal cord in health and disease. Brain, 27(1), 1-27. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/27.1.1

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Charles Sherrington cover for his book that got him famous, published in 1906, which laid the foundation for understanding the central nervous system. 

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The Integrative Action of the Nervous System

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The Integrative Action of the Nervous System

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This artifact deep dives into Charles Sherrington book The Integrative Action of the Nervous System.Sherrington’s research provided good

\insights into how the nervous system processes information. His book helped explain the concept of synaptic transmission, which is the way nerve signals pass from one neuron to another. He also introduced the concept of "the reflex arc," helping scientists understand how the nervous system responds to stimuli without requiring conscious thought. He also studied proprioception, our body's ability to sense movement and position. This is what we use for balance and coordination. Another major idea he explored in his research was reciprocal innervation, this means that when one muscle contracts, the opposing muscle relaxes an essential process for smooth, controlled movements. His work also played a role in settling a major debate in neuroscience at the time, supporting the Neuron Doctrine, which stated that the nervous system is made up of individual nerve cells, rather than a just a continuous network. His research set the foundation for modern neuroscience, providing insight into how neurons interact to control movement, perception, and reflexes. Sherrington also introduced important terms like dermatome(areas of skin connected to specific nerves) and motor unit (a nerve and the muscle fibers it controls), further deepening our knowledge of the nervous system. This artifact is important because it marks a special moment in the development of our understanding of how the brain and nervous system function, and it connects to ongoing studies in neuroplasticity, neurological diseases, and neurocommunication.

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The Integrative Action of the Nervous System

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This is a picture of (FES) being used on the spine to stimulate movement.

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 Contemporary: Restoring Movement: Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES) in Neurological Rehabilitation

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 Contemporary: Restoring Movement: Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES) in Neurological Rehabilitation

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This artifact is on Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES) which is a modern day therapy that applies electrical impulses to stimulate muscles and restore movement in individuals with paralysis or muscle weakness. It is amazing for stroke survivors, individuals with spinal cord injuries, and those with neurological disorders like multiple sclerosis ( Thrasher 2004). The Functional Electrical Stimulation is used all over the world and in current neuroscience and rehabilitation practices. It has evolved from early neurological studies on reflexes and synaptic transmission, from Charles Sherrington’s foundational research work from the 1900's.FES are used in rehabilitation centers, hospitals, and research labs worldwide. It is apart of stroke recovery programs, spinal cord injury rehabilitation, and assistive technologies, such as exoskeletons and brain machine interfaces.Functional Electrical Stimulation is a immediate replica of Sherrington’s discoveries about reflex arcs and synaptic transmission. His work on reciprocal innervation the principle that when one muscle contracts, its opposing muscle relaxes forms the basics of how FES retrains movement. It works by applying controlled electrical stimulation to affected muscles, FES helps stroke survivors regain motor function, improves walking in those with spinal cord injuries, and supports individuals with neuromuscular disorders.

Sources:

Popovic, M. R., & Thrasher, T. A. (2004). Neuroprostheses for restoring walking. Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development, 41(6), 695-708.

Daly, J. J., & Ruff, R. L. (2007). Electrically induced on-demand function after stroke: Strengthening weakened or paretic muscles aids movement and possibly enhances CNS plasticity. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair, 21(2), 123-136.

Sherrington, C. (1906). The Integrative Action of the Nervous System. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.

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Restoring Movement: Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES) in Neurological Rehabilitation

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illustration of synaptic transmission, showing how nerve signals are passed from one neuron to another through chemical messengers (neurotransmitters). This contains  key components such as the presynaptic neuron, synaptic cleft, neurotransmitter release, receptor binding, and signal propagation.

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Understanding Synaptic Transmission: The Key to Neural Communication

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Understanding Synaptic Transmission: The Key to Neural Communication

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This artifact represents the fundamental process of synaptic transmission, This is was thought out by Sir Charles Sherrington. It shows how neurons communicate through synapses, using neurotransmitters to transmit signals across gaps between nerve cells. This concept of synaptic transmission was introduced in the early 20th century through Sherrington’s work in the early 1900s. Now till this day it's a central topic in neuroscience and is continuously studied today. Synaptic transmission occurs in the nervous system of all living organisms with neurons.Synaptic transmission is a important process in neuroscience which allows the nerve cells to communicate and respond throughout the body. Sherrington’s work helped invented the understanding neural pathways, reflex arcs, and the role of neurotransmitters in brain function. Today this knowledge is used/applied in medical fields like neurology, psychiatry, and neuropharmacology. Understanding synaptic transmission helps treat for neurological disorders such as Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease and epilepsy.

This artifact was chosen because it explains a complex function of the nervous system. Seeing how neurons interact at synapses it helps us understand and how they affect neurotransmitters in cognitive functions, movement, and neurological health.

Sources:

Sherrington, C. (1906). The Integrative Action of the Nervous System. Cambridge University Press.

Bear, M. F., Connors, B. W., & Paradiso, M. A. (2020). Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain. Wolters Kluwer.

Kandel, E. R., Schwartz, J. H., & Jessell, T. M. (2013). Principles of Neural Science. McGraw-Hill.

