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Dr. Karen R. Harris, SRSD creator and educational psychologist, along with scores of prominent literacy researchers, spent over 30 years researching SRSD. Today SRSD strategies are internationally recognized and validated by over 100 successful studies.

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SRSD or Self-Regulated Strategy Development is an evidence-based, classroom proven, approach to teaching K-12 students. Watch the best teacher training videos and tap into a rich database of SRSD tools and strategies in the self-paced online teacher training course: Writing to Learn™

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A winning equation | 2020 Seek magazine | Kansas State University

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This module features the Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) model, which outlines the six steps required to effectively implement any instructional strategy and emphasizes the time and effort required to do so (est. completion time: 1 hour).

Work through the sections of this module in the order presented in the STAR graphic above.

Related to this module

Copyright 2022 Vanderbilt University. All rights reserved.

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SRSD: Using Learning Strategies To Enhance Student Learning

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This module features the Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) model, which outlines the six steps required to effectively implement any instructional strategy and emphasizes the time and effort required to do so (est. completion time: 1 hour). Work through the sections of this module in the order presented in the STAR graphic above.

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Math SRSD

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Mathematics | College of Education and Human Sciences | Nebraska | Special Education & Communication Disorders

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Numeral WritingSTAR: A Number Writing Strategy (Boom, S.E., & Fine, E. )Helps students in writing, reciting, and recalling numerals.Math Computation

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Reading SRSD

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Reading | College of Education and Human Sciences | Nebraska | Special Education & Communication Disorders

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The .pdf files which can be downloaded below sometimes can’t be downloaded from school computers due to protective firewalls that school systems need to install for virus protection. If you have difficulty downloading a file, try using a computer which is not in a school. To access these files, your computer must have the free Adobe Reader. A free download is available from adobe.com.ReadingWord Identification

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Strategy Instruction for Students with Learning Disabilities: Second Edition

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Filling an important need for K-12 educators, this highly practical book provides a step-by-step guide to cognitive strategy instruction, one of the most effective instructional techniques for struggling learners. The authors present well-validated strategies that target self-regulated learning and study skills as well as performance in specific content areas, such as writing, reading, and math.

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View of Self-Regulated Strategy Development in the Classroom: Part of a Balanced Approach to Writing Instruction for Students With Disabilities

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Free resources (graphic organizers, strategies, etc.) by entering your email.

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think SRSD (self-regulated strategy development)

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Understand the key characteristics of SRSD that make it a deeply structured and evidence-based approach to teaching writing. Transform your classroom today.

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Implementing Cognitive Strategy Instruction & Developing Self-Regulated Learners

Cognitive Strategy Instruction is a very broad subject but here you will find an overview of the process and practical tips. For more in depth study references are provided.

CSI is a tool intended to help students develop the necessary skills to be self-regulated learners.

Our purpose is to introduce and explain the Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) model of implementation, as well as provide the foundational basis for its effectiveness. Information presented will include:

1. The steps (how you do it).

2. The purpose behind each step (why you do it).

We should stress that the instructional process is what determines the effectiveness of strategy instruction.

Definition of a Strategy

When discussing strategies it is helpful to dissect the definition. Strategies are:

Goals directed and consciously controllable process that facilitate performance.
The key parts are:
Goals directed - intended to perform a definite function.

Consciously controllable processes - directly manipulable and statable:

"This how I am doing_______ and this is why_______." This is essential, if the strategy is to be self-regulated. It would not be possible to regulate something that was not conscious.

Facilitate performance - strategies are processes that when matched to task requirements, improve performance. You can do things better, easier, and quicker when you use a strategy.

In essence, a strategy is simply a tool used to accomplish a task. A strategy concentrates and enhances effort. Just as using a lever allows us to move heavy objects more easily, so strategies allow for enhanced performance of academic tasks.

Most of us use strategies continually, without even realizing it. Strategies are so integrated into everyday life that we are usually not even aware that we are using them. Common strategies include:

Adults write themselves notes

Children are taught a familiar spelling strategy "i" before "e" except after "c"

Strategic approaches to tasks separate poor learners from more effective learners. While the use of strategies is common among successful learners the opposite is true for struggling learners and in particular students with learning disabilities. These students may not develop effective strategies, or may use ineffective or inappropriate strategies.

Strategies run the gamut from simple to highly complex. Educators need to look critically at any instructional strategy before they choose to implement it, weighing both pros and cons of the strategy. All this may make strategies sound complicated, but that's not necessarily the case.

CSI Research Based

Unlike many other educational techniques, Cognitive Strategy Instruction is founded on a broad base of research that has validated its effectiveness. The research clearly proves the effectiveness of Strategies Instruction. This research has been conducted in "real" classrooms with "real" students over 20 years.

CSI has been used across a wide variety of curriculum areas such as: Reading - Decoding, Reading Comprehension, Vocabulary, Writing, Spelling, Math, Study Skills, and other Content areas.

CSI is in the forefront of current educational practices, largely because of its extensive research base. Choosing instructional strategies can sometimes be like a shot in the dark. There are many different reasons why certain strategies and curriculums are chosen:

It's what the district has chosen

It's what another teacher/administrator/college professor recommended

It seemed to work for Mrs. Smith's class

It has pretty pictures

However, we would stress that the focus should not be on the strategies themselves, but rather on the implementation process. Even an effective strategy will fail to produce results if it is improperly implemented. Implementing a strategy should be viewed as a "process." This process should be evolutionary and dynamic.

The "process" of implementation, the SRSD model, is also based on validated methods. Each step involved in the "process" of implementation is based on research findings and current best practices.

Model of Implementation

The implementation model that we use follows is based on Harris and Graham's (1996) Self-Regulated Strategy Development model. The goal of SRSD is to make the use of strategies habitual, flexible, and automatic. This can take a lot of time, practice, and effort. The SRSD model is very comprehensive. This ensures that crucial steps are not overlooked. Following a model such as SRSD has two major advantages:

First, it gives you an instructional template to follow. You know how to teach the strategy in a step-by-step fashion.

Second, strategy instruction involves a major time and effort commitment. Therefore approaches that have been validated provide more of a cost/benefit balance.

The instructional model is a serious consideration when implementing strategy instruction. Not only could a model prove to be ineffective, it could also prove to be detrimental to students.

Students With Learning Disabilities

Cognitive Strategy Instruction is effective for a variety of learners, but particularly students with learning disabilities. Students with learning disabilities often do not develop the types of strategies necessary to successfully attack tasks.

One critical aspect of strategy instruction is to appreciate that children with learning disabilities have problems that go beyond academics, and that these problems can adversely affect academic performance.

The Self-Regulated Strategy Development model stresses the need to provide students with essential metacognitive knowledge of the strategies. Students must understand how a strategy works and why each step in the strategy is performed. The Self-Regulated Strategy Development model enables students to understand the process of the strategy.

Research shows that students who are actively involved in the education process have better retention, motivation and overall attitudes towards learning. Many struggling learners may never develop strategies, will use ineffective or immature strategies, or fail to employ strategies all together. Strategy instruction can dramatically increase student performance.

CSI is flexible and can be used in combination with different self-regulation techniques. These techniques would need to be taught explicitly and combined in the modeling, memorizing, supporting, and independent performance stages. They would need to be incorporated into most of the process. Self-regulation can prove to be an effective way for students to monitor their own progress and see their improvements. It will take a significant investment of time and effort in order to increase student performance to a level, where they are metacognitive and self-regulating.

The Self-Regulated Strategy Development Model

We chose to present the SRSD model of implementation because of its thoroughness and flexibility. The model is well developed and sequential, yet it allows teachers to use their own professional judgment when employing it.

The stages of implementation are set up to ensure that all necessary areas are fully addressed. However, the stages are flexible and may be reordered or combined as deemed appropriate or necessary by the teacher.

The stages are intended to be recursive and should be revisited to ensure mastery. This is part of the flexibility of this model. Stages can and should be revisited as part of the instructional process. Revisiting stages will not only help with mastery, it will also allow students to rethink and develop metacognitive skills.
Model Implementation
Stage 1: Develop and Activate Background Knowledge

Developing background knowledge sometimes seems so obvious that it is often overlooked. Struggling learners may lack essential background knowledge or preskills necessary to successfully complete a task or use a strategy. In many instances, what knowledge a student does have is often fragmented. Students must have mastered prerequisite skills to effectively use a strategy.

While developing background knowledge it is necessary to initially define the basic skills needed to perform the strategy, and to make certain that the students understand the terms used in the strategy. In order for students to understand the strategy they need to understand its most basic components.

The best way to identify the basic terms and skills necessary for the strategy is to do a task analysis. The task analysis will help teachers to determine whether or not students possess the prerequisite skills necessary perform the strategy.

After the task analysis is complete there are many ways that teachers can check students' skills. These include observing student performance, using curriculum-based measures, or simply asking students. Often, instructors will already possess knowledge of student pre-skills. Skill deficits should be addressed prior to introducing the new strategy.
Task Analyses
Stage 2: Discuss the Strategy

Discussion of the strategy is a more involved process than merely going through the steps of a strategy. A major goal of strategy instruction is to bring students to the point where they are self-regulated. In order for this goal to be achieved, students need to be actively involved and allowed ownership in the process.

Teachers will need to "sell" the strategy and get students to "buy in." Having the students believe in what they are learning will enable them to be more actively involved, which is the first step in self-regulation. If a student does not want to use a strategy it is fair to assume that they will not. Teachers need to be excited, committed and energized so that students will be too.

The use of the strategy should be an easy "sell", it will result in improved academic performance. Provide students with examples of how this strategy or other strategies have improved student performance in the past, and even how strategies have helped you in the past. This may not be enough; you will most likely need to find what motivates your particular students. For example: getting work done so that they can go outside for recess, no homework, making parents proud, impressing friends, or making the honor roll.

During this stage it is appropriate for the teachers to explain the benefits of using the strategy; discussing and even providing examples of current performance. Teachers should ask students questions, and ask them how confident they feel in the particular subject or skill being discussed. Then explain how learning the strategy can improve their performance.

The final part of this stage is introducing students to the steps of the strategy. Strategy steps should be explained one-by-one. Typically this is where teachers begin, but the SRSD model has allowed much of the ground work to already be laid at this point.

Throughout this process teachers should be monitoring their students' understanding. Part of this process is to work in cooperation with the students and in doing so you must make sure that they are keeping up and understanding what is being explained.

Stage 3: Model the Strategy

Purpose of modeling is to expose students to the thought processes of a skilled learner. Good modeling goes well beyond merely presenting the steps in a strategy. It provides students with the "why" and "how" of various strategy steps. It also demonstrates that student effort is essential, and shows that strategy use results in better performance.

By modeling, a teacher can show not only what to do, but what to think as well. This process is called a 'think aloud'. A think aloud goes beyond just listing the steps in a strategy. While this is useful, it is insufficient. Students need to see the the metacognitive process involved in understanding and using the strategy. By the teacher expressing their thought process while using the strategy the student is able to see how a successful learner uses the strategy and thinks through it.

The process involved in a think aloud is much more complex than it may initially seem. For expert learners making the covert overt is extremely difficult and requires a significant amount of practice and preparation.

Stage 4: Memorize the Strategy

It is critical that the students commit the strategy steps to memory. Memorizing the steps is crucial, because we want students to be able to focus on the task not on remembering the steps of the strategy. Students have a limited amount of cognitive processing capacity, and if that capacity is consumed with remembering the steps of the strategy it will be difficult or impossible to focus on the task itself.

Memorizing the strategy steps is something that we should not just work on once or twice; we need to be constantly reinforcing the memorization of the strategy steps, and in various contexts so that it becomes second nature to students.

There are many ways to help students memorize the steps of the strategy; the key is repetition and variation. The more practice they get in a variety of settings and situations the more successful they will be at memorizing the strategy.

A teacher could use different activities or games to teach memorization of the strategy: for example, they could use round-robin activities or a ball-toss game.

Memorizing a strategy goes well beyond parroting back the steps of the strategy. Students need to know and understand what is involved with each step in the process.

Stage 5: Support the Strategy

Supporting the strategy is arguably the most important step in the SRSD implementation process. Supporting the strategy is done by using a process called scaffolding. Scaffolding involves teachers initially performing all or most of a task, while increasingly shifting responsibility of performance to the student. This, like the scaffolding used when constructing a building, provides support. Teachers need to provide that support to students when using the strategy. With scaffolding, it is possible for a gradual transfer of strategy performance from teacher to student. Students need to be given adequate time and support to master the strategy.

The process of scaffolding is analogous to teaching a child to ride a bike: When teaching a child to ride a bike, first you put on training wheels, and let them practice with a lot of support from the training wheels. Then, you move the training wheels up, for less support and more practice balancing and riding a little bit more independently. Next, you would take the training wheels off and run behind the child holding the seat. Eventually, you would completely let go and let the child independently with out any support, just your supervision.

In the supporting stage of the SRSD implementation model teachers need to provide whatever support students need to move from current performance to independent use of the strategy. Teachers and students work together to master the performance of a strategy. Teachers need to be aware of the child's capabilities and their needs in order to achieve an improved level of performance.

Supporting the strategy may include:

Working collaboratively on tasks while gradually fading help

Putting students into small groups

Remodeling the strategy

Prompting the particular use of a step

Providing corrective feedback

Collaboration between teachers and students is extremely important in the SRSD process. Collaboration gives the teacher an opportunity to check for student understanding and fill in any necessary information the student may be lacking. It also gives the teacher another opportunity to make sure that the students possess the skills necessary to complete the task successfully. If necessary, teachers may need to go back and teach some pre-skills. This is part of the flexibility of the SRSD model.

Stage 6: Independent Performance

It is important to remember, the goal of strategy instruction is not for the student to use the strategy explicitly as taught, but for improved academic performance. Often, students may adapt the strategy to meet their needs. This is an acceptable part of the model as long as the teacher is confident the strategy is still successful in completing the task.

Independent performance does not mean that a teacher's job is done. Teachers must still monitor students' use of the strategy to ensure they are using the strategy properly.

Evaluating instruction should always be part of any curriculum. With current educational initiatives such as state standards and competency tests, accountability is in the forefront of education.

Evaluation and assessment is necessary to know whether or not learning has occurred. CSI facilitates meaningful assessment; the interactive, collaborative nature of the process allows teachers to easily assess changes in students' cognition, affect, and performance.

Considerations When Evaluating Cognitive Strategy Instruction

At a minimum, teachers should know:

If students are actually using the strategy

Whether or not its use has had a positive effect on performance

If students see the strategy as being valuable and manageable

The teacher's instruction also needs to be evaluated. Evaluating and adjusting their own performance is one of the few factors that teachers can have complete control over. Teachers need to make sure that they are effective at all stages of implementation. It may be necessary to go back and do some re-teaching of stages and strategy steps.

Teachers must also consider and assess how students actually use the strategy as students will often modify the strategy. Modifications can mean that the student is aware of their own strengths and weaknesses and has modified the strategy to better suit their needs. These modifications may still achieve the desired outcome of increased academic performance while others may need to be reconsidered. Teachers should observe students while they use the strategy to determine if they are still effective.

Teachers need to make sure that students are aware of opportunities to use the strategies in different situations, and encourage them to do so.

Teacher can promote the strategy by doing things such as having students periodically explain how and why they use or would use the strategy, having them keep a record of the times they use a strategy, or how they modify it for other tasks, and reward them for doing so.

Student Generalizations

It is also important to assess students' use of the strategy over time and in new situations. Do not assume that students will continue to use a particular strategy or successfully adapt it to new situations. Teachers should actively promote the use of the strategy with their students, as well as, with their colleagues. Students will not automatically generalize strategies in different situations; they must be programmed to do so.

When evaluating the strategy instruction process, teachers should collaborate with their colleagues, get feedback, and find out if the students are utilizing the strategy in other content areas in a successful manner. A strategy will not be completely successful if students do not generalize it and use it in various, appropriate, situations. To promote the strategy use, other content area teachers need to be made aware of the strategy steps and how the strategy works. This will enable them to use the same kind of language and prompt the students to use the strategy when appropriate.

Ways of Evaluating

Evaluating student performance can be done in traditional fashions such as tests worksheets, written products, or other such curriculum-based measures. The use of curriculum-based measures provides certain advantages. They can be used to determine a baseline prior to strategy intervention, and can then be used to show the effectiveness of the strategy after implementation. This is an excellent way for students to see the value of using strategies. There are however alternatives to the traditional forms of assessment that can be equally effective. For example:
Involve students as Co-Evaluators
Increases students sense of ownership
Reinforces progress
Provides a practical way to reduce a teacher's load
Teachers can gain valuable insight into their progress and readiness for advancement
Involving students as co-evaluators can give you a better idea of how the student feels about the strategy, and their performance using the strategy. This is also an excellent way for students to see for themselves the difference that the strategy has made on their academic performance.
Utilize Portfolio Assessment Procedures
Portfolios are an excellent way for both teachers and students to monitor progress
Portfolios offer reflective self evaluation
Students learn that development is as important as achievement
Portfolios are part of the shift in education. In today's society students need to provide products of the learning. Using these "products" can be an excellent way to show students their own progress and how the use of the strategy has enhanced their academic performance.

Practical Considerations and Tips

When implementing strategy instruction there are a few practical considerations that should be thought out: CSI - requires time and effort CSI may require substantial time investment

Sometimes it is necessary to "loop back"

Once the strategy is taught is should not be forgot

This is not just something that can be done in "two weeks and move on." Even if the strategy is simple and can be implemented quickly it will be likely that you will need to do some re-teaching, review and modeling periodically. This will require a commitment from both teacher and student. In CSI "Small is Golden" Teachers should use only a few strategies and support their use over a prolonged period of time. Better to teach a small number of strategies well over a long period of time than try to teach a large number less extensively. We suggest considering the following tips:

Take it slow

Take advantage of strategies students have already developed

Collaborate with other teachers and your students

Taking it slow will help ensure that all stages have been well addressed. Teachers should be open to change and understand that sometimes even if things don't go as planned they can still be extremely successful. Conclusion

Teachers who use CSI construct powerful new knowledge about what works for students.

Although this can be a demanding process, it is an exciting one that we hope you will try. Good Luck! Be excited, now you have something that you can use!

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Teaching Strategies | College of Education and Human Sciences | Nebraska | Special Education & Communication Disorders

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Implementing CSI & Developing Self-Regulated LearnersDefinition of a StrategyCSI Research BasedModel ImplementationStudents with Learning DisabilitiesThe Self-Regulated Strategy Development ModelStage 1Stage 2Stage 3Stage 4Stage 5Stage 6

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Writing SRSD

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A SPELLING STUDY STRATEGY (Graham, S., & Freeman, S. ) Helping Students Learn Unknown Spelling Words

This spelling strategy is intended to help students study unknown spelling words. The students need to be trained in the study method.

SPELLING SELF-CORRECTION METHODS (Goddard, Y.L., & Heron, T.E.) These spelling strategies are centered around self-correction techniques requiring students to check and correct their own work; focusing directly on the task at hand. They are learner centered, and have been validated and replicated empirically.
Written Composition
DEFENDS (Ellis, E., & Lenz, K.)

This writing strategy is designed to aid in written compositions conveying a position. It is intended to help students write a paper defending a position. This strategy involves imbedded strategies.

HELPERS IN WRITING (Wong, B.Y.L., Butler, D.L., Ficzere, S.A., & Kuperis, S.)

This is a writing strategy designed to help students write compare-and-contrast essays. This strategy employs a planning sheet called HELPERS in Writing.

MAPPING (Simmonds, E.P.M., Luchow, J.P., Kaminsky, S., & Cottone, V.)

This writing strategy was designed to help students organize essay answers on tests, but can be used in various writing activities.

PLEASE (Welch, M., & Jensen, J.B.)

This writing strategy was developed for written expression, to assist students in planning and writing compositions using a highly structured, step-by-step procedure. This is intended to enable students to generate and organize ideas in simple paragraph form. The strategy WritePlease, is a video-assisted strategy intended to aide teachers in teaching this strategy.

POWER (Englert, C.S., Raphael, E.E., Anderson, L.M., Anthony, H.M., Fear, K.L., & Gregg, S.L.)

This writing strategy organizes all the steps in the writing process. It teaches students four different organizational structures for writing papers: stories, comparison-contrast, explanations, and problem/solution.

PROJECT (Ellis, E.S.)

This strategy is an example of how to promote effective group work.

SCORE A (Korinek, L., & Bulls, J.A.)

SCORE A is a writing strategy that covers the development of a topical research paper. It provides a concrete, sequential structure for students to develop and write papers on selected topics.

SPACE (Korinek, L., & Bulls, JA)

The SPACE strategy is the second step of a basic three-step writing strategy. It is designed to help students make a writing plan and think about the details that should be included in stories.

W-W-W, What=2; How=2 (Graham, S., Harris, K.R., & Sawyer, R.)

This is a writing strategy designed to help students ask themselves a series of "story-grammar" questions to generate narrative text.
Proofreading
HOW (Archer, A., & Gleason, M.)

This writing strategy is designed to help students complete neat, well-organized papers that include a heading. This strategy is part of a larger strategy intended to help students complete assignments accurately and on time.

WRITER (Schumaker, J.B., Nolan, S.M., & Deshler, D.D.)

This is a self-monitoring strategy for writing. Almost every academic task requires a level or form of monitoring. This strategy illustrates how a step can cue students to use questioning strategies to monitor product quality.

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SpellingA SPELLING STUDY STRATEGY (Graham, S., & Freeman, S. ) Helping Students Learn Unknown Spelling WordsThis spelling strategy is intended to help students study unknown spelling words. The students need to be trained in the study method.

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WWC | Teaching Secondary Students to Write Effectively

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This practice guide presents three evidence-based recommendations for helping students in grades 6-12 develop effective writing skills. Each recommendation includes specific, actionable guidance for educators on implementing practices in their classrooms. The guide also summarizes and rates the evidence supporting each recommendation, describes examples to use in class, and offers the panel's advice on how to overcome potential implementation obstacles.

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Specially Designed Instruction for Co-Teaching

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Worlds #1 Laminated Professional Development Guides

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Steps & Strategies at 45' mark

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56. SRSD To Enhance Reading and Writing | 2022 Literacy Symposium

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Share your videos with friends, family, and the world

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WWC Intervention Report: Self- Regulated Strategy Development

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WWC Intervention Report: Self- Regulated Strategy Development

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Self-Regulation: One Key to Effective Student Writing

By Lee Anne Sulzberger, M.Ed.

This article provides an excerpt from the May/June 2012 Link Lines article entitled The Wonderful World of Writing: Strategies for Effective Writing Instruction. The article featured a summary of 11 elements of effective writing instruction and the benefits of using Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) to help students learn explicit writing strategies. Effective expository writing strategies include (a) webbing, (b) brainstorming, (c) organizing content, (d) goal setting, (e) revising, and (f) editing (Miller, 2009).

This excerpt provides an example of how teachers might use SRSD to teach students how to use a prewriting strategy.

Example of Self-Regulated Strategy Development

Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) is a six-stage framework designed to help students learn explicit writing strategies (Santangelo, Harris, & Graham, 2008). Table 1 shows the six stages and how they may be used as a framework for teaching the RAFT strategy for prewriting. The RAFT strategy helps students plan an engaging piece of writing by having them consider the Role, Audience, Format, and Topic of the writing assignment (Santa, Havens, & Valdes, 2004). The stages can be adapted to meet student needs.

Table 1

Develop background knowledge

Students are taught the foundational information needed to use the strategy successfully.

Are students familiar with the role that they will be playing as both the writer and the audience to which they are writing? Do they know the mechanics of the format we will use?

(Adapted from Santangelo et al., 2008).

Using SRSD as a framework for teaching explicit writing strategies is one way that teachers can help students become independent and proficient writers.

Additional Resources
References
Miller, S. P. (2009). Validated practices for teaching students with diverse needs and abilities (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Santa, C. M., Havens, L. T., & Valdes, B. J. (2004). Creating independence through student-owned strategies (3rd ed.). Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt.

Santangelo, T., Harris, K. R., & Graham, S. (2008). Using self-regulated strategy development to support students who have "trubol giting thangs into werds." Remedial and Special Education, 29(2), 78-89. doi:10.1177/0741932507311636

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| Training & Technical Assistance Center | School of Education | W&M School of Education

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This article provides an excerpt from the May/June 2012 Link Lines article entitled The Wonderful World of Writing: Strategies for Effective Writing Instruction. The article featured a summary of 11 elements of effective writing instruction and the benefits of using Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) to help students learn explicit writing strategies.

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Six basic stages of instruction are used to introduce and develop genre specific and general writing and self-regulation strategies in the Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) model for writing strategies instruction: a) develop background knowledge, b) discuss it, c) model it, d) support it, e) memorize it, and f) independent performance.

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Page 2: Self-Regulation

wo of Ms. Torri's students, Alexandra and Zach, have problems with T self-regulation. That is, they have not learned how to control their own behavior. Though self-regulation is a critical skill that most students learn fairly early, some students, including those with learning disabilities or attention deficits, seem to have difficulty doing so. Fortunately, there's a solution: Ms. Torri can teach her students self-regulation strategies.

For more than thirty years, researchers have demonstrated the effectiveness of self-regulation strategies. Their findings are summarized in the boxes below.

Benefits for Students

Students learn to work independently and develop flexibility skills.

Students gather assignments, complete the expected task(s), review the completed work, and continue on to the next assignment.

Students experience success because they stick with challenging problems in order to find solutions.

(Reid & Lienemann, 2006; Winne, 1997)

Benefits for Teachers

Self-regulation strategies reduce disruptive problems in the classroom by encouraging students to manage their own behavior.

Such strategies provide teachers with time to work with small groups or one-on-one with students who require extra instruction.

They also increase teachers' appreciation for students who are able to self-regulate their behavior.

(Reid & Lienemann, 2006)

Benefits for Students with Disabilities

Students become more active and responsible learners rather than passive ones.

They recognize the importance of contributing to their learning environment.

Students regulate their behavior and think of alternate ways to deal with frustrating situations.

They analyze their behavior, identify problems, determine why certain behaviors occur, predict when problems will arise, and learn how to avoid these incidents.

(Ellis & Friend, 1991; Lovitt, 1973, 1977; Smith & Rivera, 1993)

Tom Lovitt, Professor Emeritus from the University of Washington and a pioneer in the field, reflects on his work (time: 1:16).

Tom Lovitt, PhD
Professor Emeritus, University of Washington
Seattle, Washington

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Transcript: Tom Lovitt, PhD

There've been a number of names that people have used like self-management and self-determination and self-regulation. A lot of people have used self-control, self-responsibilities, self-instructions, self-directed, personal management; there's a whole lot of those. I think one thing you need to do is to think about why do you want to get into self-regulation in the first place. A lot of data shows that it improves performance of students. Another reason is it increases pupil self-confidence. Another reason for getting involved in it: It increases chances of generalization. And I think another reason for getting into it is it provides practice of basic skills. Because when you're working on self-recording, self-monitoring, self-graphing, and all of that, it really fits into basic skills. And I think another reason for getting involved in the regulation thing is it really is the transition skill, if done properly. Because it goes back to generalization, because if you're learning those kinds of things about self-recording and self-goal setting, then presumably that will, if you're taught those things in, say, third grade then presumably they will carry into middle school and high school and adult life and college.

A variety of specific self-regulation techniques are available for teachers to consider when teaching students how to control their behavior. The teacher's role is to:

Help students through the problem-solving process

Develop self-regulation plans

Reinforce students for implementing their plans

Work with students to evaluate the effectiveness of their plans

Four major types of self-regulation strategies are:

Self-monitoring (also called self-assessment or self-recording)

Self-instruction (also called self-talk)

Goal-setting

Self-reinforcement

All of these self-regulation strategies have been thoroughly researched and tested in the classroom. They are simple to use and are usually quite effective. Though each strategy is discussed separately in this module, it is important to know that in practice these self-regulation strategies can be easily and effectively combined. You should also know that the self-regulation strategies presented in this module can be used as stand-alone strategies or in conjunction with other approaches.

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wo of Ms. Torri's students, Alexandra and Zach, have problems with T self-regulation. That is, they have not learned how to control their own behavior. Though self-regulation is a critical skill that most students learn fairly early, some students, including those with learning disabilities or attention deficits, seem to have difficulty doing so.

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Self-Monitoring

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Page 4: Self-Monitoring

Self-monitoring is a strategy that teaches students to self-assess their behavior and record the results. Though it does not create new skills or knowledge, self-monitoring does increase or decrease the frequency, intensity, or duration of existing behavior. It also saves teachers time monitoring students' behavior.

Benefits for All Students

Self-monitoring provides more immediate feedback to students than is possible when teachers evaluate the behavior.

The strategy clearly depicts improvement over time in behavior for both the student and the teacher.

The self-monitoring process engages students.

Self-monitoring facilitates communication between students and their parent.

Students can avoid competition because of the individual nature of the strategy.

Self-monitoring incorporates academic and social skills (e.g., counting, reading, classifying, cooperating).

The strategy increases students' awareness of their own behavior.

Self-monitoring produces positive results.

(Moxley, 1998; Rock, 2005)

Benefits for Students with Disabilities

In addition to the benefits described above, studies on self-monitoring with students with disabilities in inclusive classroom settings have demonstrated positive changes in the following behaviors:

Social behaviors and completion of written classroom work at the high school level

The ability to follow directions in junior high school classes

Less aggressive behavior

Academic engagement and fewer disruptive behaviors for elementary-age students

On-task behavior, less disruptive behavior, and listening skills for grades 7 through 9

Math fluency

(Gumpel & Shlomit, 2000; Hughes, Copeland, Agran, Wehmeyer, Rodi, & Presley, 2002; McDougall & Brady, 1998; Rock, 2005; Wehmeyer, Yeager, Bolding, Agran, & Hughes, 2003)

Though self-monitoring can be used in many ways for many different behaviors, this module will focus on two of the most common and easiest to use. These are self-monitoring of attention (SMA) and self-monitoring of performance (SMP).

Self-Monitoring of Attention

SMA is great for students who might be easily distracted, get up from their seats, bother other students, or fiddle with objects. The student can monitor the frequency or duration of these behaviors.

Self-Monitoring of Performance

SMP is appropriate for students who need to monitor some aspect of academic performance, such as the rate at which they correctly complete class work or the overall accuracy of their performance. It is especially useful for building fluency.

Alexandra has difficulty paying attention during instruction. Ms. Torri has decided to teach Alexandra the strategy known as self-monitoring of attention.

Zach has trouble completing his class assignments, so Ms. Torri has decided to implement self-monitoring of performance with him.

Before Ms. Torri implements these self-monitoring strategies with Alexandra and Zach, she needs to review the five steps in the self-monitoring process.

Steps in Self-Monitoring

Teaching students to self-monitor is a straightforward process. The steps below are the ones teachers should use, and we'll discuss each of them in turn.

To begin the self-monitoring process, select a behavior for a student to self-monitor. One good way to do this is to remember the acronym SOAP.

S pecific means that the teacher can tell the student exactly what behavior(s) he or she will self-monitor. Students must be able to determine easily and accurately whether a behavior has occurred. It's not a good idea to try to self-monitor behaviors like "being good" or "behaving yourself." Instead, use behaviors like "listening to the teacher" or "doing my work," which are easy for the student to understand and identify. However, it would be appropriate for a student to self-monitor "talking out" when the teacher is instructing.

O bservable means that the student can readily identify the target behavior. For example, the student may not be able to easily observe whether he is "doing better in math," but he can easily observe whether he got 7 out of 10 problems correct.

A ppropriate means that the behavior is a good match for the setting and task. For example, it would not be appropriate for a student to self-monitor "talking out" during a small-group discussion on a topic in which participation is encouraged. However, during a time in which the teacher is instructing, self-monitoring of "talking out" would be appropriate.

P ersonal means that the behavior is matched to the student's cognitive and developmental levels. For example, you might expect a seventh-grade student to read independently for one hour, but you would not expect this from a first-grade student.

For Your Information

When students are allowed to help select the behavior to be modified, they are more likely to consider the task important and become more engaged in the self-monitoring process.

Once the target behavior has been identified, the teacher should decide when and where the student should use self-monitoring (e.g., during a 20-minute morning seatwork period). Then the teacher should collect information about the behavior (baseline data) during this setting for several days. She or he can do so in a number of ways, depending on the nature of the target behavior.

This graph, entitled Alexandra's Attention - Baseline, shows the percentage of time Alexandra is paying attention per day. The vertical axis is labeled "Percent of Time Paying Attention" from 0 to 100 in 10 percentage-point increments. The horizontal axis shows the number of days, from Day 1 to Day 5, in one-day increments. A data point is plotted for each day and the points are connected in a line graph. Alexandra pays attention for the following percentage each day: Day 1-20 percent, Day 2-30 percent, Day 3-20 percent, Day 4-20 percent, and Day 5-30 percent.

Duration - A measure of the length of time during which the behavior occurs in a given period. This can be gauged by using a stopwatch, egg timer, or hourglass to determine how long a student:

Stays on task

Remains in his or her seat

Keep in Mind

Duration and frequency can be used to measure many behaviors. Teachers need to decide how to track behavior based on how often it occurs and on the goal for the behavior. Likewise, teachers should consider what the students' skills are in terms of self-monitoring.

Once the baseline data are collected, the teacher should graph the results. Collecting baseline data is a crucial step, but one that is quite often skipped. The data allow the teacher and student to compare the behavior prior to and after the implementation of the self-monitoring strategy. The data can also help the teacher to decide whether the targeted behavior is in fact a problem. Once in a while, a teacher will discover that the behavior was not nearly as serious as he or she initially believed it to be.

The next step is to convince the student to cooperate willingly. Remember, the "self" is the active ingredient in self-monitoring. The teacher will need active and willing cooperation from the student if self-monitoring is to be successful. The best way to win cooperation is to address the problem frankly with the student. Talk about how self-monitoring can benefit the student: "Staying in your seat means you don't lose recess"; "Practicing arithmetic facts each day will help you do better on the test." Don't promise the moon. Students are unlikely to respond to exaggerated claims. The key is to be optimistic but realistic.

This is a self-monitoring form for Alexandra on 4/10/05. Underneath her name and date is the text, "Ask yourself: 'Was I paying attention?'" and the following three bullets: in my seat, working on an assignment, listening to the teacher. Below the bullets is the text, "Circle yes or no each time you hear the beep," and a table numbered 1 through 10 with the options yes or no beside each number. Surrounding the text are Alexandra's doodles of hearts, a peace sign, a smiley face, and a flower.

Now the teacher is ready to begin teaching the self-monitoring procedures. The process is a simple one that usually takes little time to implement. The teacher explains where and when self-monitoring will be used and teaches the actual procedures used in self-monitoring.

The teacher:

Defines the identified behavior specifically (e.g., talking to a neighbor) and the student models the desired behavior (e.g., listening to the teacher)

Models the problem behavior and the target behavior (e.g., talking to a neighbor and listening to the teacher) and lets the student identify which is the desired one

Explains when and how to record the occurrence of the desired behavior on the self-monitoring form or tally sheet. (Show Example Tally Sheet)

Role-plays the above self-monitoring procedures with the student

Specifies when and where the student will self-monitor the behavior

It is important that the student be able to use the procedures effortlessly. Self-monitoring procedures should not be distracting for the student. Rather, they should be almost automatic.

For Your Information

Letting the student personalize the self-monitoring form helps with ownership and makes the process more enjoyable. In addition, tally sheets should be designed to reflect the age, developmental level, and individual needs of the student. SMA (self-monitoring of attention) usually uses cues to remind students to self-assess. For example, a teacher might use an audio tape that contains tones or some other method to signal a time interval. SMP (self-monitoring of performance) usually requires the student to count the occurrence of the behavior.

Now the student is ready to use self-monitoring independently. The first few times the student uses self-monitoring, it is often a good idea for the teacher to remind him or her about using the procedures. The teacher should also check to see that the student is employing the procedures correctly and consistently.

When the student begins to self-monitor, he or she will keep track of the identified behavior on the self-monitoring form. The student or the teacher should plot these data on the same graph on which the baseline data are graphed. This comparison allows the teacher to determine whether self-monitoring is effective. It will also help the student to see the improvement in his or her behavior.

The student and teacher should periodically evaluate the student's progress. If the self-monitoring is effective, the teacher and student should see a marked change in the target behavior in a short time. Booster sessions may be necessary if the behavior deteriorates.

Now that Ms. Torri is familiar with the steps in the self-monitoring process, she is ready to implement this strategy with Alexandra and Zach.

Click on the movie below to see how Ms. Torri implements SMA with Alexandra (time: 2:57).

Transcript: Select a Behavior to Self-Monitor

Narrator: Ms. Torri has decided to implement self-monitoring with Alexandra to help her pay attention in class and focus on her work. Because she's noticed that Alexandra spends a lot of time out of her seat, Ms. Torri has defined "paying attention" for Alexandra as "in her seat," "doing her work," and "listening to the teacher." Next, Ms. Torri needs to collect baseline data on how often Alexandra pays attention. She observed the behavior during math class for five days and determined that Alexandra spends on average only 25 percent of the class period paying attention. Now that Ms. Torri has determined that Alexandra does indeed have a problem paying attention, she needs to obtain Alexandra's cooperation to effectively implement the self-monitoring strategy.

Ms. Torri: Alexandra, I wanted to talk with you today about paying attention in class. I've noticed that you're really having problems staying in your seat and focusing on your work lately. But I think that there may be a way to help you with this. I've used something with kids just like you and it worked well. I think it would really help you to pay attention better. Do you think you'd like to try it?

Alexandra: I guess.

Narrator: The next step is for Ms. Torri to teach Alexandra the procedures for self-monitoring.

Ms. Torri: Okay, let's talk about what it means to pay attention. Here are some things that you need to think about to figure out whether or not you're paying attention: "Was I in my seat, doing my work, and/ or listening to the teacher?" Now, let's pretend that you're doing your math practice in the morning. Show me what you look like when you're paying attention. Good, now tell me what you're doing.

Alexandra: I'm doing my math problems.

Ms. Torri: Good! That's paying attention! Now I'm going to show you how to help yourself pay attention. I'm going to play a tape that has some beeps on it. Every time you hear a beep, you should ask yourself, "Was I paying attention?" Now what do you do when you hear a beep?

Alexandra: Ask myself if I was paying attention.

Ms. Torri: That's right. Then you use the sheet and circle "yes" if you were paying attention and "no" if you were not paying attention.

Narrator: Ms. Torri role-plays with Alexandra. First, Ms. Torri pretends to be the student and then they switch roles. The last thing Ms. Torri needs to do is establish when and where the student will self-monitor the behavior.

Ms. Torri: Now, Alexandra, tomorrow when you do your math work, we will use the beeps to help you do your work. We will do it just like we practiced today.

Narrator: Alexandra self-monitors her attention for several days.

Ms. Torri: Okay, Alexandra, remember to listen to the beeps. Every time you hear a beep, ask yourself, "Was I paying attention?" and mark your sheet.

Narrator: At the end of each math class, Ms. Torri and Alexandra graph how often she was paying attention.
(Close this panel)
Activity
SMP with Zach
Zach hates math. He'd much rather think about riding his bike than practice math, which in turn means that his scores on daily class assignments are poor. He knows his math facts fairly well, but because his assignments are rarely complete he almost never makes passing scores on them.

Click the pictures below to help Ms. Torri implement self-monitoring with Zach to improve his math performance. Bob Reid, PhD, University of Nebraska, an expert in this field, will offer feedback for each step.

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Step 4

Step 5

Step 4

Now, tomorrow during math class we'll start doing this for real.

OK Zach, your goal is to complete the assignment and get at least 75% of the problems correct each day.

Now let's practice. I've got a math worksheet. You complete the assignment and when you're done we will count up the number you get correct and write it on your tally sheet.

You will track your progress each day to see if you're meeting your goal. Each day you'll write down on your tally sheet how many problems you get correct on the daily assignment.

Ms. Torri previously obtained Zach's willing cooperation. Now it is important she discusses the desired behavior with Zach.

Next, Ms. Torri models the procedures for Zach. It's important for the student to see the procedures used so that he can understand them.

Then, Ms. Torri has Zach practice completing a math sheet, check his work and record his performance on his tally sheet. While this step may not seem important, it is necessary in order to determine the student understands the procedures and implements it correctly.

Finally, Ms. Torri specifies the class and time periods that Zach will self-monitor the behavior. It's crucial that Ms. Torri gives reminders if Zach forgets to monitor his behavior or is implementing the strategy incorrectly.

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Self-monitoring is a strategy that teaches students to self-assess their behavior and record the results. Though it does not create new skills or knowledge, self-monitoring does increase or decrease the frequency, intensity, or duration of existing behavior. It also saves teachers time monitoring students' behavior.

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Self-Instruction

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Another strategy associated with self-regulation is self-instruction, also referred to as self-talk or self-statements, in which students learn to talk themselves through a task or activity. Young children who talk themselves through the shoe-tying process or a medical student who mentally rehearses the procedural steps while engaged in an injury evaluation are using self-instruction, which[.....]

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Goal Setting

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Page 6: Goal-Setting

One powerful self-regulation strategy is goal-setting. Self-regulation can be challenging for both the students and the teacher if it is not clear what they are striving toward or how to get there. In fact, Winne (1997) noted that effective learners are those who are goal-oriented. A teacher can guide students to establish achievable goals in order to reach their desired results.

Benefits for Teachers & Students

Goal-setting offers structure by specifying a target goal.

The process provides feedback on progress.

Goal-setting motivates performance.

Using goal-setting is easy. Let's go back to the earlier example of Zach and his poor math performance. In setting a course to improve his scores on his daily classroom assignments, Ms. Torri and Zach should follow the steps outlined below.

Step 1: Choose an Appropriate Goal

There are two things to keep in mind when choosing a goal:

Difficulty - How challenging the goal is. Goals that are too easy or too hard aren't very motivating. The best goals are those that are moderately challenging. Teachers should help students set their goals to ensure that they are realistic and attainable.
Example: If Zach says, "I want to get an A on all of my daily math assignments!" Ms. Torri can respond, "Well, that's a good long-term goal, but maybe we should try to get your math scores up to Cs first."

Step 2: Determine a Timeline

The best goals are those that can be accomplished fairly quickly. Indeed, goals that take a long time to accomplish may deter motivation because progress is slow. However, that doesn't mean you shouldn't make long-term goals! You just need to string together a series of short-term goals toward a long-term goal.

Example: Increase Zach's math goal every six weeks to reach the long-term goal of scoring 95% or above on his tests.

Step 3: Establish Progress Monitoring

To maintain structure as well as motivation, a student needs to be aware of what kind of progress he or she is making toward his or her goal. The teacher can help by establishing procedures that will give the student continuous feedback and will track his or her progress.

Example: For continuous feedback, Ms. Torri and Zach will create a graph to reflect Zach's math scores on his classroom assignments throughout the next 6 weeks. Basing their decisions on his progress, Ms. Torri and Zach will determine a new short-term goal and graph Zach's scores for the subsequent six weeks.

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One powerful self-regulation strategy is goal-setting. Self-regulation can be challenging for both the students and the teacher if it is not clear what they are striving toward or how to get there. In fact, Winne (1997) noted that effective learners are those who are goal-oriented.

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Self-Reinforcement

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Have you ever given yourself a reward when you accomplished a task, like eating a decadent dessert after making a deadline? This is called self-reinforcement and it occurs when individuals select a reinforcer and reward themselves for reaching or exceeding a criterion. Using a self-reinforcement strategy involves a four-step process.

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Student self-monitoring is an effective tool for behavior change. Self-monitoring has two components, measurement and evaluation (Loftin, Gibb, & Skiba, 2005): That is, the student (1) measures and records his or her own behavior (measurement), and then (2) compares that recorded behavior to a pre-determined standard (evaluation). Self-monitoring can take many forms. One student may use a paper form to rate her study skills at the end of each class period, for example, while another student might verbally rate his social behaviors when approached by his teacher at random times across the school day.

Self-monitoring takes advantage of a behavioral principle: the simple acts of measuring one's target behavior and comparing it to an external standard or goal can result in lasting improvements to that behavior. Self-monitoring is sometimes described as having 'reactive' effects (Kazdin, 1989), because students who measure and pay close attention to selected behaviors often react to this monitoring information by changing those target behaviors in the desired direction.

In classroom settings, self-monitoring offers several advantages. Self-monitoring requires that the student be an active participant in the intervention, with responsibility for measuring and evaluating his or her behaviors. Also, in order to accurately self-evaluate behaviors, the student must first learn the teacher's behavioral expectations. That ability of a child or youth to understand and internalize the behavioral expectations of others is a milestone in the development of social skills. Finally, student self-monitoring data is typically economical to collect, even in a busy classroom, and can often be used to document the success of a behavioral intervention.

There are many possible variations to student self-monitoring programs. In order to be most effective, however, self-monitoring programs will usually include the following 7 steps:

The teacher and student select and carefully define one or more behaviors that the student will monitor.

Targets for self-monitoring can include behaviors to increase (Webber et al., 1993), such as:

Focusing on the task or assignment (on-task).

Making positive statements to peers.

Completing work.

Complying with teacher requests.

Reading pages of text read during study periods.

Completing math computation problems.

Self-monitoring can also focus on behaviors to decrease (Dunlap, Clarke, Jackson, Ramos, & Brinson, 1995), such as:

Calling out.

Leaving one's seat.

Requesting teacher assistance.

The teacher should meet privately with the student to discuss the behavior(s to be monitored. For each goal behavior, the teacher and student write a clear, specific behavioral definition that provides observable 'look-fors' to indicate when the behavior is displayed. For example, 'on-task' can be made observable by defining it as "eyes on the teacher or desk-work".

Student self-monitoring does not necessarily require that monitoring data be written down. For example, a student who regularly consults a self-correction checklist before turning in math assignments or keeps a mental count of call-outs during large-group instruction may see behavioral improvements even if she does not commit her self-monitoring information to writing. However, creating a written record of self-monitoring data will allow the student to collect data over time to look for trends of improvement and to share self-monitoring information with teachers and/or parents.

Reviewed here are three convenient formats to structure the collection of self-monitoring data and to record the resulting behavioral data--rating scale, checklist, and frequency count (Chafouleas, Riley-Tillman, & Sugai, 2007):

Rating scale. A rating scale consists of one or more items that a student can use to complete a global rating of a corresponding number of behaviors (e.g., "How well did I: (1) stay in my seat?; (2) participate?; (3) avoid distracting others?; (4) follow directions?"). The rating scale usually has a qualitative, sliding-scale rating format (e.g., "poor...fair...good"). Rating scales are typically completed at the conclusion of a fixed observation period (e.g., after a class period; at the end of the school day). See the sample Behavior Rating Scale later in this article for an example of how to set up a rating scale to measure student behaviors.

Checklist. A checklist is a listing of behaviors (to be increased or decreased) that the student periodically reviews, checking off those behaviors actually displayed during the monitoring period. For example, a student may have a checklist for independent assignments that contains these 3 work-readiness items: (1) I have all work materials needed, (2) My desk workspace is organized, (3) I understand the directions of this assignment. Before beginning independent work, that student reviews and verifies that these preparatory actions have been carried out. Checklists are helpful for monitoring multi-step behaviors (e.g., the plan-write-revise-edit stages of the writing process) or for monitoring clusters of several related behaviors (e.g., as illustrated in the work-readiness example cited above). Investigate the sample Behavior Checklist elsewhere in this article as a guide for setting up a behavior checklist.

Frequency count. In a frequency count, the student keeps a running tally of the number of times that a he or she displays a target behavior (e.g., number of call-outs or requests for teacher assistance) during an observation period. Check out the example of a Frequency Count form further on in this article for advice on monitoring the frequency of student behaviors.

Because self-monitoring requires that the student periodically measure his or her behavior, the teacher and student must decide on what schedule the monitoring will occur (Rafferty, 2010; Webber et al. 1993). Here are options:

Start of period or day. The student monitors at the start of the class period or school day. Sample behaviors suitable for 'start' intervals include arriving to class on time and having all required work materials.

End of period or day. The student monitors at the end of the class period or school day. Sample behaviors suitable for 'end' intervals include copying homework assignments from the board and global ratings of the student's behavior during that classroom period or school day.

Scheduled transition points through period or day. The student monitors periodically during the class period or school day, with each monitoring episode tied to a scheduled, easily identified 'transition point' that naturally occurs in that classroom setting. A common transition point would be the student's moving from one learning activity to another (e.g., from independent seatwork to whole-class lecture). Sample behaviors suitable for 'transition point' intervals include the speed of the student's transition between activities and the student's general behavior during transition periods.

Start or end of assignments. As student academic work is often the focus of self-monitoring, a logical time-point for doing that monitoring is when beginning or finishing assignments. Sample behaviors suitable for 'start of assignments' include checking for the presence of all work materials and clearing the desk to create an uncluttered work space. Sample behaviors suitable for 'end of assignments' include ensuring that a writing assignment is legible and correctly formatted and applying a self-correction checklist to a math assignment to catch and correct common mistakes.

Fixed intervals through period or day. The student monitors at fixed periods during the class period or school day (e.g., every 15 minutes; at the top of each hour). Sample behaviors suitable for 'fixed' intervals include overall classroom behaviors, attention and focus, social interactions with other students, and compliance with adult requests.

Once the teacher and student have determined a monitoring schedule, they should decide on a cue to trigger student monitoring (Rafferty, 2010). Below are some options. (Note that most of these cuing methods can either be self-administered by the student or used by the teacher to cue one student, a small group, or even an entire class):

'Beep tape'. The student is given an audio tape (or electronic audio file) with beeps spaced at fixed intervals whose rate matches the student's self-monitoring schedule. For example, a student monitors his on-task behavior every 5 minutes on a self-rating scale using an MP3 player with an audio-file beep tape with tones at 5 minute intervals. NOTE: Schools can download free fixed-interval beep tapes in MP3 format and in a range of interval-lengths from: http://www.interventioncentral.org/free-audio-monitoring-tapes

Timer. The student or teacher sets a timer (e.g., kitchen timer, cell-phone timer, stopwatch) for a pre-set interval. When the timer rings, the student self-monitors behavior and then the timer is reset. For example, a student in a math class sets a cell-phone timer with vibration setting for 3-minute intervals during independent work. When the timer rings, the student counts up the number of math-computation problems completed during the interval.

Teacher-delivered cue. The teacher delivers a cue to the student to remind him or her to self-monitor. For example, at the end of an in-class writing assignment, an English instructor prompts the class to review their compositions using self-correction checklists before turning in their work.

Student-delivered cue. The student is given responsibility to initiate self-monitoring informally without use of a timer, beep tape, or other external cue. For example, a student monitoring her understanding of assigned texts during in-class independent reading is directed to use a rating scale at least 3 times during the activity to rate and record her comprehension of the text --with the student determining how to space those self-checks.

The teacher may want to choose suitable rewards to further motivate students to use self-monitoring to move toward positive behavior change (Loftin, Gibb, & Skiba, 2005). Teachers can increase the power of a self-monitoring program by rewarding students when they consistently achieve positive ratings. Remember, though, that students differ in what experiences, privileges, or objects they find positively reinforcing. Here are 3 ideas for figuring out what rewards will motivate a particular student:

Watch the student in action. Teachers can often get a very good idea of a student's preferred rewards, or reinforces, simply by observing the student across the school day. The locations where a student chooses to spend time, the people he or she chooses to interact with, and the activities the student engages in all provide hints about what the student finds rewarding. For example, one student may have a friend that he enjoys spending time with, suggesting that the student would view 'free time with a friend of your choice' as a motivating reward. Another student might frequently beg the teacher to be allowed to care for the class mascot, a pet rabbit-presenting the possible reward idea of 'five minutes petting the rabbit'.

Ask people who know the student well. Adults such as parents or past teachers who have interacted with the student regularly for months or years may be able to supply a list of ideas about rewards that will really motivate him or her.

Administer a reinforcer survey. Reinforcer surveys contain a list of possible rewards acceptable for use in a classroom. The teacher meets with the student to review each reinforcer item on the survey, and the student rates whether he or she finds the item to be a motivating reward. The teacher can then create a menu of possible rewards for the student using those reinforcers that the student rated as most motivating. (HINT: Teachers can conveniently create their own customized reinforcer surveys online at this web address: http://www.interventioncentral.org/teacher-resources/student-rewards-finder.)

Periodically, the teacher should check the student's self-monitoring data and procedures--particularly at the start of the monitoring--to ensure that the student is recording accurately (Webber et al., 1993). Random spot-checks tend to result in higher-quality student self-recording data.

As the student attains his or her behavioral goals, self-monitoring procedures should be faded--that is, gradually simplified or discontinued (Loftin, Gibb, & Skiba, 2005; Rafferty, 2010). The goals in fading are (1) to streamline self-monitoring so that it becomes sustainable over the long term, while (2) maintaining the student's behavioral gains. Specific methods used in fading will vary, depending on the elements that make up the self-monitoring plan. Fading strategies might include condensing the monitoring format (e.g., distilling a 6-item checklist for monitoring classwork-readiness into a single question: "Am I ready to work?"), changing the monitoring cue (e.g., moving from use of an external beep-tape to student-delivered cues); and monitoring less frequently (e.g., having the student shift down from a daily monitoring schedule to monitoring twice per week on randomly selected days).

References

Chafouleas, S., Riley-Tillman, C., & Sugai, G. (2007). School-based behavioral assessment: Informing intervention and instruction. New York: Guilford Press.

Dunlap, G., Clarke, S., Jackson, M., Ramos, E., & Brinson, S. (1995). Self-monitoring of classroom behaviors with students exhibiting emotional and behavioral challenges. School Psychology Quarterly, 10, 165-177.

Kazdin, A. E. (1989). Behavior modification in applied settings (4th ed.). Pacific Gove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Loftin, R. L., Gibb, A. C., & Skiba, R. (2005). Using self-monitoring strategies to address behavior and academic issues. Impact, 18(2), 12-13. Retrieved from the Web site of the Institute on Community Integration, University of Minnesota (http://ici.umn.edu).

Rafferty, L. A. (2010). Step-by-step: Teaching students to self-monitor. Teaching Exceptional Children, 43(2), 50-58.

Webber, J., Scheuermann, B., McCall, C., & Coleman, M. (1993). Research on self-monitoring as a behavior management technique in special education classrooms: A descriptive review. Remedial & Special Education, 14(2), 38-56.

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How To: Teach Students to Change Behaviors Through Self-Monitoring

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Student self-monitoring is an effective tool for behavior change. Self-monitoring has two components, measurement and evaluation (Loftin, Gibb, & Skiba, 2005): That is, the student (1) measures and records his or her own behavior (measurement), and then (2) compares that recorded behavior to a pre-determined standard (evaluation).

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How to teach students to be strong writers using SRSD - with Dr. Karen Harris

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Podcast Episode · Triple R Teaching · 03/24/2025 · 56m

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If you're looking for an evidence-based approach to teaching writing in all grades, look no further than thinkSRSD! Dr. Leslie Laud explains this approach and breaks down how it looks across the grade levels. Be sure to check the show notes for links to free resources that will get you started!

Click here for the show notes from this episode.
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[Listen Again] How to teach writing in K-8: A thinkSRSD deep dive with Dr. Leslie Laud

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If you're looking for an evidence-based approach to teaching writing in all grades, look no further than thinkSRSD! Dr. Leslie Laud explains this approach and b

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Evidence-based practices in teaching writing - with Dr. Steve Graham

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Podcast Episode · Triple R Teaching · 02/17/2025 · 1h 13m

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Building confidence, positive self-talk, and strategic planning skills for writing (with Dr. Nelly Kaakaty)

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Podcast Episode · De Facto Leaders · 12/04/2024 · 1h 2m

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Ep. 7 - K-12 Writing Instruction w/Dr. Leslie Laud

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Podcast Episode · On the Road to Literacy Success · 10/24/2024 · 23m

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This episode highlights the close connection between reading and writing and the importance of teaching them together. Young-Suk Kim uses a structural house analogy to explain their interdependence. Karen Harris introduces the SRSD (Self-Regulated Strategy Development) model, focusing on evidence-based practices that build self-regulation and explicit instruction for writing. We discuss the researchers brand new study with 1st and 2nd graders, including the SRSD Plus approach, which adds instruction in handwriting, spelling, and oral language. Our guests share practical tips for improving handwriting fluency and research on SRSD Plus's positive impact on early writing and student confidence, offering valuable insights for classroom teaching.
Resources

Enhancing Reading and Writing Skills through Systematically Integrated Instruction (with HOUSE graphic that Young explains in the beginning of the podcast)

The Science of Teaching Reading is Incomplete without the Science of Writing: A Randomized Control Trial of Integrated Teaching of Reading and Writing

Yes, they can: Developing transcription skills and oral language in tandem with SRSD instruction on close reading of science text to write informative essays at grades 1 and 2

We answer your questions about teaching reading in The Literacy 50-A Q&A Handbook for Teachers: Real-World Answers to Questions About Reading That Keep You Up at NightGrab free resources and episode alerts! Sign up for our email list at literacypodcast.comJoin our community on Facebook, and follow us on Instagram, Facebook, & Twitter.

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Ep. 213: Evidence-Based Writing Instruction for Young Learners with Karen Harris & Young Suk Grace Kim

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This episode highlights the close connection between reading and writing and the importance of teaching them together. Young-Suk Kim uses a structural house ana

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ERRR #089. Karen Harris on Teaching Writing (SRSD)

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Podcast Episode · Education Research Reading Room · 04/03/2024 · 2h 35m

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Powerful Writing Strategies for All Students

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Study Skills SRSD

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Study Skills | College of Education and Human Sciences | Nebraska | Special Education & Communication Disorders

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PreparationAlert Words for Classroom Discussions (Ellis, E.S.)This reading strategy is designed to increase students’ ability to participate in classroom discussions.

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View of Self-Regulated Strategy Development in the Classroom: Part of a Balanced Approach to Writing Instruction for Students With Disabilities

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By Véronique Parent, Anne Rodrigue, Julie Myre-Bisaillon, Carole Boudreau, and Annick Tremblay-Bouchard
Students with learning disabilities often experience difficulty with writing. These difficulties result from limited strategies, skills, knowledge, and motivation (Graham, Harris, & McKeown, 2013).

The Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) model combines instructional strategies with a means to self-regulate (Harris, 1982). The goal is to teach the strategies that students need in order to write, while supporting them to be motivated. Taking the specific needs of each student into account is central to this approach. It can be used with an entire class, small groups, and individual students, from Grade 2 to secondary school.

The SRSD approach consists of explicit teaching of:

general and specific writing strategies, such as:

using the right vocabulary,

being mindful of the intended reader,

creating interesting introductions and conclusions

the knowledge required to use these strategies;

ways to manage these strategies;

the writing process; and

one's behaviour as a writer

self-regulation

self-instruction

This approach offers a general framework for working with students that the teacher can then adapt to the writing strategies students are working on. It consists of six steps that can be re-arranged, re-combined, revisited, modified or even omitted, depending on student needs.

Detailed Description of the Approach

Step 1: Develop Background Knowledge

In the first step of the SRSD approach, teachers must identify the skills students will need to use a particular strategy, assess whether the students possess these skills, and help students develop the necessary skills (e.g., vocabulary) they may need to learn the academic and self-regulation strategy.

Self-regulation strategies are integrated at this stage by having students think about whether their performance is adversely affected by any negative thoughts or perceptions; the teacher may then help them to demystify these perceptions.

Step 2: Discuss

In this step, the teacher and the students discuss the specific strategy to be used. Each step of the strategy is explained and mnemonics are used for support, where applicable. The teacher and the students explore how and when to apply the strategy, whether the strategy can by generalized to other tasks, and how the students will benefit from the strategy.

Self-regulation skills are also tied in at this stage by emphasizing the importance of effort in order to increase student motivation and the development of positive thoughts and perceptions. The students should also be taught to set goals for learning the strategy, using it, and then continuing to use the strategy. Self-monitoring can be explicitly taught at this stage by having students plot their progress on a graphic organizer, and highlighting the changes that will happen when they master the strategies. This is so that, later on, they can compare their new writing and their old writing.

Step 3: Model

The teacher models the writing process, demonstrating for the students when and how to use the strategy for writing, while incorporating self-regulation strategies. This modelling includes:

A definition of the problem ("I must write an essay in eight parts.")

A focus on attention and planning ("I need to concentrate. First, I need to choose an idea.")

Implementation of the strategies ("I know what to do. I am going to use the first strategy.")

Self-evaluation and correcting mistakes ("Did I use all of the steps of the strategy? Ooops, I forgot one. I'd better add it.")

Self-control ("I can do this. I know the strategy. I'm going to slow down and take my time.")

Positive reinforcement ("Wow! I like this part of my essay!")

After modelling the strategy, the teacher talks about its benefits and challenges, and suggests ways for making it even more effective. Then, the teacher helps the students to come up with a short list of instructions that the students can give themselves before, during, and after the writing task. This list and other lists that are produced are placed in a folder, so that the students can refer to them throughout the learning process. Peer modelling can also be used.

Step 4: Memorize

This step begins as soon as the instruction begins. The students participate in fun, engaging activities that assist them in memorizing the steps of the strategy and the actions involved in completing each step. Additional time can be spent on this step for students who need it, in order to ensure that they have correctly memorized everything.

Step 5: Support

Step 5 is the longest step. The teacher supports the students as they apply the writing and self-regulation strategies during a guided writing task. This step features experiences of collaborative writing, with teacher accompaniment and incentives that support the process and that are based on the students' progress. The teacher encourages the students and guides them, as necessary, to ensure that they meet the objectives that they have set for themselves.

Step 6: Independent Work

The teacher invites the students to use the strategies they have learned in written production tasks in order to demonstrate that they have mastered them independently and correctly. Booster sessions can be added as often as necessary in order to help the students to maintain their use of the strategies; during these booster sessions, the strategies are re-visited and re-discussed. Similarly, through the use of this approach, various procedures to help the students to maintain and generalize their learning can be integrated. These include:

1. Identifying opportunities to use the writing strategies and self-regulation strategies in other situations;

2. Analyzing how these procedures could be modified in these other situations;

3. Creating homework assignments requiring the students to use the strategies in other contexts;

4. Evaluating the success of these efforts.

Please refer to the Resources section for print and online resources relative to the SRSD approach.

Supports for the efficacy of the approach

There have been many studies on the SRSD approach. According to a meta-analysis by Graham, Harris and McKeown. (2013), it is a versatile approach for improving writing of different types of texts, for working with students of all ages, whether or not they have learning disabilities, and for working with entire classes, small groups, and individual students. The research also indicates that a regular classroom teacher who receives professional development can implement this approach. Other studies indicate that the SRSD approach can be used with students with learning disabilities to improve student attitudes toward writing. It has also been shown to increase the quality of written productions, the knowledge about writing, the time taken to plan a composition, and the length of compositions (Graham & Harris, 1989; Harris, Graham, & Mason, 2006; Reid & Lienemann, 2006, as cited in Sandmel et al., 2009).

Related Resources on the LD@school Website
Click here to access the article Writing Interventions for Children in Grades 1 to 6 with Learning Disabilities. Click here to access the article Writing Interventions for Adolescents with Learning Disabilities. Click here to access the article Expressive Writing.
Additional Resources
Click here to access interactive online tutorials on the SRSD approach. Click here to access interactive online tutorials from the Iris Centre for improving writing (English only).
References

Graham, S., Harris, K. R. and McKeown, D. (2013). The writing of students with LD and a meta-analysis of SRSD writing intervention studies: Redux. In L. Swanson, K.R. Harris, & S. Graham (Eds.), Handbook of Learning Disabilities (2nd Edition). MY: Guilford Press.

Harris, K. R., & Graham, S. (2011). "An adjective is a word hanging down from a noun": Learning to write and students with learning disabilities. Annals of Dyslexia, 1-15.

Harris, K. R., Graham, S., & Mason, L. H. & Friedlander, B. (2008). Powerful Writing Strategies for All Students. Baltimore: Brookes.

Harris, K. R. (1982). Cognitive-behavior modification: Application with exceptional students. Focus on Exceptional Children, 15(2), 1-16.

Sandmel, K. N., Brindle, M., Harris, K. R., Lane, K. L., Graham, S., Nackel, J., & Little, A. (2009). Making it work: Differentiating tier two self-regulated strategies development in writing in tandem with schoolwide positive behavioral support. Teaching Exceptional Children, 42(2), 22-33.
Julie Myre-Bisaillon is a full professor at the Département des études sur l'adaptation scolaire et sociale (Department of Academic and Social Accommodation Studies) in the Faculty of Education at the University of Sherbrooke. She is in charge of the Collectif de recherche sur la continuité des apprentissages en lecture et en écriture (CLÉ) (Research Group on the Continuity of Learning to Read and Write), a research team with roughly twenty members. Her research interests focus on teaching accommodation for special education students, using by-project approaches based on children's literature from a multidisciplinary perspective, and on reading and writing awareness in disadvantaged areas. She has also taught at the high school level and performed remedial work. Carole Boudreau teaches at the Département d'études sur l'adaptation scolaire et sociale (Department of Academic and Social Accommodation Studies) at the University of Sherbrooke. Before accepting this position, she worked as a remedial teacher in the school environment, as a guidance teacher specialized in hearing impairment and as a project officer for the Quebec Ministry of Education's Direction de l'adaptation scolaire (Academic Accommodation Branch). Her research interests focus on reading and writing difficulties as well as remedial instruction. She is a member of the Collectif de recherche sur la continuité des apprentissages en lecture et en écriture (CLÉ) (Research Group on the Continuity of Learning to Read and Write). Véronique Parent is a psychologist and professor at the Département de psychologie (Department of Psychology) at the University of Sherbrooke. Her research interests focus on cognitive disorders related to learning disabilities and accommodation. She is also interested in using novel intervention approaches in school environments, such as the use of cognitive training programs, to promote the development of special education students' learning potential. She is a member of the Collectif de recherche sur la continuité des apprentissages en lecture et en écriture (CLÉ) (Research Group on the Continuity of Learning to Read and Write). Anne Rodrigue is a Ph.D. student in the Département des études sur l'adaptation scolaire et sociale (Department of Academic and Social Accommodation Studies) at the University of Sherbrooke. She was trained as a remedial teacher and for over 10 years has been dividing her time between research at the University and practice in schools. Annick Tremblay-Bouchard is a Masters student in Education Science focusing on academic accommodation at the University of Sherbrooke. Trained as a primary school teacher, she specializes in students with hearing disabilities.
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Combining Writing and Self-Regulation Strategies: The SRSD Approach

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By Véronique Parent, Anne Rodrigue, Julie Myre-Bisaillon, Carole Boudreau, and Annick Tremblay-Bouchard Students with learning disabilities often experience difficulty with writing. These difficulties result from limited strategies, skills, knowledge, and motivation (Graham, Harris, & McKeown, 2013). The Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) model combines instructional strategies

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interventionist ebd "emotional behavior disorder" "specific learning disability" "learning disabilities" education "teacher training" "teaching course" srsd ...

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SRSD, the evidence-based writing process, will change students' lives forever for teachers and administrators: Self-regulated strategy development teaches K 12 Gen Ed and SPED students how to write essays to flourish on state testing, in college, and careers. We have translated 35 years of SRSD and metacognitive research into an easy-to-use, affordable writing application for students, parents, and teachers.

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Professor Karen Harris - Self-Regulated Strategy Development in Writing and Reading