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Docent : The Charles  Sherrington 1880s through the early 1900

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Docent : The Charles  Sherrington 1880s through the early 1900

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This artifact is about Charles Sherrington to the study of reflexes and the nervous system. Sherrington did his research in the United Kingdom, Oxford, as he worked at the University of Oxford.His research is on how the nervous system aligns reflexes. He studied through his work on the reflex arc and synaptic transmission.

Sherrington’s research in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was crucial in advancement and the understanding of neurophysiology. He helped create the notion that reflexes are not automatic responses but have complex interactions between the sensory and motor systems in the spinal cord and brain (Chudler, par. 4). Sherrington’s study of reflexes and synaptic transmission provided the base understanding of how the nervous system works. This influences every branch of neuroscience that followed. His discoveries helped explain basic reflexive behavior but also how more complex actions are coordinated between the spinal cord and brain.

The reflex arc Sherrington described is still a core concept in neurophysiology. His work on synaptic transmission and the excitatory/inhibitory balance between neurons continues to be routed in understanding neurological disorders, learning, and memory.

resources:

Chudler, E. H. (n.d.). History of Neuroscience: Charles Sherrington.

University of Washington: Neuroscience forKids.http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/hist.html

Sherrington, C. (1906). The Integrative Action of the Nervous System. Yale University Press. Available at: https://nba.uth.tmc.edu/neuroscience/m/s2/chapter02.html

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Image of a neuron stained using the Golgi Staining Method

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The Golgi Staining Method: A Breakthrough in Neuroscience (1873)

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The Golgi Staining Method: A Breakthrough in Neuroscience (1873)

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This entry focuses on the The Golgi Staining Method which was developed by Camillo Golgi in 1873. It is a silver nitrate-based staining technique which allows neurons individually be seen in their entirety under a microscope. This method allowed scientist such as Santiago Ramón y Cajal and Charles Sherrington in proving that neurons are separate cells rather than a continuous network. This was developed in 1873 and became widely popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It was especially important during the Neuron Doctrine vs. Reticular Theory debate, which was settled in favor of the Neuron Doctrine (the idea that neurons are distinct individual cells).Golgi developed the method in Italy while working in his laboratory, but before Golgi’s staining method they used to study neurons under a microscope. This was almost impossible because brain tissue is dense and neurons were difficult to distinguish.This method was huge because it randomly stained a few neurons at a time. Which allowed scientists to observe the complete structure rather than just seeing a tangled mass of cells. The technique remains influential even today as modified versions are still used in neuroscience research.

Sources:

Golgi, C. (1873). On the Structure of the Nervous System as Revealed by Silver Nitrate Impregnation.

Ramón y Cajal, S. (1909). Histology of the Nervous System of Man and Vertebrates.

Shepherd, G. M. (1991). Foundations of the Neuron Doctrine. Oxford University Press.

Modern neuroscience articles discussing the relevance of Golgi’s method.

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Image of a neuron stained using the Golgi Staining Method

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The nervous system of the human body. Engraving by J. Wandelaar, 1726, after a woodcut, 1543.

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Historical Entry: Before Charles Sherrington ,Early Theories on Reflex Arcs and Synaptic Transmission

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Historical Entry: Before Charles Sherrington ,Early Theories on Reflex Arcs and Synaptic Transmission

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This artifact is about the scientific understanding of reflex arcs and synaptic transmission before Charles Sherrington. This is about pre-Sherrington theories like the Reticular Theory which suggested that neurons formed a continuous network rather than being separate cells.Scientists like Luigi Galvani, Camillo Golgi, and Ivan Pavlov made early contributions to understanding nerve function before Sherrington’s discoveries. The 18th and 19th centuries (before Sherrington’s work in the late 19th and early 20th centuries). During that time scientists debated whether or not the nervous system worked as a single network or as individual communicating cells. The Research took place across Europe, including Italy (Golgi, Galvani), Germany (Helmholtz), and Russia (Pavlov). Then the Neuron Doctrine which was replaced by the Reticular Theory. Before Sherrington’s work a lot scientists only believed reflexes were simple like direct responses controlled entirely by the spinal cord. The Reticular Theory (Golgi’s View): Neurons were thought to be physically connected, forming a vast network without gaps.

Neuron Doctrine (Ramón y Cajal’s View) said that neurons are separate cells that communicate via junctions (later called synapses).Pavlov Studied reflexive behavior which linked reflexes to learning (classical conditioning), and Sherrington’s work proved that neurons are separate and communicate through synapses making the modern understanding of reflex arcs.This new thinking influenced research in neurophysiology, neurology, and even modern treatments like Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES).

Sources:

Golgi, C. (1873). Silver Staining and the Reticular Theory.

Ramón y Cajal, S. (1891). Neuron Doctrine and the Structure of the Nervous System.

Pavlov, I. P. (1903). Conditioned Reflexes: An Investigation of the Physiological Activity of the Cerebral Cortex.

Shepherd, G. M. (1991). Foundations of the Neuron Doctrine. Oxford University Press.

Bear, M. F., Connors, B. W., & Paradiso, M. A. (2020). Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain.