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Mental Wellness

Mental health and healthy lifestyle habits are equally important aspects of overall health and wellness. Mental health includes your psychological and emotional wellbeing. This affects the way we feel, think, and behave, as well as how we handle stress and decision-making throughout our life. Lifestyle choices and mental health are strongly connected in many varying ways.

Lifestyle Management and Mental Health

Lifestyle management alone - including things such as exercising, eating well, and maintaining a positive outlook - aren't enough to manage some mental health disorders, but it can have a powerful impact on overall mental wellness and how we take care of ourselves.

Mental disorders, such as depression, anxiety, and even some cases of addiction and abuse, are further complicated by a variety of factors that relate to our mental wellness. However, no matter the cause, lifestyle changes along with appropriate treatments can improve our overall mental health or even help prevent the development of some disorders as well. 1

Factors that Contribute to Mental Health Problems

More than 50% of Americans will be diagnosed with a mental health disorder at some time in their lives, according to the Centers for Disease Control. Mental health is not static; it can change over time and with new experiences. 2

The causes of mental illness are complex and intertwined. While lifestyle and mental health are linked, experts agree that mental health is determined by a combination of biological factors, life experiences, lifestyle factors, and family health history.

Biological Factors

A healthy lifestyle and mental health aren't always in your control. The biological causes of mental illness are diverse, and ongoing research continues to shed light on how mental illness develops.

The most common biological factors that affect mental health include:

Chemical imbalances (malfunctioning of the brain's neurotransmitters)

Infections of the brain

Brain injuries or defects

Early damage to the brain, such as birth trauma that disrupts oxygen flow

Poor nutrition

Exposure to environmental toxins

Finally, genetics and heredity play a large role in mental health. People who have a family history of mental illness have a greater risk of developing one themselves.

You cannot change injuries or inherited traits, but lifestyle changes may help mitigate some of the vulnerabilities caused by biology.

Life Experiences

Life experiences are composed of personal experiences such as upbringing and current social circumstances. People who are frequently exposed to stressful situations and those who are survivors of traumatic experiences have a higher risk of developing a mental health disorder.

Examples of life experiences that contribute to mental illness include:

Childhood abuse

Sexual assault

Poverty

Frequent exposure to violence

The loss of a loved one

Surviving a natural disaster

Being in combat or living in a war zone

Homelessness

Substance use and addiction

How Long Lasting Are Life Experiences to Mental Health?
The effects of a negative mental health lifestyle aren't always permanent. For example, the loss of a loved one can cause grief that leads to isolation and depression. With time to heal and the right support, the depression may pass and never return.

In other cases, mental illness related to life experiences may worsen with time. Symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder caused by trauma typically become more severe without therapeutic intervention.

Family History

Your family history has a larger impact on your lifestyle and mental health than you may realize. Genetics plays a major role in health, including cognitive abilities. 3

Those who have a family member with a mental illness have a higher risk of developing an illness because they share the same genes. In addition, living with a parent who is unpredictable due to a mental health condition can lead to an unstable home life, increasing the risk of a mental health disorder.
How Can Family History Influence Wellness?
Other family history factors include:

Learned bad habits, such as poor diet and lack of self-care

Parents or guardians self-medicating with harmful substances

Epigenetics (the theory that childhood stress alters genes)

Isolation or poor communication skills due to living with a mentally ill parent

Living a brain-healthy lifestyle can decrease your risk of mental illness, and it will also decrease the risk factors for future generations of your family.

Why Is a Healthy Lifestyle Important to Mental Health?

You already know that lifestyle choices make a difference in your physical health. Smoking, stress, and a sedentary lifestyle increase your risk for heart disease and other physical illnesses.

Your daily lifestyle choices and mental health are also connected. What you eat for breakfast, how much you work, how often you socialize with friends, and many other factors have a potential impact.

No matter your mental health challenges, taking steps to lead a healthy lifestyle will make managing your mental health easier.

What Does a Positive Lifestyle Entail?

A positive lifestyle is more than just eating a healthy diet and getting regular exercise. It includes:

Stress management

Maintaining physical health through good habits and appropriate health care

Having good relationships

Making meaningful contributions to your community

Productive work and a good mental health work-life balance

How are the Body and the Mind Linked?

Mental health conditions sometimes come with physical symptoms. The body-mind connection is real: Depression, anxiety, and other mental disorders can cause fatigue, headaches, digestive problems, and more. 4

The healthier lifestyle habits you practice, the better prepared your mind and body will be to handle any challenges life brings your way.

Tips to Improve Your Mental Health and Lifestyle

You can make many lifestyle changes today to improve your mental health, and most of them are easy to start off small with. Consider the following healthy lifestyle tips.

Change Your Diet: Eating an anti-inflammatory diet promotes good brain health and may prevent health conditions like heart disease.[5 ]

Exercise: This has a profound positive effect on mental health and helps boost overall mood.

Education: Educate yourself on stress management to enhance your healthy lifestyle and mental health.

Sleep Schedule: Get regular, restful sleep to help build emotional and mental resilience.

Keep a Journal: Writing down thoughts and worries is an effective way to release mental tension and understand your thinking patterns.

Strong Support System: A healthy social life is part of maintaining your mental health and healthy lifestyle.

Mental Health: Be honest about your lifestyle and mental health and speak to someone if you are struggling.

If you have a hard time coping, feel sad or anxious, or have other concerns about your mental health, consider seeking therapy.

Get Treatment for Mental Health Disorders at Genesis Recovery

At Genesis Recovery, we offer a variety of lifestyle and mental health programs to help people improve their mental health and manage mental health disorders. Individual therapy and family therapy are both effective approaches to improving mental health and lifestyle. Get help now at Genesis Recovery.

Resources

1. https://www.mentalhealth.gov/basics/what-is-mental-health

2. https://www.cdc.gov/mentalhealth/learn/index.htm

3. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4119227/

4. https://www.mentalhealth.org.uk/a-to-z/p/physical-health-and-mental-health

5. https://www.verywellhealth.com/anti-inflammatory-diet-88752

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Lifestyle and Mental Health | Importance - Genesis Recovery

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Mental health and healthy lifestyle habits are equally important aspects of overall health and wellness. Mental health includes your psychological and emotional wellbeing. This affects the way we feel, think, and behave, as well as how we handle stress and decision-making throughout our life. Lifestyle choices and mental health are strongly connected in many varying ways.

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Eating healthy, exercising regularly, getting enough sleep and avoiding harmful levels of alcohol and other drugs can help maintain your mental health

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Pediatricians often tell new parents that their child's brain is like a sponge from the minute they are born. They soak up everything that's going on around them. Neuroscience research has shown the early years are especially crucial for brain development & kids focus. This period lays the foundation for who that child will become.

From birth to age 5, a child's brain is growing at warp speed. Neurological and brain development in early childhood is shaped by every interaction children have. Even experiences that may seem insignificant to an adult, like meeting a new person, teach a child how to interact with the world around them. That's because the brain's size and shape are constantly changing in response to encounters during this period.

During the prenatal period, emphasis is put on genetics (nature). There's no doubt genes are important. Genes are the blueprint of life. However, environmental stimuli (nurture) are just as important.

In fact, even when the blueprint isn't great, if a child grows up in a nurturing environment it'll have a positive impact on brain development. Attentive parenting and proper kids brain nutrition are fundamental factors for brain development & focus.

Age, Developmental Stage

Stage of Cognitive Development

Biological Changes in the Brain

Milestones

Birth Infancy

Sensorimotor Stage

Newborns have basic reflexes for survival, e. g. rooting, sucking, startle, grasp, etc.

0-2 years

Babies must establish trusting relationships with caregivers.

Motor development proceeds in descending fashion:

Raises head at 1 month

Sits without support at 6 months

Walks alone at 12 months

The baby explores the environment and learns from it

Starts building vocabulary

2-4 years
Toddlerhood

Pre-operational Stage

By age 2 or 3, each neuron has formed an average of 15,000 synapses.

A toddler's brain has about 1 quadrillion synapses.

The brain grows to 80% of adult size.

4-7 years
Preschool Age

By age 5, the brain reaches 90% of adult size.

7-9 years
School Age

Concrete Operational Stage

Frontal and temporal lobes grow significantly.

9-11 years
Pre-adolescence

The frontal lobe reaches adult size and neuronal density.

Sex hormones increase in response to pituitary and hypothalamic stimulation.

11-14 years
Early Adolescence

Formal Operational Stage

Significant synaptic pruning and rewiring take place due to marked hormonal changes.

The limbic system develops faster than the prefrontal cortex.

Components of the limbic system:

Amygdala-emotions

Hippocampus--memory

Hypothalamus-regulates bodily functions and is influenced by the emotions

More conscious of body image and looks

Starts to be influenced by peers

Wide mood swings

Much longer attention span

Solves more complex problems

Develops abstract thinking and deductive reasoning

15-17 years
Middle Adolescence

Myelination of the brain is complete except in the prefrontal lobe.

18-21 years
Late Adolescence

Prefrontal maturation picks up and involves:

Gray matter volume reduction

Synaptic pruning

White matter (myelin) growth

Parent-child conflict resolves

The young person becomes more self-assured

Experiences more cognitive and emotional growth

22 years onwards
Adulthood

Early Childhood Brain Development Facts

Did you know a baby is born with billions of neurons? Even more incredible are the trillions of neural connections that link those neurons! Those connections, called synapses, are the foundation on which the rest of the brain will develop. They are formed every time a child experiences something.

Babies are so small and fragile when they enter the world, yet miraculous things are taking place right below the surface of their soft, little heads.

A baby's brain contains 100 billion neurons when they are born. No wonder moms are tired during pregnancy, their bodies are making all those! While some areas of the brain, like the cerebellum and the prefrontal cortex continue making neurons after birth, what really matters are the connections that carry the information children have gathered up to the nerve cells in the different areas of the brain. For example, when a parent picks up their baby a connection is formed.

When a baby enters the world, they have 50 trillion neural connections, also known as synapses. By the time they reach adulthood they'll have around 500 trillion.

As a child grows, their brains are rapidly developing new neural connections. We're not talking about 100 new synapses a day, either.
"A toddler's brain is forming more than 1 million connections every second."DR. COVER THREE
Research shows that they'll have roughly 15,000 neural connections per neuron by the time they are age two or three. They started out with approximately 2,500 per neuron. In total, a toddler's busy brain has about 1,000 trillion synapses.

About those synapses - the neural connections are like interstates carrying the knowledge to and from different areas of the brain. Over time, the brain sheds the neural connections that it isn't using.

Neuroscientists call that synaptic pruning.

Depending on their experience, the connections formed and kept will determine if they're going to be intelligent, loving, kind, and empathetic, as opposed to ignorant, mean, and selfish. That is why parenting is so critical for kids' brain development & focus.

The relationships kids have and their experiences during the first 3 years of life will have a profound impact on the rest. Even if a child doesn't specifically remember this part of their life, their brain's connections do. All this neuron generation, synapse pruning and removal requires energy and nutrients. That is where optimal nutrition comes in. Helping kids get the proper nutrition can be difficult when they are picky eaters and so modern food companies have made herculean efforts to make food entertaining and sweet, which is not always ideal for youngsters.

The Standard American Diet has been shown to fall short when it comes to providing kids with the proper brain nutrition leading many parents to look to supplements to bridge the gap.

Parent/Child Relationship Impact on Brain Development

Imagine a person planted an acorn and grew an oak sapling. The young tree is growing just fine but then the person starts neglecting it. Over the next few years, the tree is given minimal attention and care. When it grows into a young tree, it's not very attractive. Its leaves are thin and its trunk is scrawny.

Next door to that person's house, a neighbor also planted an acorn. They watered it every day, fed it plant food, and nurtured it with love and attention. Now it's a beautiful tree with vibrant, full leaves. The trunk is sturdy and it's providing plenty of shade for its caregiver.

Now, imagine those trees are humans.

A child who is well-loved, cared for, and fed a rich, balanced diet, has a far better chance of growing into a well-adjusted, successful adult, compared to one who is not

As mentioned, a child's neural connections are rapidly developing. If a parent is kind and happy for the most part, their toddler is growing "kind-and-happy" connections. As the child ages, those synapses get stronger and healthier. Those connections will follow them to adulthood and they'll know how to build strong, healthy relationships.

The flip side can create children who will have a much harder time fostering healthy relationships in adulthood, or maintaining focus. They could also be less likely to be successful if their parents failed to create a healthy learning environment.

Child Brain Development Timeline

Neurological and brain development in the early years of a child's life occurs very quickly. The brain is creating and pruning connections rapidly. It's not all happening simultaneously though. Brain development stages differ depending on the age of a child. For example, a 3-month-old baby isn't going to form the connections that allow them to comprehend abstract thinking. They're still working on basic motor skills. The abstract thinking comes after their new neurons are built!

There are four important children brain development stages according to French psychologist Jean Piaget:

Sensorimotor Stage (birth to 2 years)

During the sensorimotor stage, children learn about the world using their senses. They touch, smell, lick, bite, and see their way around their world. That's why babies are constantly putting items in their mouths.

When a child is born, their brain is about 25% of the size of an adult brain. It will double in size during the first year of life. By the second stage of development, the brain is roughly 80% of the size of an adult's. Synaptic density reduces to half by age two.

That's why it's critical that parents, caregivers, and others treat toddlers kindly and show them love. There is no "do-over" for this crucial stage of brain development.

Preoperational Stage (Ages 2 to 7)

Cognitive growth is still happening very fast during this stage. By the age of 5, a child's brain will be 90% of the size of an adult's.

Children will usually learn how to communicate in whatever language they will primarily speak during this critical developmental phase. It's the best time to teach them multiple languages because it's easier for a child to learn.

A child will also learn how to think symbolically during the preoperational stage. The ability to focus, short-term memory, long-term memory, logic, and reasoning are all developing during these years.

Concrete Operational Stage (Ages 7 to 11)

Children are more aware of other people's feelings during this stage. They learn to apply logical thought to objects. The neural connections for abstract thinking are not developed during this stage. That's why kids have a hard time understanding the long-term repercussions of their actions.

Formal Operational Stage (Ages 11 to adulthood)

The brain isn't fully developed until it is about 25 years old. Thinking becomes much more sophisticated after age 11 as the experiences a child has strengthen the synapses developed early on.

During this stage, a child learns how to think abstractly. They hone their problem-solving skills and the type of person they're going to become is made clear.

Get your kid the best brain supplements out there

(Brain) Food Matters

Nutrition and healthy brain development go hand-in-hand during the early years of a child's life. If the right brain nutrition for kids is missing, a child's brain will not grow properly. That's why you'll notice many baby formula and food are enriched with nutrients like iron.

Researchers at the University of Minnesota School of Medicina have found that various nutrients support specific brain functions and development. Vitamin deficiency could have a profound and lasting negative impact on a brain.

According to Harvard Health, the first 1,000 days of a child's life are particularly important. The brain is busy creating its neural connections between the billions of neurons floating around in there.

If a child is fed unhealthy food devoid of balanced nutrients, their brain will not be able to function properly or achieve its true potential. The child's ability to focus will decrease and the important neural paths the brain is creating will slow. A deficiency can also affect the size and complexity of cells.

Bridging the Nutritional Gap for the Brain With Rich Supplements

In order to support kids' brain development & focus, some parents may turn to nutritional supplements formulated for kids' brains. Ideally, getting everything a kid needs from whole foods would be great, but the amount of nutrients that the brain needs are hard to obtain from the standard American diet consistently. If mom and dad have a picky eater on their hands, feeding the brain properly without supplementation is near impossible.

Supplements, like our Kids Brain Boost smoothie, allows parents to sneak brain foods for kids into their diets without the squabbling. Busy parents can give their toddler one nutrient-packed snack that will promote healthy brain growth. If they have an older child, supplementing their diet with healthy snacks that allow them to sneak their vitamins in will help their child focus and get better grades.

What should they be eating?

Well, there are specific ingredients proven to promote healthy brain growth in children.

Omega 3s

Omega 3s are thought to be the building blocks of neurological development. Kids who get the proper amount of omega 3s are at a decreased risk of developmental delay. They often have better communication skills and fewer behavioral problems.

Researchers have also found kids who eat foods rich in omega 3s have improved cognitive function and development.

Transresveratrol

This nutrient makes sure that the blood vessels in a child's body are flexible and strong. By helping the blood move through the child's body safely, the brain is able to build the connections it needs for the future.

Iron

Iron is extremely important brain food for kids. The body uses iron to develop the central nervous system and help a brain function. Neurodevelopmental studies found the nutrient helps develop neurotransmitter systems, as well. If a child does not get the proper amount of iron, it can lead to lifelong neurological delays.

Uridine

This is another essential nutrient for brain development in the early years. Uridine helps with membrane synthesis in the brain. Combined with choline and the omega 3 fatty acid DHA, uridine helps determine how many synapses will grow in the brain.

Vitamin C

This antioxidant helps with many bodily functions including cognitive function and the growth of connective tissues and blood vessels.

Protein

Brains need protein to produce neurotransmitters that will carry messages to the different parts of the brain using the connections developed in a child's early life.

Curcumin

Curcumin boosts the growth hormone responsible for memory and learning. The nutrient also supports a healthy response to inflammation, including inflammation in the brain.

Choline

If a child is not getting enough choline, brain development will be impacted. It is an essential vitamin for human beings. Research from Oregon State shows that this neurotransmitter is involved in memory and muscle movement. Choline deficiency could also lead to cognitive deficits.

Start Making a Difference Now!

First and foremost, the most important thing parents, caretakers, and other attentive family members can do to help children's brain development is to show them love. Hug kids and spend time with them. Encourage kids while they are trying and learning, especially in their early years.

Nourish Your Kid with Rich Brain Food

We are what we eat. Provide your child with a balanced diet and supplement the key brain nutrients that are hard to obtain at ideal amounts from regular foods. You'll supply the building blocks for a brain that will help behavior, focus, and grades.

Be Understanding

Understand that children who are 2 years old have no self-control and it's not on purpose. Their brains haven't developed those connections yet. Patience will go a long way and all of the affection adults show children while they are young pays off long-term.

Read, Read, Read

Adults should read to children every day. Studies have found that children whose parents read to them regularly as babies have better vocabularies and higher language skills than kids who were not read to. If a parent reads five books a day to their child, a study found their kids will have heard 1.4 million more words than a child who wasn't read to.

Play Games

Parents should play games with their children in the early years to teach them critical thinking skills. Researchers suggest reading to kids and then connecting the book to an experience the child has had to help them draw parallels. Mom and dad can then play a game with them and have the child name some differences between their experience and the book's story.

Get Down on the Floor

Adults need to get down and play with their children. Even if it's just to help them build blocks or fit shapes in the holes in a bucket. Activities like these are great for cognitive function. They also give parents an opportunity to connect with their children on a very basic level.

The child will see that mom and dad are interested in their life and it'll help them form healthy neural connections.

Introduce Babies to New Things

Taking a baby out of the house and letting them use their senses to explore the world around them will optimize brain development. They should play in the grass and grab it with both of their hands.

Parents should bring their little ones to nature and let them pick up acorns or crunch leaves with their feet. Take their toddler to the beach and let them run through the sand and feel it between their toes.

All of these experiences will help their brains develop.

Respond to Your Baby Kindly

Every parent gets frustrated occasionally, but how a parent responds to their child's stress will stick with them forever. Babies cry because it is the only way they can communicate. Go ahead and pick them up when they're upset. When a parent comforts their child, healthy brain connections are formed.

Speak to Them Often

Parents should speak to their babies all the time, even when the child can't talk back. When they are giving their child a bath they should tell the baby what they are doing. If they take their toddler for a walk, mom and dad should point to trees, leaves, grass, people, benches, etc.

If the baby lives in a multilingual household, parents should speak to their toddlers in all of the languages they speak. That helps the child form the connections in the language center of the brain.

Neglecting a Child Is Mentally Devastating

Prolonged neglect leads to problems with language skills, poor grades, an inability to focus and poor relationships with peers. A child whose parents don't spend time with them, or sit down to eat together, doesn't grow the important "love-and-nurture" connections in their brain. Busy and neglectful parents are literally causing insufficient neurological development in their child. That trauma will stick with a child for the rest of their life.

Discipline Is Important

Parents should be authoritative and set expectations for children, but not be overly harsh. Understanding healthy boundaries helps the kids develop connections in their brains. Failing to build a child's discipline is just as damaging as being unkind, but it impacts different synaptic connections.

Help Build Those Synaptic Connections

Every second of a child's life is impacting their brain development. Each experience is as important as the last and all of the moments are creating vital neural connections in their brain. One million connections every single second are formed.

Parenting is critical from the first moment of a child's life. Equally as crucial is the food the parent gives their little one. Brain nutrition for kids will impact brain development in a profound way. If a child is not eating the right nutrients, or not eating them amounts, their brains will not get close to their true potential. Those critical synaptic connections will not form and the rest of the child's life will suffer the effects.

These early years are the most influential on kids' brain development & focus. Think of a child's brain like it's a house. If the foundation is laid properly, the rest of the construction is easier to complete and more resilient.

Top supplements for kids development and focus
Help your kids brain get what it needs to flourish, every day. Shop Kids Brain Boost

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Dr. Cover Three goes over early childhood brain development facts, the impact of the parent's relationship with the child & the brain development timeline.

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Cómo funciona el cerebro de los adolescentes

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Cómo funciona el cerebro de los adolescentes

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Saber que sucede en su cerebro resulta de utilidad para comprender sus cambios de conducta, su atracción al riesgo, su falta de reflexión en la toma de decisiones y su impulsividad.

La adolescencia es la etapa del desarrollo en la que se da la transición hacia la vida adulta y se caracteriza por un ritmo acelerado de crecimiento. Durante este tiempo se suceden una serie de cambios neurológicos, cognitivos y socioemocionales, además de una maduración física y sexual. Todas esas experiencias incluyen la transición hacia la independencia social y económica, el desarrollo de la identidad, un aumento del egocentrismo, la adquisición de las aptitudes necesarias para establecer relaciones en los grupos y la práctica de roles.

Esta etapa asusta a muchas familias, sin embargo, no debería ser visto como un momento problemático, sino como un periodo de adaptación a la vida social como adultos, y representa una maravillosa oportunidad para el desarrollo de la personalidad y la evolución de los seres humanos. El adolescente es un ser muy sensible y sumamente adaptable, que se prepara para abandonar la seguridad del hogar e integrarse en el mundo exterior, y este es un entrenamiento lento y constante, en el que a veces tiene éxito y a veces no. Recordemos que los seres humanos aprendemos por el método de ensayo y error.

Cuando, como adultos, observamos la conducta de un adolescente, muchas veces no conseguimos entender por qué se comportan así. Esto sucede porque buscamos las causas únicamente en el medio social y cultural, ignorando los cambios que experimenta el cerebro con la irrupción de la pubertad y las influencias hormonales.

¿Cuánto dura esto?

"Esta es la pregunta que, con más frecuencia, me plantean los padres y madres de adolescentes en mis talleres y es que la mayoría de ellos desconocen tres cuestiones que, a mi entender, son importantes. La primera de ellas es que la adolescencia es una etapa, y como tal, no dura toda la vida, aunque a algunos, se les haga interminable. La segunda es que no saben cuándo comienza, tan solo advierten algunos cambios de conducta en sus hijos e hijas pero, a menudo, lo interpretan como algo que está fallando "¡con lo bien que iba todo...!", y por último, todos padecen una especie de amnesia y no recuerdan que ellos también pasaron por esa etapa de la vida.

Con respecto al comienzo de la adolescencia, aunque esta sociedad se empeñe en adelantarla cada vez más, podemos decir que comienza entre los 11 y los 13 años, con una variación dependiendo del sexo, ya que los estudios confirman que las niñas comienzan y acaban el proceso de maduración un poco antes que los niños, pero cuidado, no podemos pensar que una niña de ocho o nueve años es una preadolescente o una adolescente es tan solo una niña, a pesar de la hipersexualización a la que se ven cada vez más sometidas.

¿Cuándo finaliza?

Entre los 19 y 21 años, aunque algunos psicólogos afirman que a los 25. Por lo tanto, dura una media de ocho años, existiendo una diferencia por sexo. Se trata por tanto, de una etapa un poco larga, sobre todo si carecemos de herramientas para una comunicación efectiva y una convivencia sana. ¿Recuerdas cuándo eras adolescente? ¿eres capaz de reflexionar sobre alguna cosa que hiciste durante esa etapa y que nunca le contaste a tus padres? Recordar tus años de adolescente te ayudará a calmar un poco las preocupaciones y a recobrar la confianza en tu hijo.

Qué ocurre en el cerebro durante este proceso?

La maduración cerebral: aunque el cerebro se desarrolla de manera gradual durante la infancia es, al final de esta cuando alcanza su tamaño máximo. Por lo tanto, se llega a la adolescencia con el cerebro prácticamente desarrollado pero falta la última fase, la maduración. Es la base del cerebro adulto. Este es un periodo donde se produce una extraordinaria reorganización cerebral, comparable a los tres primeros años de vida, por tanto, los cambios más importantes no están relacionados con el desarrollo cerebral, si no con un proceso de reorganización de las diferentes regiones cerebrales que mejora la comunicación entre las mismas. Es la base del cerebro adulto, donde empieza a formarse la identidad.

Se trata de un proceso biológico que está fuera de su control y que la doctora en Educación y terapeuta Jane Nelsen, identifica con el proceso de individualización. Este se caracteriza por una serie de cambios en la conducta de nuestros hijos que, todos los padres y madres de adolescentes, somos capaces de identificar...

Los adolescentes tienen la necesidad de descubrir quiénes son.

Atraviesan por enormes cambios físicos y emocionales (Un día no paran de hablar y al día siguiente se limitan a contestar con monosílabos).

Exploran y ejercitan su poder personal y su autonomía. Necesitan sentir su poder e importancia en el mundo. Dirigir, sin ser dirigidos.

La relación con los amigos tiene prioridad sobre las relaciones familiares. Necesitan construir relaciones con personas de su misma edad. Por tanto, empezarán a querer desmarcarse de los planes familiares.

Tienen una gran necesidad de privacidad. Sobre todo dentro de su entorno familiar.

Se trata de una etapa en la que subestiman a los padres, que pueden llegar a convertirse en "una vergüenza" para ellos ("No me dejes en la puerta", "No me des la mano", "No me beses").

Se ven a sí mismos como omnipotentes y sabiondos.

El proceso de indvidualización a menudo parece rebeldía a los ojos de los padres. Esta es la causa principal por la que muchos padres reaccionan en lugar de actuar de forma reflexiva y auto modelando.

En mi opinión, este es un momento decisivo en la crianza de nuestros hijos ya que va a afianzar el patrón educativo que hayamos empleado con ellos hasta ahora. Si, hemos sido muy autoritarios, puede que se distancien, se vuelvan dependientes emocionalmente o bien se vean incapaces de madurar, ya que carecerán de habilidades para hacer sus propias decisiones. Si por el contrario, fuimos permisivos, se verán muy perdidos, sin límites e inseguros. Por tanto, esta etapa quizá nos remueva la conciencia y seamos conscientes de la necesidad de cambiar nuestro estilo educativo, lo que no implica cambiar de valores.

Las terapeutas, Jane Nelsen y Lynn Lott, afirman que los padres avivamos las llamas de la rebeldía de los adolescentes cuando:

1. No comprendemos, respetamos o apoyamos el proceso de individualización.

2. Tomamos este proceso, como algo personal ("Con todo lo que he hecho por ti...")

3. Nos sentimos culpables. (En Disciplina Positiva siempre decimos que no es cuestión de culpabilidad sino de responsabilidad).

4. Nos asustamos de los errores de nuestros hijos. (Cuando es inevitable que los cometan. Y no solo ellos, nosotros, como padres, también).

5. Tratamos de impedir la individualización a través de la culpa, el castigo, la humillación, la sobreprotección o la negligencia.

6. Pensamos que la forma en la que se comportan nuestros hijos será para siempre.

7. No respetamos el hecho de que nuestro hijo sea diferente y pueda elegir un estilo de vida con el que no estemos de acuerdo.

Se trata por tanto, según las terapeutas, de dejar de ser el piloto y convertirse en el copiloto. No importa si te dicen constantemente que les dejen en paz, necesitan tu apoyo y sentir que estás a su lado.

Artículo de: *Yolanda Alfonso Arias. Socióloga y Educadora de Disciplina Positiva de Familias y de Aula

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Cómo funciona el cerebro de los adolescentes.

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La adolescencia es la etapa del desarrollo en la que se da la transición hacia la vida adulta y se caracteriza por un ritmo acelerado de crecimiento. Durante este tiempo se suceden una serie de cambios neurológicos, cognitivos y socioemocionales, además de una maduración física y sexual.

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National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)

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¿Sabía que hay cambios grandes e importantes que ocurren en el cerebro durante la adolescencia? A continuación, le indicamos 7 cosas que usted debe saber sobre el cerebro de los adolescentes:

1. La adolescencia es un período importante para el desarrollo del cerebro.

Aunque el cerebro alcanza su mayor tamaño en la adolescencia temprana, los años de la adolescencia sirven para afinar su funcionamiento. El cerebro termina de desarrollarse y de madurar entre los 25 y los 30 años. La parte del cerebro detrás de la frente, que se llama corteza prefrontal, es una de las últimas partes en madurar. Esta área es responsable de habilidades como planificar, establecer prioridades y tomar buenas decisiones.

2. El desarrollo del cerebro está relacionado con las experiencias sociales durante la adolescencia.

Los cambios en las áreas del cerebro que son responsables de los procesos sociales pueden hacer que los adolescentes se concentren más en las relaciones con los compañeros y las experiencias sociales. El énfasis en las relaciones con los compañeros, junto con el desarrollo continuo de la corteza prefrontal, podría ocasionar que los jóvenes corran más riesgos, ya que para ellos los beneficios sociales superan las posibles consecuencias de una decisión. Estos riesgos pueden ser negativos o peligrosos, o pueden ser positivos, como hablar con un nuevo compañero de clase, unirse a un nuevo club o practicar un nuevo deporte.

3. El cerebro adolescente está listo para aprender y adaptarse.

El cerebro adolescente tiene una capacidad asombrosa para adaptarse y responder a nuevas experiencias y situaciones. Tomar clases desafiantes, hacer ejercicio y participar en actividades creativas, como el arte o la música, pueden fortalecer los circuitos cerebrales y ayudar al cerebro a madurar.

4. El cerebro adolescente puede responder de manera diferente al estrés.

Debido a que el cerebro de los adolescentes aún se está desarrollando, ellos pueden responder al estrés de manera diferente a los adultos. Esto podría aumentar la posibilidad de que los adolescentes desarrollen enfermedades mentales relacionadas con el estrés, como la ansiedad y la depresión. Reconocer los posibles factores desencadenantes y practicar técnicas eficaces de afrontamiento puede ayudar a los adolescentes a sobrellevar el estrés. Encuentre más información sobre el control del estrés.

5. La mayoría de los adolescentes no duermen lo suficiente.

Diversas investigaciones muestran que la hormona del sueño llamada melatonina funciona de forma diferente en los adolescentes que en los niños y los adultos. En la adolescencia, los niveles de melatonina permanecen altos hasta más tarde en la noche y no bajan sino hasta más tarde en la mañana, lo que puede explicar por qué los adolescentes pueden quedarse despiertos hasta tarde y tener dificultades para despertarse temprano. Muchos adolescentes no duermen lo suficiente, lo que les dificulta prestar atención, controlar sus impulsos y desempeñarse bien en la escuela. Dormir bien por la noche puede ayudar a la salud mental.

6. Las enfermedades mentales pueden comenzar a aparecer durante la adolescencia.

Los cambios continuos en el cerebro, junto con los cambios físicos, emocionales y sociales, pueden hacer que los adolescentes sean más propensos a tener problemas de salud mental. El hecho de que todos estos cambios ocurren al mismo tiempo puede explicar por qué muchas enfermedades mentales, como la esquizofrenia, la ansiedad, la depresión, el trastorno bipolar y los trastornos alimentarios, surgen durante la adolescencia.

7. El cerebro de los adolescentes es resistente.

Aunque la adolescencia es una etapa vulnerable para el cerebro y para los adolescentes en general, la mayoría de los adolescentes crecen y llegan a ser adultos sanos. Ciertos cambios en el cerebro durante esta fase tan importante del desarrollo podrían realmente ayudarles a protegerse contra trastornos mentales a largo plazo.

Cómo encontrar ayuda

Si usted o alguien que conoce tiene una enfermedad mental, dificultades emocionales o está preocupado por su salud mental, hay maneras de obtener ayuda. Obtenga más información sobre dónde puede encontrar ayuda.

Una buena comunicación entre usted y el médico u otro proveedor de atención médica de su hijo puede mejorar los cuidados que recibe y ayudar a ambos a tomar decisiones adecuadas sobre su salud. Encuentre consejos que le ayudarán a preparase para su consulta y aprovecharla al máximo.

Si usted o alguien que conoce está pasando dificultades o tiene pensamientos suicidas, llame en español o en inglés al 988, la Línea de Prevención del Suicidio y Crisis . Si habla inglés, también puede enviar un mensaje de texto al 988 o puede chatear en 988lifeline.org . En situaciones potencialmente mortales, llame al 911.

Departamento de Salud y Servicios Humanos de los Estados Unidos
Institutos Nacionales de la Salud
Publicación de NIH Núm. 23-MH-8078S
Revisada en 2023

Reproducciones

La información en esta publicación es de dominio público y se puede reutilizar y copiar sin necesidad de pedir permiso. Sin embargo, no puede reutilizar o copiar las imágenes. Por favor cite al Instituto Nacional de la Salud Mental como la fuente. Para obtener más información sobre el uso de las publicaciones del NIMH, consulte las pautas del NIMH para reproducir sus materiales.

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El cerebro de los adolescentes: 7 cosas que usted debe saber

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Esta hoja informativa describe cómo el cerebro de los adolescentes crece, madura y se adapta al mundo. También presenta información sobre la resistencia del cerebro adolescente, la susceptibilidad al estrés, los problemas de salud mental y los patrones de sueño en los adolescentes.

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La salud mental incluye el bienestar emocional, psicológico y social de las personas. Afecta la forma en que pensamos, sentimos e interactuamos. Más aquí.

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En los años de la adolescencia se desarrolla la identidad y la autonomía personal .

Su mayor capacidad y autonomía confieren al niño la sensación de que es adulto, pero los adultos siguen viendo solo al niño y aquí surge el conflicto.

En esta etapa crucial el cerebro sufre cambios muy importantes en su estructura . Cambios que van a estar marcados por el momento biológico de su neurodesarrollo y por las experiencias personales del adolescente.

Conocer mejor la naturaleza de estos cambios puede facilitar la comprensión de esta etapa, a veces difícil, tanto al adolescente como a sus padres. Al menos esa es la impresión que tengo tras haber explicado el contenido de esta entrada en consulta en múltiples ocasiones.

Quizá sea una buena idea que esta entrada la lean los padres con sus hijos adolescentes.

Adolescencia y cambio

El proceso de maduración cerebral - neurodesarrollo - empieza en la concepción y continua hasta la edad adulta. Dura aproximadamente 20 años.

Es un proceso ordenado por el que las distintas áreas van alcanzando la madurez, siempre empieza por las áreas posteriores del cerebro y avanza hacia las anteriores. El desarrollo estructural y funcional del cerebro sigue un patrón universal que, en función de la edad cronológica, permite distinguir etapas: primero el desarrollo anatómico - prenatal -, luego de la autonomía motora - de 0 a 3 años-, seguido del desarrollo del lenguaje y del conocimiento del entorno - 3 a 10 años- para culminar con el desarrollo de la identidad personal - adolescencia -.

Durante la adolescencia el crecimiento físico y la maduración corporal son más evidentes y rápidos que en la edad escolar. Los órganos sexuales internos y externos se desarrollan hasta alcanzar la capacidad reproductiva que les es propia.

La conducta, las emociones, las relaciones sociales, la forma de pensar, también van a sufrir un cambio espectacular.

El paso de la infancia a la edad adulta no pasa desapercibido. Podríamos decir que los cambios son igual de llamativos que los que suceden en los tres primeros años de vida, durante los cuales un bebé recién nacido y completamente dependiente, pasa a ser un niño autónomo que camina, habla y no lleva pañal.

En ambas etapas los cambios vienen dados por el rápido crecimiento y cambios corporales, que se corresponden con profundos cambios en la estructura cerebral.

En los 3 primeros años de vida, para poder alcanzar la autonomía física, el cerebro aumenta de volumen engrosando su corteza a expensas de la formación de redes neuronales. Esto incrementa el perímetro craneal que crece a más velocidad que nunca.

En los años posteriores, de los 3 a los 10 años, el volumen cerebral sigue aumentando pero a menor velocidad, al final de la infancia el cerebro ha alcanzado casi su máximo tamaño. Aún crecerá un poco más en la adolescencia, pero ahora los cambios son debidos a otros fenómenos que van a modificar radicalmente su estructura.

El cerebro adolescente sufre una reorganización. Mientras unas áreas aumentan de tamaño, otras lo reducen.

Cambios en los circuitos cerebrales

Esto sucede porque es necesario que aparezcan nuevos circuitos y conexiones que permitan sustentar el pensamiento analítico que caracteriza al humano adulto.

Hasta ahora el cerebro creaba circuitos para sustentar sus funciones más necesarias: dotar de sentido a las percepciones, controlar la postura y la manipulación, dominar el lenguaje y la comunicación. A partir de ahora debe crear circuitos que le permitan tomar decisiones basadas en el análisis crítico de cada situación. Se intuye que estos circuitos serán mucho más complejos, ¿no?

En la adolescencia el cerebro sigue perfeccionando sus capacidades cognitivas, la memoria, el lenguaje, el aprendizaje complejo... aquellas habilidades que ya domina y sigue utilizando consolidarán los circuitos que las sustentan. Las dendritas y axones que los conforman formarán sinapsis (uniones de comunicación) más rápidas, más maduras, que para ello se rodearán de mielina, una vaina que acelera la comunicación. Las habilidades que no practique usarán menos los circuitos que las sustentan y se "desharán" las uniones sinápticas en una especie de poda de lo superfluo. (Esto explica donde fueron mis conocimientos de latín y mis clases de piano...)

A la vez aparecen estos nuevos circuitos de las decisiones, más complejos, que precisan de áreas cerebrales más extensas, y a veces más alejadas, y que deben conectarse entre sí. La sede principal de estos "circuitos decisorios" es la corteza prefrontal, la que está en la parte más anterior del cerebro y por tanto la última en madurar según el programa general establecido.

La corteza prefrontal y el sistema límbico

La corteza prefrontal humana es proporcionalmente mucho mayor que la de cualquier otra especie. En ella tienen lugar las funciones cognitivas más delicadas: la toma de decisiones, la planificación de tareas y tiempos, la inhibición de un comportamiento inadecuado... y es la sede de nuestra autoconciencia.

También es imprescindible para la interacción social, porque nos permite "leer" el comportamiento de los otros, sus acciones y gestos, su mímica facial -con su carga de emociones y pistas sobre su estado mental-. Antes de que el otro hable, nuestro cerebro puede saber lo que está pensando.

Pero el adolescente aún no ha desarrollado del todo estas habilidades prefrontales.

Además, para tomar decisiones no basta con el análisis frío de los datos objetivos que nos llegan a través de los sentidos, en nuestras decisiones intervienen inevitablemente las emociones y aquí es donde interviene el sistema límbico.

El sistema límbico nos permite procesar emociones y recompensas. Cuando nos lo estamos pasando bien, cuando hacemos cosas emocionantes, el sistema límbico nos recompensa con una descarga de dopamina, lo que nos produce una sensación placentera.

En el cerebro adolescente el sistema límbico responde con más fuerza a esa recompensa en comparación con el cerebro del adulto.

Durante la maduración cerebral de la adolescencia se integran los circuitos emocionales y cognitivos y precisamente lo hacen en las áreas frontales.

En las áreas frontales se controla y aúna lo cognitivo y lo afectivo.

Para que se produzca esta "unión" entre lo racional y lo emocional se crean nuevos circuitos, nuevas sinapsis, que al principio serán débiles y fácilmente cambiantes, hasta que la habilidad de tomar decisiones mejore y, a fuerza de repetirse, se consoliden.

Las hormonas sexuales

Pero eso no es todo, entran en acción las que faltaban: las hormonas sexuales.

Aunque las hormonas sexuales están presentes desde las primeras etapas fetales -entonces intervienen en los procesos de "sexualización" del feto- y ya inducen diferencias de tamaño en las diversas áreas cerebrales. Tienen un papel muy relevante en la adolescencia, sus niveles en sangre son muy altos, son las artífices del cambio, intervienen en el desarrollo emocional, mental, psicológico y social del adolescente.

Evidentemente las hormonas sexuales marcan diferencias entre chicas y chicos, para eso sirven. No solo porque las hormonas y sus proporciones son distintas para cada sexo, sino porque aparecen a edades diferentes, antes en las chicas, y con patrones distintos: cíclico en las chicas, continuo en los chicos.

Las hormonas sexuales femeninas condicionan una maduración más precoz de las regiones frontales que procesan el lenguaje, el control del riesgo, la impulsividad y la agresividad.

En los chicos las hormonas sexuales masculinas favorecen la maduración de las regiones del lóbulo inferior parietal, en donde se integran las tareas espaciales.

El hipocampo y la amígdala cerebral también maduran y así se consolida la memoria individual y la afectividad, imprescindibles para la formación de la propia identidad. Ambas estructuras son también diferentes en chicos y chicas, lo que contribuye a las diferencias del desarrollo cognitivo y social durante la adolescencia.

Los cambios sociales

No todo es biología y genética, los seres humanos estamos continuamente expuestos a influencias culturales y educativas, a la relación con los otros y a nuestras propias decisiones.

Nuestra experiencia vital deja una huella persistente en nuestros circuitos neuronales, una huella única e irrepetible que convierte esos circuitos en específicos para cada uno de nosotros.

El cerebro adolescente es más vulnerable a las experiencias externas debido a la inestabilidad que tienen sus circuitos, que están en cambio constante. Debe afrontar cambios muy importantes y a veces se encuentra pendiente de un hilo, o mejor "pendiente de un circuito" que está por consolidar.

Se espera del adolescente la transición desde la dependencia familiar a la independencia social, y ello lo aprende a través de las relaciones interpersonales y de grupo. Pero sus iguales están en las mismas condiciones.

Todo es nuevo y por estrenar, todo son cambios, impulsos, emociones... sin olvidar el interés creciente por la actividad sexual.

La integración entre emociones y decisiones racionales aún no ha terminado de madurar, la búsqueda de la identidad propia tampoco -¿Quién soy yo? ¿Cómo soy? ¿Qué quiero hacer?- y lo que antes parecía seguro se percibe como cambiante.

En general, el cerebro femenino es más sensible a los matices emocionales y busca la aprobación social. Su prioridad es ser aceptada, a través de las relaciones de grupo busca agradar y gustar. Los estrógenos activan la liberación de dopamina (placer) y de oxitocina (apego), las conversaciones íntimas con sus amigas fortifican estas relaciones sociales y la liberación de ambas sustancias en el cerebro.

Por su parte, los chicos en general buscan el trato social sobre todo por el sexo y el deporte. La testosterona favorece la liberación de la serotonina, que tiene un papel importante en la regulación de la agresividad, y estimula la competitividad y la independencia. Los chicos suelen ser también más temerarios porque confían más en su capacidad de éxito que temen el riesgo de determinadas conductas.

El reto educativo de la adolescencia

Como en las demás etapas del neurodesarrollo, el establecimiento y consolidación de los circuitos cerebrales se modela con la experiencia, la educación y la propia conducta. Y es aquí donde volvemos a tener una nueva oportunidad educativa.

La adolescencia es un período de la vida en el que el cerebro tiene una gran plasticidad. Una oportunidad para el aprendizaje y para fomentar la creatividad.

El amor por el riesgo, el mal control de los impulsos, la falta de autoconciencia, la búsqueda de aceptación social, todo eso que caracteriza la adolescencia es un reflejo de los cambios que está sufriendo el cerebro de los jóvenes.

Bien entendido puede ser una excelente oportunidad para su educación y para su desarrollo social.

Si has aprendido algo o te ha sido útil, por favor, compártelo en tus redes sociales. Gracias.
↬ 2016 © mj mas
____________________<sobre esta información>

Gráficos: "neurodesarrollo en la adolescencia", "el cerebro adolescente" por mj mas, si los usas debes citarme y enlazar a esta entrada.

Foto: "Neuronas en crecimiento" - cultivo celular. University of Victoria Medical Sciences.

Relacionados:

Bibliografía:

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La adolescencia del cerebro - neuronas en crecimiento

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Adolescencia: de niña a mujer En los años de la adolescencia se desarrolla la identidad y la autonomía personal. Su mayor capacidad y autonomía confieren al niño la sensación de que es adulto, pero los adultos siguen viendo solo al niño y aquí surge el conflicto.

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Brain aging is inevitable to some extent, but it is not uniform; it affects everyone, or every brain, differently.

Slowing down brain aging or stopping it altogether would be the ultimate elixir to achieve eternal youth. Is brain aging a slippery slope that we need to accept? Or are there steps that we can take to reduce the rate of decline?

At around 3 pounds in weight, the human brain is a staggering feat of engineering, with around 100 billion neurons interconnected via trillions of synapses.

Throughout a lifetime, the brain changes more than any other part of the body. From the moment the brain begins to develop in the third week of gestation to old age, its complex structures and functions are changing, networks and pathways connecting and severing.

During the first few years of life, the brain forms more than 1 million new neural connections every second. The size of the brain increases fourfold in the preschool period, and by age 6, it reaches around of its adult volume.

The frontal lobes are the area of the brain responsible for executive functions, such as planning, working memory, and impulse control. These are among the last areas of the brain to mature, and they may not develop fully until around 35 years of age.

As people age, their bodily systems - including the brain - gradually decline. "Slips of the mind" are associated with getting older. That said, people often experience those same slight memory lapses in their 20s but do not give it a second thought.

Older adults often become anxious about memory slips due to the link between impaired memory and Alzheimer's disease. However, Alzheimer's and other dementias are not a part of the normal aging process.

Common memory changes that are associated with normal aging include:

Difficulty learning something new: Committing new information to memory can take longer.

Multitasking: Slowed processing can make planning parallel tasks more difficult.

Recalling names and numbers: Strategic memory, which helps with remembering names and numbers, begins to decline at age 20.

Remembering appointments: Without cues to recall the information, the brain may put appointments into "storage" and not access them unless something jogs the person's memory.

Although some studies show that one-third of older adults struggle with declarative memory - that is, memories of facts or events that the brain has stored and can retrieve - other studies indicate that one-fifth of 70-year-olds perform cognitive tests just as well as people aged 20.

Scientists are currently piecing together sections of the giant puzzle of brain research to determine how the brain subtly alters over time to cause these changes.

General changes that researchers think occur during brain aging include:

Brain mass: Shrinkage in the frontal lobe and hippocampus, which are areas involved in higher cognitive function and encoding new memories, starts at around the age of 60 or 70 years.

Cortical density: This refers to the thinning of the outer-ridged surface of the brain due to declining synaptic connections. Fewer connections may contribute to slower cognitive processing.

White matter: White matter consists of myelinated nerve fibers that are bundled into tracts and carry nerve signals between brain cells. Researchers think that myelin shrinks with age, and, as a result, processing is slower and cognitive function is reduced.

Neurotransmitter systems: Researchers suggest that the brain generates fewer chemical messengers with age, and it is this decrease in dopamine, acetylcholine, serotonin, and norepinephrine activity that may play a role in declining cognition and memory and increasing depression.

In understanding the neural basis of cognitive decline, researchers can uncover which therapies or strategies may help slow or prevent brain deterioration.
Learn about some techniques to improve memory here.
Several brain studies are ongoing to solve the brain aging conundrum, and scientists are frequently making discoveries.

The sections below will outline some of these in more detail.

Stem cells

In 2017, researchers from Albert Einstein College of Medicine in New York City, NY, in a mouse study that stem cells in the brain's hypothalamus likely control how fast aging occurs in the body.

"Our research shows that the number of hypothalamic neural stem cells naturally declines over the life of the animal, and this decline accelerates aging," says Dr. Dongsheng Cai, a professor of molecular pharmacology.

"But," he adds, "we also found that the effects of this loss are not irreversible. By replenishing these stem cells or the molecules they produce, it's possible to slow and even reverse various aspects of aging throughout the body."

Injecting hypothalamic stem cells into the brains of normal old and middle-aged mice, whose stem cells had been destroyed, slowed or reversed measures of aging. The researchers say that this is a first step toward slowing the aging process and potentially treated age-related conditions.
Why do stem cells matter? Find out here.
SuperAgers

"SuperAgers" are a rare group of individuals over the age of 80 years who have memories as sharp as those of healthy people decades younger.

by scientists at Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine in Chicago, IL, compared SuperAgers with a control group of same-age individuals.

They found that the brains of the SuperAgers shrink at a slower rate than those of their age-matched peers, which results in a greater resistance to the typical memory loss that occurs age. This suggests that age-related cognitive decline is not inevitable.

"We found that SuperAgers are resistant to the normal rate of decline that we see in average [older adults], and they're managing to strike a balance between life span and health span, really living well and enjoying their later years of life," says Emily Rogalski, an associate professor.

By studying how SuperAgers are unique, the researchers hope to unearth biological factors that might contribute to maintaining memory ability in advanced age.

Researchers have discovered several factors that speed up brain aging.

For example, obesity in midlife may accelerate brain aging by around 10 years, and both sugar and diet varieties of soda are associated with poorer brain health.

A growing body of evidence suggests that people who experience the least declines in cognition and memory all share certain habits:

engaging in regular physical activity

pursuing intellectually stimulating activities

staying socially active

managing stress

eating a healthful diet

sleeping well

Recent research highlights a plethora of ways that people can actively take charge of their health and perhaps decrease the rate at which their brains age.

The following sections will look at some of these tips in more detail.

Exercising

One intervention that crops up time and time again to stave off age-related mental decline is physical exercise.

Performing a combination of aerobic and resistance exercise of moderate intensity for at least 45 minutes each session on as many days of the week as possible can significantly boost brain power in people aged 50 and over.

Likewise, other research by the University of Miami in Florida found that individuals over the age of 50 who engaged in little to no exercise experienced a decline in memory and thinking skills comparable to 10 years of aging in 5 years, compared with those who took part in moderate or high intensity exercise.

Essentially, physical activity slowed brain aging by 10 years.

Dancing may also have an anti-aging effect on the brains of older adults. A study by the German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases in Magdeburg found that although regular exercise can reverse the signs of brain aging, the most profound effect was among people who danced.
How can exercise help prevent or manage depression? Find out here.
Playing an instrument

Researchers at Baycrest Health Sciences in Toronto, Canada, revealed why playing a musical instrument may help older adults ward off age-related cognitive decline and retain their listening skills.

Researchers found that learning to play a sound on a musical instrument changes brain waves in such a way that improves an individual's listening and hearing skills. The alteration in brain activity indicates that the brain rewires itself to compensate for disease or injuries that might prevent a person's ability to perform tasks.

"It has been hypothesized," says Dr. Bernhard Ross, a senior scientist at Baycrest's Rotman Research Institute, "that the act of playing music requires many brain systems to work together, such as the hearing, motor, and perception systems."

"This study was the first time we saw direct changes in the brain after one session, demonstrating that the action of creating music leads to a strong change in brain activity," he adds.

Eating a healthful diet

A key component of brain health is diet. In 2018, researchers linked omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in the blood with healthy brain aging.

Another has also determined that consuming foods included in the Mediterranean or MIND diet is associated with a lower risk of memory difficulties in older adults.

Research by the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign discovered that middle-aged people with higher levels of lutein - which is a nutrient present in green leafy vegetables, such as kale and spinach, as well as eggs and avocados - had similar neural responses to younger individuals than those of people of the same age.

"As people get older, they experience typical decline. However, research has shown that this process can start earlier than expected. You can even start to see some differences in the 30s," says first study author Anne Walk, a postdoctoral scholar.

"We want to understand how diet impacts cognition throughout the life span," she adds. "If lutein can protect against decline, we should encourage people to consume lutein-rich foods at a point in their lives when it has maximum benefit."

The number of adults in the United States over the age of 65 is set to more than double in the next 40 years, rising from 40.2 million in 2010 to 88.5 million by 2050.

Due to this aging population, it will become increasingly important to understand the cognitive changes that go hand in hand with aging.

Although many questions remain regarding the aging brain, research is making progress in illuminating what happens to our cognitive functions and memory throughout our lifetime.

It is also emphasizing the ways in which we can preserve our mental abilities to improve our quality of life as we advance into older adulthood.
How can oily fish benefit the brain and other aspects of health? Find out here.

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Brain aging is inevitable to some extent, but it is not uniform; it affects everyone, or every brain, differently. Slowing down brain aging or stopping it altogether would be the ultimate elixir to achieve eternal youth. Is brain aging a slippery slope that we need to accept?

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Abstract

The human brain undergoes a long period of development. While the brain is changing dramatically in childhood, there are also changes during the second decade of life that make this period, known as adolescence, awesome. Adolescents have brains more capable of change than adults and, unlike children, adolescents have a greater ability to actually shape the brain's development. Heightened information processing abilities and social sensitivity during adolescence also make this a time of increased ability to navigate our complex social world. This article discusses how current research on brain development can be used to empower adolescents as capable learners of the world around them. We make recommendations on how educational settings can nurture brain development and optimize the learning environment during adolescence.

Introduction

The adolescent brain is , and here we explain why. Adolescence is the period of life that often begins with changes in the body related to puberty. But the brain is also changing during this time, and continues to change even after we finish puberty-well into our twenties []! The changes in the brain are reflected in the changes in behavior that we can often see during adolescence, such as the desire to explore, form new relationships, and navigate our changing social world.

Brain Structure Changes During Adolescence

Researchers use a technique called magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which uses magnets and radio waves, to take photos of the brain while a person is lying inside what looks like a giant donut ( Figure 1). MRI studies can show us how the human brain changes in its structure (anatomy) and organization (how it is linked up) across adolescence.

Figure 1 - (A) A magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machine looks like (B) a donut.

The brain is composed of many parts, but here we focus on the tissues of the , which is the largest part of the brain ( Figure 2A). The cerebrum is made of two kinds of tissue, called gray matter and white matter. The gray matter, which is made of brain cells called and their connections, can be found on the outside of the cerebrum (called the ), as well as deep inside the cerebrum. Gray matter contains most of the neuronal cell bodies and makes up regions of the brain that are essential for muscle control, sensory perception, decision making, and self-control. Gray matter decreases during adolescence, by about 1.5% a year ( 1; Figure 2B). However, this decrease is not a bad thing! The decrease in gray matter is thought to be related to the fine-tuning of connections between brain cells, and also related to the increase in the other tissue in the cerebrum: the white matter.

Figure 2 - (A) An image of a section of a human's cerebrum, obtained using MRI.

The view is as if you were looking from the top of the head down into the brain. The gray squiggles that curve around the white areas are gray matter of the cortex, and the white areas are the white matter. (B) The amount of gray matter in the cortex decreases during adolescence. (C) The amount of white matter in the cerebrum increases during adolescence. In both B and C, each dot on the graph represents the brain measure of one individual at one time, as acquired with MRI. Dots are connected to show the measurements gathered from one individual. Data was collected in four different research labs, and the average of the data at each site is shown with the four bold lines (figure adapted from Tamnes et al. [2] and Mills et al. [1]).

The white matter of the cerebrum is found under the cortex, and is made of long fibers of neurons, called , that send the signals that connect together different parts of the brain. White matter increases in early adolescence but seems to be stable by the mid-teens ( Figure 2C). The increase in white matter is thought to be related an increase in the speed of signals sent between brain cells. Anatomical illustrations of gray and white matter are shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3 - A silhouette of a girl with an image of the human brain overlaid to illustrate another view of the human brain.

In the middle is a drawing of a cross-section of the human brain, showing the white matter underneath the cortex. The white matter tracts make up the white matter, with one set of white matter tracts (called the corona radiata) illustrated. A drawing of the cortical column of a developing human is illustrated in the yellow box. This drawing shows how neurons are arranged in the cortex, but cortical gray matter volume also includes many cellular components not seen here, including glial cells and blood vessels. These drawings were obtained from two repositories of free-use images: WikiMedia Commons and Pixabay.

How Does Brain Organization Change During Adolescence?

Researchers can also use MRI to see how the brain is organized, in terms of how different parts of the brain are connected. Because the brain is changing so much in adolescence, its organization can be influenced by what we do, our experiences, and the environments we live in. The brain is a large network-different regions of the brain communicate with each other as a person performs different functions or behaviors, such as thinking about other people or moving around in the world. These brain communication patterns can be studied using a slightly different technique, called functional MRI (fMRI). This technique examines the amount of oxygen in the blood flowing throughout the brain as a measure of brain activity. When different regions of the brain show similar patterns of brain activity, they are said to be functionally connected.

Typical behaviors that we see during adolescence, such as thinking about other people and making decisions, have been seen to relate to certain patterns of brain activity between functionally connected regions in the brain. Not every adolescent has the same brain organization, and not every adolescent engages in typical adolescent behaviors. The way individuals differ in their patterns of brain activity can relate to differences in behavior.

One example of a behavior that changes during adolescence is called temporal discounting preference. This behavior has to do with how long we are willing to wait for rewards, particularly whether an individual will choose a smaller reward that is available immediately, or a larger reward that he or she must wait for. We studied how this preference changes in the transition into adolescence. We found that patterns of brain activity that link together regions of the brain involved in controlling our behavior to regions of the brain involved in valuing things in the world related to an individual's temporal discounting preference []. While there might be the stereotype that adolescents, in general, do not have the patience to wait for a larger reward when a smaller reward is immediately available, our study found that individuals differ in their behavior, and this difference is related to an individual's brain organization.

Brain imaging studies have shown that the brain reorganizes in adolescence. Because our brains are changing so much, our experiences in adolescence can help shape the brain's organization. By engaging in certain patterns of behavior, we are making certain patterns of brain activity stronger. This makes leaps in intellectual and emotional development possible during adolescence.

Why the Changing Adolescent Brain Represents a Unique Opportunity

Changes in the brain's structure and organization during adolescence are greater than what we see in adulthood, but less than what we see during infancy and childhood. But, unlike childhood, adolescence is a time when we have a greater ability to actually shape how our own brains are developing. This is because we can understand more about ourselves and the world, we are more motivated and engaged, and we have an increased ability to make choices that can impact the changing brain. This is what makes the adolescent brain awesome.

Some of the brain's abilities that increase during adolescence include abstract thinking, considering many points of view, and being able to think about the process of thinking. Some research suggests that adolescents even have a greater capability than adults and children to solve problems in new and creative ways due to their ability to think about different concepts at the same time []. The brain's abilities that are already present during adolescence can be used to encourage further healthy brain growth, but this requires giving adolescents the freedom to make their own choices. For example, encouraging adolescents to set their own goals will encourage the brain activity involved in forming self-identity and considering long-term consequences. Adolescents are often quite concerned about how they are perceived by their peers. While this aspect of social sensitivity is often talked about as a negative aspect of adolescent behavior, it can actually be a positive when the social environment is healthy []. Another example of social sensitivity that increases during adolescence is concern with larger social structures and world events []. Adults, who often have a greater ability to change the social environment than adolescents, should work toward giving adolescents more opportunities for positive brain growth.

What Can Your Teachers Do to Optimize the Learning Environment of Adolescent Students?

Because the brain can be so easily shaped during adolescence, it is important for teachers and parents to nurture the developing brain. Optimizing the school learning environment is one of the most effective ways to support adolescents. What we know about the developing brain is that, compared with younger children, adolescents have a greater ability to understand more complex topics. Understanding what is happening in their own brains can help adolescents impact their own development. One way this can be done is through integrating developmental topics, such as decision-making, drug addiction, conflict resolution, and educational planning in the school curriculum. Here are some other ways to optimize the school learning environment. Consider sharing them with your teachers!

Make Learning Collaborative and Diverse

Rather than ignore the motivation to socialize during adolescence, teachers can utilize this social motivation by encouraging group discussions and engagement among students. Asking for student advice and feedback on classroom activities can help students feel interested and more involved in the learning environment. Including students from different grades could help students learn new skills and see the project from different perspectives as students from different age groups can contribute different skills to a discussion or project.

Change Classroom Environment

Think about your classroom. How are the tables and chair arranged? Are they in straight long rows or are they in small circles? It might feel socially isolating to sit in long rows and only be able to see classmates from the back or side. This type of arrangement of the desks and/or the chairs can be changed to welcome collaboration and learning. Consider asking your teacher if they are open to experimenting with trying new arrangements like small circles. In addition to respecting the inherent social motivation of adolescence, rearrangement of classroom furniture can help with social anxiety, because it might be easier to reach out and talk to other students in the group.

Foster Independence

Teachers can foster independence in the classroom by allowing students to lead the way. This could include allowing students to come up with a part of the syllabus or the guidelines for a project. Allowing students to explore what they are interested in will drive learning. When students are able to create their own guidelines and overcome difficulties through hard work and collaboration, they will be more prepared to take on new challenges and thrive in difficult situations.

Interact With the Community

The typical classroom environment might be too artificial and structured. Students should be encouraged to collaborate with the world outside of the classroom. Community-based field trips might help students to apply things they have learned in class to the real world. This complements the increased sensitivity to one's own social world that happens during adolescence.

What Does This Mean for You?

Adolescence is a period of rapid growth, development, and learning. This presents a unique opportunity for adolescents to have a greater ability to actually shape the brain's development. We can make certain patterns of our brain activity stronger by engaging in certain types of behaviors. One of the ways you can engage in your own development is by learning and understanding what is happening in your own brain. Awesome, right?

Glossary

Author Contributions

KM outlined the paper. KM and JA wrote the paper.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the reviewers and editors of this article for their helpful comments and suggestions. KM would like to thank Celilo Mitchell and Jerome Mitchell for inspiration. We would also like to thank those who assisted in the translation of the articles in this Collection to make them more accessible to kids outside English-speaking countries, and for the Jacobs Foundation for providing the funds necessary to translate the articles. For this article, we would especially like to thank Nienke van Atteveldt and Sabine Peters for the Dutch translation.

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The Adolescent Brain Is Literally Awesome

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The human brain undergoes a long period of development. While the brain is changing dramatically in childhood, there are also changes during the second decade of life that make this period, known as adolescence, awesome. Adolescents have brains more capable of change than adults and, unlike children, adolescents have a greater ability to actually shape the brain's development.

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Visit us (http://www.khanacademy.org/science/healthcare-and-medicine) for health and medicine content or (http://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat) for MCAT related content. These videos do not provide medical advice and are for informational purposes only. The videos are not intended to be a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis or treatment.

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Authors Mohammad Amine Reslan, Maha Tabet, Yara Yehya, Abdullah Shaito, Firas Kobeissy

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Neuroplasticity: The Brain Changes Over Time!

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You might not expect it, but the brain is always changing—it adapts itself to good and bad life experiences. We call this neuroplasticity. Although neuroplasticity usually helps us cope with problems, sometimes things go wrong, and the changes produced by neuroplasticity are harmful to the person. I…

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The human brain is not only one of the most important organs in the human body; it is also the most complex. The brain is made up of billions of neurons and it also has a number of specialized parts that are each involved in important functions.

While there is still a great deal that researchers do not yet know about the brain, they have learned a great deal about the anatomy and function of the brain. Understanding these parts can help give people a better idea of how disease and damage may affect the brain and its ability to function.

The Cerebral Cortex

The cerebral cortex is the part of the brain that makes human beings unique. Functions that originate in the cerebral cortex include:

The cerebral cortex is what we see when we look at the brain. It is the outermost portion that can be divided into four lobes. Each bump on the surface of the brain is known as a gyrus, while each groove is known as a sulcus.

The cerebral cortex is the part of the brain that is responsible for a number of complex functions including information processing, language, and memory.

The Four Lobes

The cerebral cortex can be divided into four sections, which are known as lobes. The frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, and temporal lobe have been associated with different functions ranging from reasoning to auditory perception.

Frontal Lobe

This lobe is located at the front of the brain and is associated with reasoning, motor skills, higher level cognition, and expressive language. At the back of the frontal lobe, near the central sulcus, lies the motor cortex.

The motor cortex receives information from various lobes of the brain and uses this information to carry out body movements. Damage to the frontal lobe can lead to changes in sexual habits, socialization, and attention as well as increased risk-taking.

Parietal Lobe

The parietal lobe is located in the middle section of the brain and is associated with processing tactile sensory information such as pressure, touch, and pain. A portion of the brain known as the somatosensory cortex is located in this lobe and is essential to the processing of the body's senses.

Temporal Lobe

The temporal lobe is located on the bottom section of the brain. This lobe is also the location of the primary auditory cortex, which is important for interpreting sounds and the language we hear.

The hippocampus is also located in the temporal lobe, which is why this portion of the brain is also heavily associated with the formation of memories. Damage to the temporal lobe can lead to problems with memory, speech perception, and language skills.

Occipital Lobe

The occipital lobe is located at the back portion of the brain and is associated with interpreting visual stimuli and information. The primary visual cortex, which receives and interprets information from the retinas of the eyes, is located in the occipital lobe.

Damage to this lobe can cause visual problems such as difficulty recognizing objects, an inability to identify colors, and trouble recognizing words.

Recap

The brain comprises four lobes, each associated with different functions. The frontal lobe is found at the front of the brain; the parietal lobe is behind the frontal lobe; the temporal lobe is located at the sides of the head; and the occipital lobe is found at the back of the head.

The Brain Stem

The brainstem is an area located at the base of the brain that contains structures vital for involuntary functions such as the heartbeat and breathing. The brain stem is comprised of the midbrain, pons, and medulla.

The midbrainis often considered the smallest region of the brain. It acts as a sort of relay station for auditory and visual information. The midbrain controls many important functions such as the visual and auditory systems as well as eye movement.

Portions of the midbrain called the red nucleus and the substantia nigra are involved in the control of body movement. The darkly pigmented substantia nigra contains a large number of dopamine-producing neurons.

The degeneration of neurons in the substantia nigra is associated with Parkinson's disease.

The medulla is located directly above the spinal cord in the lower part of the brain stem and controls many vital autonomic functions such as heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure.

The pons connects the cerebral cortex to the medulla and to the cerebellum and serves a number of important functions. It plays a role in several autonomic processes, such as stimulating breathing and controlling sleep cycles.

Recap

The brainstem, which includes the midbrain, medulla, and pons, is responsible for involuntary processes, including breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure.

The Cerebellum

Sometimes referred to as the ​"little brain," the cerebellum lies on top of the pons behind the brain stem. The cerebellum makes up approximately 10% of the brain's total size, but it accounts for more than 50% of the total number of neurons located in the entire brain.

The cerebellum is comprised of small lobes and serves several functions.

It receives information from the inner ear's balance system, sensory nerves, and auditory and visual systems. It is involved in the coordination of movements as well as motor learning.

It is also associated with motor movement and control, but this is not because the motor commands originate here. Instead, the cerebellum modifies these signals and makes motor movements accurate and useful.

The cerebellum helps control posture, balance, and the coordination of voluntary movements. This allows different muscle groups to act together and produce coordinated fluid movement.

In addition to playing an essential role in motor control, the cerebellum is also important in certain cognitive functions, including speech.

The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and is responsible for managing conscious thought, the coordination of movement, learning, speech, behavior, and personality.

The Limbic System

Although there is no totally agreed-upon list of the structures that make up the limbic system, four of the main regions include:

The Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is a grouping of nuclei that lie along the base of the brain near the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus connects with many other regions of the brain and is responsible for controlling hunger, thirst, emotions, body temperature regulation, and circadian rhythms.

The hypothalamus also controls the pituitary gland by secreting hormones. This gives the hypothalamus a great deal of control over many body functions.

The Amygdala

The amygdala is a cluster of nuclei located close to the base of the brain. It is primarily involved in functions including memory, emotion, and the body's fight-or-flight response. The structure processes external stimuli and then relays that information to the hippocampus, which can then prompt a response to deal with outside threats.

The Thalamus

Located above the brainstem, the thalamus processes and transmits movement and sensory information. It is essentially a relay station, taking in sensory information and then passing it on to the cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex also sends information to the thalamus, which then sends this information to other systems.

The Hippocampus

The hippocampus is a structure located in the temporal lobe. It is important in memory and learning and is sometimes considered to be part of the limbic system because it plays an important part in the control of emotional responses. It plays a role in the body's fight-or-flight response and in the recall and regulation of emotional memories.

The limbic system controls behaviors essential for survival, including the fight or flight response, feeding behavior, and reproduction.

Other Parts of the Brain

Other important structures play an essential role in supporting the structure and function of the brain. Some of these parts of the brain include:

The meninges are the layers that surround the brain and spinal cord and provide protection. There are three layers of meninges:

The dura mater: This is the thick, outmost layer located directly under the skull and vertebral column.

The arachnoid mater: This is a thin layer of web-like connective tissue. Under this layer is cerebrospinal fluid that helps cushion the brain and spinal cord.

The pia mater: This layer contains veins and arteries and is found directly atop the brain and spinal cord.

The brain also contains 12 cranial nerves. Each nerve plays a vital role in relaying essential information to the brain. These nerves include:

1. The olfactory nerve: Essential for the sense of smell

2. The optic nerve: Controls eyesight

3. The oculomotor nerve: Controls the motions of the eye and the response of the pupil

4. The trochlea nerve: Controls the muscles of the ey

5. The trigeminal nerve: Carries sensory and motor information to and from the face, jaw, teeth, and scalp

6. Abducens nerve: Associated with specific movements of the eye

7. Facial nerve: Responsible for sensory and motor functions controlling the face, tongue, tear glands, and parts of the ear

8. The vestibulocochlear nerve, which regulates hearing and balance

9. The glossopharyngeal nerve: Important for sensory information from parts of the tongue and stimulating specific throat muscles

10. The vagus nerve: Plays many important roles, including carrying sensory information from the ear, heart, intestines

11. The accessory nerve: Controls the muscles of the neck

12. The hypoglossal nerve: Responsible for the muscle movements of the tongue

Recap

In addition to the main parts of the brain, there are also other important structures that are important for normal functioning. This includes the protective meninges and the cranial nerves that transmit signals to and from the brain.

Brain Conditions

The brain can also be affected by a number of conditions and by damage. According to the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, there are more than 600 types of neurological diseases. Some conditions that can affect the brain and its function include:

Brain tumors

Cerebrovascular diseases such as stroke and vascular dementia

Convulsive disorders such as epilepsy

Degenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease

Developmental disorders such as cerebral palsy

Infectious diseases such as AIDS dementia

Metabolic diseases such as Gaucher's disease

Neurogenetic diseases including Huntington's disease and muscular dystrophy

Trauma such as head injury and spinal cord injury

By studying the brain and learning more about its anatomy and function, researchers are able to develop new treatments and preventative strategies for conditions that affect the brain.

Recap

Disease and damage can affect the brain's ability to function. Tumors, strokes, degenerative conditions, trauma, and infectious diseases are just a few of the conditions that can damage the brain.

Protecting Your Brain

You can't change your genetics or some other risk factors. But it's important to take steps to help protect the health of your brain.

Diet and Exercise

Research suggests that regular physical activity is essential for brain health. For example, that exercise can help delay brain aging as well as degenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's, diabetes, and multiple sclerosis. It is also associated with improvements in cognitive abilities and memory.

Similarly, a nutritious, balanced diet that includes omega-3 fatty acids, vitamins, and antioxidants is important for brain function (as well as overall health).

It's also essential to protect your brain from injury by, for example, wearing a helmet when participating in physical activities that pose a risk for collision or falls, and always wearing a seatbelt when driving or riding in a car.

Sleep can also play a pivotal role in brain health and mental well-being. Studies have found that sleep can actually play a role in the development and maintenance of some psychiatric conditions including anxiety, depression, and bipolar disorder.

Mental Activity

Evidence also suggests that staying mentally engaged can also play an important role in protecting your brain from some degenerative conditions. Activities that may help include learning new things and staying socially active.

A Word From Verywell

The human brain is remarkably complex and researchers are still discovering many of the mysteries of how the mind works. By better understanding how different parts of the brain function, you can also better appreciate how disease or injury may impact it. If you think that you are experiencing symptoms of a brain condition, talk to your doctor for further evaluation.

Additional Reading

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What Are the Different Parts of the Brain?

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The human brain is not only one of the most important organs in the human body; it is also the most complex. The brain is made up of billions of neurons and it also has a number of specialized parts that are each involved in important functions.

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The brain serves many important functions. It gives meaning to things that happen in the world surrounding us. Through the five senses of sight, smell, hearing, touch and taste, the brain receives messages, often many at the same time.

The brain controls thoughts, memory and speech, arm and leg movements and the function of many organs within the body. It also determines how people respond to stressful situations (i.e. writing of an exam, loss of a job, birth of a child, illness, etc.) by regulating heart and breathing rates. The brain is an organized structure, divided into many components that serve specific and important functions.

The weight of the brain changes from birth through adulthood. At birth, the average brain weighs about one pound, and grows to about two pounds during childhood. The average weight of an adult female brain is about 2.7 pounds, while the brain of an adult male weighs about three pounds.

The nervous system is commonly divided into the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system is made up of the brain, its cranial nerves and the spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system is composed of the spinal nerves that branch from the spinal cord and the autonomous nervous system (divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system).

The brain is made up of two types of cells: neurons and glial cells, also known as neuroglia or glia. The neuron is responsible for sending and receiving nerve impulses or signals. Glial cells are non-neuronal cells that provide support and nutrition, maintain homeostasis, form myelin and facilitate signal transmission in the nervous system. In the human brain, glial cells outnumber neurons by about 50 to one. Glial cells are the most common cells found in primary brain tumors.

When a person is diagnosed with a brain tumor, a biopsy may be done, in which tissue is removed from the tumor for identification purposes by a pathologist. Pathologists identify the type of cells that are present in this brain tissue, and brain tumors are named based on this association. The type of brain tumor and cells involved impact patient prognosis and treatment.

The brain is housed inside the bony covering called the cranium. The cranium protects the brain from injury. Together, the cranium and bones that protect the face are called the skull. Between the skull and brain is the meninges, which consist of three layers of tissue that cover and protect the brain and spinal cord. From the outermost layer inward they are: the dura mater, arachnoid and pia mater.

Dura Mater: In the brain, the dura mater is made up of two layers of whitish, nonelastic film or membrane. The outer layer is called the periosteum. An inner layer, the dura, lines the inside of the entire skull and creates little folds or compartments in which parts of the brain are protected and secured. The two special folds of the dura in the brain are called the falx and the tentorium. The falx separates the right and left half of the brain and the tentorium separates the upper and lower parts of the brain.

Arachnoid: The second layer of the meninges is the arachnoid. This membrane is thin and delicate and covers the entire brain. There is a space between the dura and the arachnoid membranes that is called the subdural space. The arachnoid is made up of delicate, elastic tissue and blood vessels of varying sizes.

Pia Mater: The layer of meninges closest to the surface of the brain is called the pia mater. The pia mater has many blood vessels that reach deep into the surface of the brain. The pia, which covers the entire surface of the brain, follows the folds of the brain. The major arteries supplying the brain provide the pia with its blood vessels. The space that separates the arachnoid and the pia is called the subarachnoid space. It is within this area that cerebrospinal fluid flows.

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is found within the brain and surrounds the brain and the spinal cord. It is a clear, watery substance that helps to cushion the brain and spinal cord from injury. This fluid circulates through channels around the spinal cord and brain, constantly being absorbed and replenished. It is within hollow channels in the brain, called ventricles, that the fluid is produced. A specialized structure within each ventricle, called the choroid plexus, is responsible for the majority of CSF production. The brain normally maintains a balance between the amount of CSF that is absorbed and the amount that is produced. However, disruptions in this system may occur.

The ventricular system is divided into four cavities called ventricles, which are connected by a series of holes, called foramen, and tubes.

Two ventricles enclosed in the cerebral hemispheres are called the lateral ventricles (first and second). They each communicate with the third ventricle through a separate opening called the Foramen of Munro. The third ventricle is in the center of the brain, and its walls are made up of the thalamus and hypothalamus.

The third ventricle connects with the fourth ventricle through a long tube called the Aqueduct of Sylvius.

CSF flowing through the fourth ventricle flows around the brain and spinal cord by passing through another series of openings.

The brainstem is the lower extension of the brain, located in front of the cerebellum and connected to the spinal cord. It consists of three structures: the midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata. It serves as a relay station, passing messages back and forth between various parts of the body and the cerebral cortex. Many simple or primitive functions that are essential for survival are located here.

The midbrain is an important center for ocular motion while the pons is involved with coordinating eye and facial movements, facial sensation, hearing and balance.

The medulla oblongata controls breathing, blood pressure, heart rhythms and swallowing. Messages from the cortex to the spinal cord and nerves that branch from the spinal cord are sent through the pons and the brainstem. Destruction of these regions of the brain will cause "brain death." Without these key functions, humans cannot survive.

The reticular activating system is found in the midbrain, pons, medulla and part of the thalamus. It controls levels of wakefulness, enables people to pay attention to their environments and is involved in sleep patterns.

Originating in the brainstem are 10 of the 12 cranial nerves that control hearing, eye movement, facial sensations, taste, swallowing and movements of the face, neck, shoulder and tongue muscles. The cranial nerves for smell and vision originate in the cerebrum. Four pairs of cranial nerves originate from the pons: nerves five through eight.

The cerebellum is located at the back of the brain beneath the occipital lobes. It is separated from the cerebrum by the tentorium (fold of dura). The cerebellum fine tunes motor activity or movement, e.g. the fine movements of fingers as they perform surgery or paint a picture. It helps one maintain posture, sense of balance or equilibrium, by controlling the tone of muscles and the position of limbs. The cerebellum is important in one's ability to perform rapid and repetitive actions such as playing a video game. In the cerebellum, right-sided abnormalities produce symptoms on the same side of the body.

The cerebrum, which forms the major portion of the brain, is divided into two major parts: the right and left cerebral hemispheres. The cerebrum is a term often used to describe the entire brain. A fissure or groove that separates the two hemispheres is called the great longitudinal fissure. The two sides of the brain are joined at the bottom by the corpus callosum. The corpus callosum connects the two halves of the brain and delivers messages from one half of the brain to the other. The surface of the cerebrum contains billions of neurons and glia that together form the cerebral cortex.

The cerebral cortex appears grayish brown in color and is called the "gray matter." The surface of the brain appears wrinkled. The cerebral cortex has sulci (small grooves), fissures (larger grooves) and bulges between the grooves called gyri. Scientists have specific names for the bulges and grooves on the surface of the brain. Decades of scientific research have revealed the specific functions of the various regions of the brain. Beneath the cerebral cortex or surface of the brain, connecting fibers between neurons form a white-colored area called the "white matter."

The cerebral hemispheres have several distinct fissures. By locating these landmarks on the surface of the brain, it can effectively be divided into pairs of "lobes." Lobes are simply broad regions of the brain. The cerebrum or brain can be divided into pairs of frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital lobes. Each hemisphere has a frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital lobe. Each lobe may be divided, once again, into areas that serve very specific functions. The lobes of the brain do not function alone: they function through very complex relationships with one another.

Messages within the brain are delivered in many ways. The signals are transported along routes called pathways. Any destruction of brain tissue by a tumor can disrupt the communication between different parts of the brain. The result will be a loss of function such as speech, the ability to read or the ability to follow simple spoken commands. Messages can travel from one bulge on the brain to another (gyri to gyri), from one lobe to another, from one side of the brain to the other, from one lobe of the brain to structures that are found deep in the brain, e.g. thalamus, or from the deep structures of the brain to another region in the central nervous system.

Research has determined that touching one side of the brain sends electrical signals to the other side of the body. Touching the motor region on the right side of the brain would cause the opposite side or the left side of the body to move. Stimulating the left primary motor cortex would cause the right side of the body to move. The messages for movement and sensation cross to the other side of the brain and cause the opposite limb to move or feel a sensation. The right side of the brain controls the left side of the body and vice versa. So if a brain tumor occurs on the right side of the brain that controls the movement of the arm, the left arm may be weak or paralyzed.

There are 12 pairs of nerves that originate from the brain itself. These nerves are responsible for very specific activities and are named and numbered as follows:

1. Olfactory: Smell

2. O ptic: Visual fields and ability to see

3. Oculomotor: Eye movements; eyelid opening

4. Trochlear: Eye movements

5. Trigeminal: Facial sensation

6. Abducens: Eye movements

7. Facial: Eyelid closing; facial expression; taste sensation

8. Auditory/vestibular: Hearing; sense of balance

9. Glossopharyngeal: Taste sensation; swallowing

10. Vagus: Swallowing; taste sensation

11. Accessory: Control of neck and shoulder muscles

12. Hypoglossal: Tongue movement

The hypothalamus is a small structure that contains nerve connections that send messages to the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus handles information that comes from the autonomic nervous system. It plays a role in controlling functions such as eating, sexual behavior and sleeping; and regulates body temperature, emotions, secretion of hormones and movement. The pituitary gland develops from an extension of the hypothalamus downwards and from a second component extending upward from the roof of the mouth.

The frontal lobes are the largest of the four lobes responsible for many different functions. These include motor skills such as voluntary movement, speech, intellectual and behavioral functions. The areas that produce movement in parts of the body are found in the primary motor cortex or precentral gyrus. The prefrontal cortex plays an important part in memory, intelligence, concentration, temper and personality.

The premotor cortex is a region found beside the primary motor cortex. It guides eye and head movements and a person's sense of orientation. Broca's area, important in language production, is found in the frontal lobe, usually on the left side.

These lobes are located at the back of the brain and enable humans to receive and process visual information. They influence how humans process colors and shapes. The occipital lobe on the right interprets visual signals from the left visual space, while the left occipital lobe performs the same function for the right visual space.

These lobes interpret simultaneously, signals received from other areas of the brain such as vision, hearing, motor, sensory and memory. A person's memory, and the new sensory information received, give meaning to objects.

These lobes are located on each side of the brain at about ear level, and can be divided into two parts. One part is on the bottom (ventral) of each hemisphere, and the other part is on the side (lateral) of each hemisphere. An area on the right side is involved in visual memory and helps humans recognize objects and peoples' faces. An area on the left side is involved in verbal memory and helps humans remember and understand language. The rear of the temporal lobe enables humans to interpret other people's emotions and reactions.

This system is involved in emotions. Included in this system are the hypothalamus, part of the thalamus, amygdala (active in producing aggressive behavior) and hippocampus (plays a role in the ability to remember new information).

This gland is an outgrowth from the posterior or back portion of the third ventricle. In some mammals, it controls the response to darkness and light. In humans, it has some role in sexual maturation, although the exact function of the pineal gland in humans is unclear.

The pituitary is a small gland attached to the base of the brain (behind the nose) in an area called the pituitary fossa or sella turcica. The pituitary is often called the "master gland" because it controls the secretion of hormones. The pituitary is responsible for controlling and coordinating the following:

Growth and development

The function of various body organs (i.e. kidneys, breasts and uterus)

The function of other glands (i.e. thyroid, gonads, and adrenal glands)

This is a cavity in the back part of the skull which contains the cerebellum, brainstem and cranial nerves 5-12.

The thalamus serves as a relay station for almost all information that comes and goes to the cortex. It plays a role in pain sensation, attention and alertness. It consists of four parts: the hypothalamus, the epythalamus, the ventral thalamus and the dorsal thalamus. The basal ganglia are clusters of nerve cells surrounding the thalamus.

In general, the left hemisphere or side of the brain is responsible for language and speech. Because of this, it has been called the "dominant" hemisphere. The right hemisphere plays a large part in interpreting visual information and spatial processing. In about one-third of individuals who are left-handed, speech function may be located on the right side of the brain. Left-handed individuals may need specialized testing to determine if their speech center is on the left or right side prior to any surgery in that area.

Many neuroscientists believe that the left hemisphere and perhaps other portions of the brain are important in language. Aphasia is simply a disturbance of language. Certain parts of the brain are responsible for specific functions in language production. There are many types of aphasias, each depending upon the brain area that is affected, and the role that area plays in language production.

There is an area in the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere called Broca's area. It is next to the region that controls the movement of facial muscles, tongue, jaw and throat. If this area is destroyed, a person will have difficulty producing the sounds of speech, because of the inability to move the tongue or facial muscles to form words. A person with Broca's aphasia can still read and understand spoken language, but has difficulty speaking and writing.

There is a region in the left temporal lobe called Wernicke's area. Damage to this area causes Wernicke's aphasia. An individual can make speech sounds, but they are meaningless (receptive aphasia) because they do not make any sense.
The AANS does not endorse any treatments, procedures, products or physicians referenced in these patient fact sheets. This information is provided as an educational service and is not intended to serve as medical advice. Anyone seeking specific neurosurgical advice or assistance should consult his or her neurosurgeon, or locate one in your area through the AANS' "Find a Board-certified Neurosurgeon" online tool.

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A Neurosurgeon's Overview the Brain's Anatomy

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The brain serves many important functions. It gives meaning to things that happen in the world surrounding us. Through the five senses of sight, smell, hearing, touch and taste, the brain receives messages, often many at the same time. The brain controls thoughts, memory and speech, arm and leg movements and the function of many organs within the body.

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National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke

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The brain is the most complex part of the human body. This three-pound organ is the seat of intelligence, interpreter of the senses, initiator of body movement, and controller of behavior. Lying in its bony shell and washed by protective fluid, the brain is the source of all the qualities that define our humanity. It is the crown jewel of the human body.

This fact sheet is a basic introduction to the human brain. It can help you understand how the healthy brain works, how to keep your brain healthy, and what happens when the brain doesn't work like it should.

The Structure of the Brain

The brain is like a group of experts. All the parts of the brain work together, but each part has its own special responsibilities. The brain can be divided into three basic units: the forebrain, the midbrain, and the hindbrain.

The hindbrain includes the upper part of the spinal cord, the brain stem, and a wrinkled ball of tissue called the cerebellum. The hindbrain controls the body's vital functions such as respiration and heart rate.

The cerebellum coordinates movement and is involved in learned movements. When you play the piano or hit a tennis ball, you are activating the cerebellum.

The uppermost part of the brainstem is the midbrain, which controls some reflex actions and is part of the circuit involved in the control of eye movements and other voluntary movements. The forebrain is the largest and most highly developed part of the human brain: it consists primarily of the cerebrum and the structures hidden beneath it ( see "The Inner Brain").

When people see pictures of the brain it is usually the cerebrum that they notice. The cerebrum sits at the topmost part of the brain and is the source of conscious thoughts and actions. It holds your memories and allows you to plan, imagine, and think. It allows you to recognize friends, read, and play games.

The cerebrum is split into two halves (hemispheres) by a deep fissure. The two cerebral hemispheres communicate with each other through a thick tract of nerve fibers that lies at the base of this fissure, called the corpus callosum. Although the two hemispheres seem to be mirror images of each other, they are different. For instance, the ability to form words seems to lie primarily in the left hemisphere, while the right hemisphere seems to control many abstract reasoning skills.

For some as-yet-unknown reason, nearly all of the signals from the brain to the body and vice versa cross over on their way to and from the brain. This means that the right cerebral hemisphere primarily controls the left side of the body, and the left hemisphere primarily controls the right side. When one side of the brain is damaged, the opposite side of the body is affected. For example, a stroke in the right hemisphere of the brain can leave the left arm and leg paralyzed.

The Cerebral Cortex

Coating the surface of the cerebrum and the cerebellum is a vital layer of tissue the thickness of a stack of two or three dimes. It is called the cortex, from the Latin word for bark. Most of the actual information processing in the brain takes place in the cerebral cortex. When people talk about "gray matter" in the brain, they are talking about the cortex. The cortex is gray because nerves in this area lack the insulation that makes most other parts of the brain appear to be white. The folds in the brain add to its surface area and therefore increase the amount of gray matter and the volume of information that can be processed.

The Geography of Thought

Each cerebral hemisphere can be divided into sections, or lobes, each of which specializes in different functions. To understand each lobe and its specialty, we will take a tour of the cerebral hemispheres.

Frontal lobes

The two frontal lobes lie directly behind the forehead. When you plan a schedule, imagine the future, or use reasoned arguments, these two lobes do much of the work. One of the ways the frontal lobes seem to do these things is by acting as short-term storage sites, allowing one idea to be kept in mind while other ideas are considered.

Motor cortex

In the back portion of each frontal lobe is a motor cortex, which helps plan, control, and execute voluntary movement, like moving your arm or kicking a ball.

Parietal lobes

When you enjoy a good meal-the taste, smell, and texture of the food-two sections behind the frontal lobes called the parietal lobes are at work. The parietal lobes also support reading and arithmetic.

Somatosensory cortex

The forward parts of these lobes, just behind the motor areas, is the somatosensory cortex. These areas receive information about temperature, taste, touch, and movement from the rest of the body.

Occipital lobes

As you look at the words and pictures on this page, two areas at the back of the brain are at work. These lobes, called the occipital lobes, process images from the eyes and link that information with images stored in memory. Damage to the occipital lobes can cause blindness.

Temporal lobes

The last lobes on our tour of the cerebral hemispheres are the temporal lobes, which lie in front of the visual areas and nest under the parietal and frontal lobes. Whether you appreciate symphonies or rock music, your brain responds through the activity of these lobes. At the top of each temporal lobe is an area responsible for receiving information from the ears. The underside of each temporal lobe plays a crucial role in forming and retrieving memories, including those associated with music. Other parts of this lobe integrate memories and sensations of taste, sound, sight, and touch.

The Inner Brain

Deep within the brain, hidden from view, lie structures that are the gatekeepers between the spinal cord and the cerebral hemispheres. These structures not only determine our emotional state, but they also modify our perceptions and responses and allow us to initiate movements that without thinking about them. Like the lobes in the cerebral hemispheres, the structures described below come in pairs: each is duplicated in the opposite half of the brain.

The hypothalamus, about the size of a pearl, directs a multitude of important functions. It wakes you up in the morning and gets the adrenaline flowing during a test or job interview. The hypothalamus is also an important emotional center, controlling the chemicals that make you feel exhilarated, angry, or unhappy. Near the hypothalamus lies the thalamus, a major clearinghouse for information going to and from the spinal cord and the cerebrum.

An arching tract of nerve cells leads from the hypothalamus and the thalamus to the hippocampus. This tiny nub acts as a memory indexer-sending memories out to the appropriate part of the cerebral hemisphere for long-term storage and retrieving them when necessary. The basal ganglia (not shown) are clusters of nerve cells surrounding the thalamus. They are responsible for initiating and integrating movements. Parkinson's disease, which results in tremors, rigidity, and a stiff, shuffling walk, affects the nerve cells in the basal ganglia.

The Neuron

The brain and the rest of the nervous system are composed of many different types of cells, but the primary functional unit is a cell called the neuron. All sensations, movements, thoughts, memories, and feelings are the result of signals that pass through neurons. Neurons consist of three parts: the cell body, dendrites, and the axon.

The cell body contains the nucleus, where most of the molecules that the neuron needs to survive and function are manufactured. Dendrites extend out from the cell body like the branches of a tree and receive messages from other nerve cells. Signals then pass from the dendrites through the cell body and travel away from the cell body down an axon to another neuron, a muscle cell, or cells in some other organ.

The neuron is usually surrounded by many support cells. Some types of cells wrap around the axon to form an insulating myelin sheath. Myelin is a fatty molecule which provides insulation for the axon and helps nerve signals travel faster and farther. Axons may be very short, such as those that carry signals from one cell in the cortex to another cell less than a hair's width away. Other axons may be very long, such as those that carry messages from the brain all the way down the spinal cord.

The Synapse

Scientists have learned a great deal about neurons by studying the synapse-the place where a signal passes from the neuron to another cell. When the signal reaches the end of the axon it stimulates the release of tiny sacs called vesicles. These vesicles release chemicals known as neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitters cross the synapse and attach to receptors on the neighboring cell. These receptors can change the properties of the receiving cell. If the receiving cell is also a neuron, the signal can continue the transmission to the next cell.

Some Key Neurotransmitters At Work

Neurotransmitters are chemicals that brain cells use to talk to each other. Some neurotransmitters make cells more active (called excitatory) while others block or dampen a cell's activity (called inhibitory).

Acetylcholine is an excitatory neurotransmitter. It governs muscle contractions and causes glands to secrete hormones. Alzheimer's disease, which initially affects memory formation, is associated with a shortage of acetylcholine.

Glutamate is a major excitatory neurotransmitter. Too much glutamate can kill or damage neurons and has been linked to disorders including Parkinson's disease, stroke, seizures, and increased sensitivity to pain.

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that helps control muscle activity and is an important part of the visual system. Drugs that increase GABA levels in the brain are used to treat epileptic seizures and tremors in patients with Huntington's disease.

Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that constricts blood vessels and brings on sleep. It is also involved in temperature regulation. Low levels of serotonin may cause sleep problems and depression, while too much serotonin can lead to seizures.

Dopamine can be excitatory or inhibitory and is involved in mood and the control of complex movements. The loss of dopamine activity in some portions of the brain leads to the muscular rigidity of Parkinson's disease. Many medications used to treat mental health disorders and conditions work by modifying the action of dopamine in the brain.

Neurological Disorders

The brain is one of the hardest working organs in the body. When the brain is healthy it functions quickly and automatically. But when problems occur, the results can be devastating. supports research on hundreds of neurological disorders. Knowing more about the brain can lead to the development of new treatments for diseases and disorders of the nervous system and improve many areas of human health.

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Anatomy of the human brain, complete with illustrations and references

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What is the brain?

The brain is a complex organ that controls thought, memory, emotion, touch, motor skills, vision, breathing, temperature, hunger and every process that regulates our body. Together, the brain and spinal cord that extends from it make up the central nervous system, or CNS.

What is the brain made of?

Weighing about 3 pounds in the average adult, the brain is about 60% fat. The remaining 40% is a combination of water, protein, carbohydrates and salts. The brain itself is a not a muscle. It contains blood vessels and nerves, including neurons and glial cells.

What is the gray matter and white matter?

Gray and white matter are two different regions of the central nervous system. In the brain, gray matter refers to the darker, outer portion, while white matter describes the lighter, inner section underneath. In the spinal cord, this order is reversed: The white matter is on the outside, and the gray matter sits within.

Gray matter is primarily composed of neuron somas (the round central cell bodies), and white matter is mostly made of axons (the long stems that connects neurons together) wrapped in myelin (a protective coating). The different composition of neuron parts is why the two appear as separate shades on certain scans.

Each region serves a different role. Gray matter is primarily responsible for processing and interpreting information, while white matter transmits that information to other parts of the nervous system.

How does the brain work?

The brain sends and receives chemical and electrical signals throughout the body. Different signals control different processes, and your brain interprets each. Some make you feel tired, for example, while others make you feel pain.

Some messages are kept within the brain, while others are relayed through the spine and across the body's vast network of nerves to distant extremities. To do this, the central nervous system relies on billions of neurons (nerve cells).

Main Parts of the Brain and Their Functions

At a high level, the brain can be divided into the cerebrum, brainstem and cerebellum.

Cerebrum

The cerebrum (front of brain) comprises gray matter (the cerebral cortex) and white matter at its center. The largest part of the brain, the cerebrum initiates and coordinates movement and regulates temperature. Other areas of the cerebrum enable speech, judgment, thinking and reasoning, problem-solving, emotions and learning. Other functions relate to vision, hearing, touch and other senses.

Cerebral Cortex

Cortex is Latin for "bark," and describes the outer gray matter covering of the cerebrum. The cortex has a large surface area due to its folds, and comprises about half of the brain's weight.

The cerebral cortex is divided into two halves, or hemispheres. It is covered with ridges (gyri) and folds (sulci). The two halves join at a large, deep sulcus (the interhemispheric fissure, AKA the medial longitudinal fissure) that runs from the front of the head to the back. The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body, and the left half controls the right side of the body. The two halves communicate with one another through a large, C-shaped structure of white matter and nerve pathways called the corpus callosum. The corpus callosum is in the center of the cerebrum.

Brainstem

The brainstem (middle of brain) connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord. The brainstem includes the midbrain, the pons and the medulla.

Midbrain. The midbrain (or mesencephalon) is a very complex structure with a range of different neuron clusters (nuclei and colliculi), neural pathways and other structures. These features facilitate various functions, from hearing and movement to calculating responses and environmental changes. The midbrain also contains the substantia nigra, an area affected by Parkinson's disease that is rich in dopamine neurons and part of the basal ganglia, which enables movement and coordination.

Pons. The pons is the origin for four of the 12 cranial nerves, which enable a range of activities such as tear production, chewing, blinking, focusing vision, balance, hearing and facial expression. Named for the Latin word for "bridge," the pons is the connection between the midbrain and the medulla.

Medulla. At the bottom of the brainstem, the medulla is where the brain meets the spinal cord. The medulla is essential to survival. Functions of the medulla regulate many bodily activities, including heart rhythm, breathing, blood flow, and oxygen and carbon dioxide levels. The medulla produces reflexive activities such as sneezing, vomiting, coughing and swallowing.

The spinal cord extends from the bottom of the medulla and through a large opening in the bottom of the skull. Supported by the vertebrae, the spinal cord carries messages to and from the brain and the rest of the body.

Cerebellum

The cerebellum ("little brain") is a fist-sized portion of the brain located at the back of the head, below the temporal and occipital lobes and above the brainstem. Like the cerebral cortex, it has two hemispheres. The outer portion contains neurons, and the inner area communicates with the cerebral cortex. Its function is to coordinate voluntary muscle movements and to maintain posture, balance and equilibrium. New studies are exploring the cerebellum's roles in thought, emotions and social behavior, as well as its possible involvement in addiction, autism and schizophrenia.

Brain Coverings: Meninges

Three layers of protective covering called meninges surround the brain and the spinal cord.

The outermost layer, the dura mater, is thick and tough. It includes two layers: The periosteal layer of the dura mater lines the inner dome of the skull (cranium) and the meningeal layer is below that. Spaces between the layers allow for the passage of veins and arteries that supply blood flow to the brain.

The arachnoid mater is a thin, weblike layer of connective tissue that does not contain nerves or blood vessels. Below the arachnoid mater is the cerebrospinal fluid, or CSF. This fluid cushions the entire central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and continually circulates around these structures to remove impurities.

The pia mater is a thin membrane that hugs the surface of the brain and follows its contours. The pia mater is rich with veins and arteries.

Lobes of the Brain and What They Control

Each brain hemisphere (parts of the cerebrum) has four sections, called lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital. Each lobe controls specific functions.

Frontal lobe. The largest lobe of the brain, located in the front of the head, the frontal lobe is involved in personality characteristics, decision-making and movement. Recognition of smell usually involves parts of the frontal lobe. The frontal lobe contains Broca's area, which is associated with speech ability.

Parietal lobe. The middle part of the brain, the parietal lobe helps a person identify objects and understand spatial relationships (where one's body is compared with objects around the person). The parietal lobe is also involved in interpreting pain and touch in the body. The parietal lobe houses Wernicke's area, which helps the brain understand spoken language.

Occipital lobe. The occipital lobe is the back part of the brain that is involved with vision.

Temporal lobe. The sides of the brain, temporal lobes are involved in short-term memory, speech, musical rhythm and some degree of smell recognition.

Deeper Structures Within the Brain

Pituitary Gland

Sometimes called the "master gland," the pituitary gland is a pea-sized structure found deep in the brain behind the bridge of the nose. The pituitary gland governs the function of other glands in the body, regulating the flow of hormones from the thyroid, adrenals, ovaries and testicles. It receives chemical signals from the hypothalamus through its stalk and blood supply.

Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is located above the pituitary gland and sends it chemical messages that control its function. It regulates body temperature, synchronizes sleep patterns, controls hunger and thirst and also plays a role in some aspects of memory and emotion.

Amygdala

Small, almond-shaped structures, an amygdala is located under each half (hemisphere) of the brain. Included in the limbic system, the amygdalae regulate emotion and memory and are associated with the brain's reward system, stress, and the "fight or flight" response when someone perceives a threat.

Hippocampus

A curved seahorse-shaped organ on the underside of each temporal lobe, the hippocampus is part of a larger structure called the hippocampal formation. It supports memory, learning, navigation and perception of space. It receives information from the cerebral cortex and may play a role in Alzheimer's disease.

Pineal Gland

The pineal gland is located deep in the brain and attached by a stalk to the top of the third ventricle. The pineal gland responds to light and dark and secretes melatonin, which regulates circadian rhythms and the sleep-wake cycle.

Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid

Deep in the brain are four open areas with passageways between them. They also open into the central spinal canal and the area beneath arachnoid layer of the meninges.

The ventricles manufacture cerebrospinal fluid, or CSF, a watery fluid that circulates in and around the ventricles and the spinal cord, and between the meninges. CSF surrounds and cushions the spinal cord and brain, washes out waste and impurities, and delivers nutrients.

Blood Supply to the Brain

Two sets of blood vessels supply blood and oxygen to the brain: the vertebral arteries and the carotid arteries.

The external carotid arteries extend up the sides of your neck, and are where you can feel your pulse when you touch the area with your fingertips. The internal carotid arteries branch into the skull and circulate blood to the front part of the brain.

The vertebral arteries follow the spinal column into the skull, where they join together at the brainstem and form the basilar artery, which supplies blood to the rear portions of the brain.

The circle of Willis, a loop of blood vessels near the bottom of the brain that connects major arteries, circulates blood from the front of the brain to the back and helps the arterial systems communicate with one another.

Cranial Nerves

Inside the cranium (the dome of the skull), there are 12 nerves, called cranial nerves:

Cranial nerve 1: The first is the olfactory nerve, which allows for your sense of smell.

Cranial nerve 2: The optic nerve governs eyesight.

Cranial nerve 3: The oculomotor nerve controls pupil response and other motions of the eye, and branches out from the area in the brainstem where the midbrain meets the pons.

Cranial nerve 4: The trochlear nerve controls muscles in the eye. It emerges from the back of the midbrain part of the brainstem.

Cranial nerve 5: The trigeminal nerve is the largest and most complex of the cranial nerves, with both sensory and motor function. It originates from the pons and conveys sensation from the scalp, teeth, jaw, sinuses, parts of the mouth and face to the brain, allows the function of chewing muscles, and much more.

Cranial nerve 6: The abducens nerve innervates some of the muscles in the eye.

Cranial nerve 7: The facial nerve supports face movement, taste, glandular and other functions.

Cranial nerve 8: The vestibulocochlear nerve facilitates balance and hearing.

Cranial nerve 9: The glossopharyngeal nerve allows taste, ear and throat movement, and has many more functions.

Cranial nerve 10: The vagus nerve allows sensation around the ear and the digestive system and controls motor activity in the heart, throat and digestive system.

Cranial nerve 11: The accessory nerve innervates specific muscles in the head, neck and shoulder.

Cranial nerve 12: The hypoglossal nerve supplies motor activity to the tongue.

The first two nerves originate in the cerebrum, and the remaining 10 cranial nerves emerge from the brainstem, which has three parts: the midbrain, the pons and the medulla.

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The brain is an important organ that controls thought, memory, emotion, touch, motor skills, vision, respiration, and every process that regulates your body.

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We're not all naturally skilled at the same things. Some are more athletic and have better coordination. Some pick up on language and words faster at a young age, while others are good with numbers and visualizing patterns.

But most people don't fully understand their range of abilities, and as a result, may end up in the wrong careers. Or, they might enjoy their jobs, but struggle to identify effective learning techniques that will help them excel further.

How high you score in one category does not necessarily influence how (high or low) you score in another.

If you want to learn to be exceptional at something, your best bet is to understand the unique areas of intelligence where you have an advantage, and then build upon those strengths.

For example, consider someone who struggled with writing until they attempted to create a graphic story, which turned into a compelling narrative. Or a student who couldn't seem to grasp fractions until they visualized separating apples into slices.

Below are the eight types of intelligence identified by Gardner. As you go through each, score yourself on a scale of one (doesn't come naturally) to five (comes very naturally).

1. Spatial intelligence

The ability to think abstractly and in multiple dimensions. Scoring a five means you have a large capacity for spatial reasoning and conceptualization - something required for fields such as architecture, graphic design, photography, interior design and aviation.
Potential career choices:
2. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence

The ability to use your body in a way that demonstrates physical and athletic prowess. If you have this skill, you could be an athlete effortlessly running down a field and passing a ball, or a dancer flawlessly performing a complicated routine.
Potential career choices:
3. Musical intelligence

Sensitivity to rhythm, pitch, meter, tone, melody and timbre. This may entail the ability to sing and/or play musical instruments. Famous people with musical intelligence include Beethoven, Jimi Hendrix and Aretha Franklin.
Potential career choices:
4. Linguistic intelligence

Sometimes called "language intelligence," this involves sensitivity to the meaning of words, the order among words, and the sound, rhythms, inflections and meter of words. Those who score high in this category are typically good at writing stories, memorizing information and reading.
Potential career choices:
5. Logical-mathematical intelligence

The ability to analyze problems logically, carry out mathematical operations and investigate issues scientifically. People with this intelligence, such as Albert Einstein and Bill Gates, are skilled at developing equations and proofs and solving abstract problems.
Potential career choices:
6. Interpersonal intelligence

The ability to interact effectively with others. Sensitivity to others people's moods, feelings, temperaments and motivations. Essentially, it's being able to understand and relate to those around you.
Potential career choices:
7. Intrapersonal intelligence

Sensitivity to one's own feelings, goals and anxieties, and the capacity to plan and act in light of one's own traits. Intrapersonal intelligence is not particular to specific careers; rather, it is a goal for every individual in a complex modern society, where one has to make consequential decisions for oneself.
Potential career choices:
8. Naturalistic intelligence

The ability to understand the nuances in nature, including the distinction between plants, animals, and other elements of nature and life. Notable individuals with naturalistic intelligence include Charles Darwin and Jane Goodall.
Potential career choices:
If you struggled to assess yourself, ask people closest to you for their observations. Or, consider the things you gravitated towards during your youth. (It's usually when we're kids that we pick up activities closely linked with our innate abilities.)

Keep in mind that this is just a quick and simple exercise to provide you with a clearer sense of your strengths. Do your top skills and interests align with your career? If not, how can you use them to get to where you want to be?

When we gain a deeper understanding of our natural talents, we have better chance of figuring out how to achieve goals in both our personal and professional lives.
, Ph.D., is the author of "The Innovation Biome" and "The Exceptionals." He researches, writes and speaks about personal excellence. Dr. Mehta also serves as a Senior Research Fellow at the Center for the Digital Future at the University of Southern. Follow him on Twitter @mehtakumar.

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A Harvard psychologist says humans have 8 types of intelligence. Which ones do you score the highest in?

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We're not all naturally skilled at the same things. Some are more athletic and have better coordination. Some pick up on language and words faster at a young age, while others are good with numbers and visualizing patterns. But most people don't fully understand their range of abilities, and as a result, may end up in the wrong careers.

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Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

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Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

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Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

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Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences posits that individuals possess various distinct types of intelligences, rather than a single general intelligence. These types encompass areas like linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic intelligences, emphasizing a broader understanding of human capability.

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Teenage brain development: the basics

Children's brains have a massive growth spurt when they're very young. By the time they're six, their brains are already about 90-95% of adult size. But the brain still needs a lot of remodelling before it can function as an adult brain.

This brain remodelling happens intensively during adolescence, continuing into your child's mid-20s.

Some brain changes happen before puberty, and some continue long after. Brain change depends on age, experience and hormonal changes in puberty.

So even though all teenagers' brains develop in roughly the same way at the same time, there are differences among individual teenagers. For example, if your child started puberty early, this might mean that some of your child's brain changes started early too.

Inside the teenage brain

Adolescence is a time of significant growth and development inside the teenage brain.

The main change is that unused connections in the thinking and processing part of your child's brain (called the grey matter) are 'pruned' away. At the same time, other connections are strengthened. This is the brain's way of becoming more efficient, based on the 'use it or lose it' principle.

This pruning process begins in the back of the brain. The front part of the brain, the prefrontal cortex, is remodelled last. The prefrontal cortex is the decision-making part of the brain, responsible for your child's ability to plan and think about the consequences of actions, solve problems and control impulses. Changes in this part continue into early adulthood.

Because the prefrontal cortex is still developing, teenagers might rely on a part of the brain called the amygdala to make decisions and solve problems more than adults do. The amygdala is associated with emotions, impulses, aggression and instinctive behaviour.

Have you noticed that sometimes your child's thinking and behaviour seems quite mature, but at other times your child seems to behave or think in illogical, impulsive or emotional ways? The back-to-front development of the brain explains these shifts and changes - teenagers are working with brains that are still under construction.

Building a healthy teenage brain

The combination of your child's unique brain and environment influences the way your child acts, thinks and feels. For example, your child's preferred activities and skills might become 'hard-wired' in the brain.

How teenagers spend their time is crucial to brain development. So it's worth thinking about the range of activities and experiences your child is into - music, sports, study, languages, video games. How are these shaping the sort of brain your child takes into adulthood?

You are an important part of your child's environment. You mean a lot to your child. How you guide and influence your child will be important in helping your child to build a healthy brain too.

You can do this by:

encouraging positive behaviour

promoting good thinking skills

helping your child get lots of sleep.

Behaviour strategies for teenage brain development

While your child's brain is developing, your child might:

take more risks or choose high-risk activities

express more and stronger emotions

make impulsive decisions.

Here are some tips for encouraging good behaviour and strengthening positive brain connections:

Let your child take some healthy risks. New and different experiences help your child develop an independent identity, explore grown-up behaviour, and move towards independence.

Help your child find new creative and expressive outlets for feelings. Your child might be expressing and trying to control new emotions. Many teenagers find that doing or watching sport or music, writing and other art forms are good outlets.

Talk through decisions step by step with your child. Ask about possible courses of action your child might choose, and talk through potential consequences. Encourage your child to weigh up positive consequences or rewards against negative ones.

Use family routines to give your child's life some structure. These might be based around school and family timetables.

Provide boundaries and opportunities for negotiating those boundaries. Young people need guidance and limit-setting from their parents and other adults.

Offer frequent praise and positive rewards for desired behaviour. This reinforces pathways in your child's brain.

Be a positive role model. Your behaviour will show your child the behaviour you expect.

Stay connected with your child. You'll probably want to keep an eye on your child's activities and friends. Being open and approachable can help you with this.

Talk with your child about their developing brain. Understanding this important period of growth might help your child process their feelings. It might also make taking care of the brain more interesting for your child.

Teenagers are often passionate about their interests, especially ones that give them opportunities to socialise. You can help your child develop skills and confidence by supporting your child's interests, activities and hobbies.

Thinking strategies for teenage brain development

Brain growth and development during these years mean that your child will start to:

think more logically

think about things more abstractly and understand that issues aren't always simple

pick up more on other people's emotional cues

solve complex problems in a logical way, and see problems from different perspectives

get a better perspective on the future.

You can support the development of your child's thinking with the following strategies:

Encourage empathy. Talk about feelings - yours, your child's and other people's. Highlight the fact that other people have different perspectives and circumstances. Reinforce that many people can be affected by one action.

Emphasise the immediate and long-term consequences of actions. The part of the brain responsible for future thinking (the prefrontal cortex) is still developing. If you talk about how your child's actions influence both the present and the future, you can help the healthy development of your child's prefrontal cortex.

Try to match your language level to the level of your child's understanding. For important information, you can check your child has understood by asking your child to tell you in their own words what they've just heard.

Help your child develop decision-making and problem-solving skills. You and your child could work through a process that involves defining problems, listing options, and considering outcomes that everyone is happy with. Role-modelling these skills is important too.

Sleep and teenage brain development

During the teenage years, your child's sleep patterns will change. This is because the brain produces melatonin at a different time of the day. This makes your child feel tired and ready for bed later in the evening. It can keep your child awake into the night and make it difficult for your child to get up the next morning.

Sleep is essential to healthy brain development. Try the following tips:

Ensure your child has a comfortable, quiet sleep environment.

Encourage 'winding down' before bed, away from screens including phones.

Reinforce a regular sleeping routine. Your child should aim to go to bed and wake up at regular times each day.

Encourage your child to get enough sleep each night. On average, teenagers need 8-10 hours each night.

Risk-taking behaviour and the teenage brain

The teenage brain is built to seek out new experiences, risks and sensations - it's all part of refining those brain connections.

Also, teenagers don't always have a lot of self-control or good judgment and are more prone to risk-taking behaviour. This is because the self-monitoring, problem-solving and decision-making part of the brain - the prefrontal cortex - develops last. Hormones are also thought to contribute to impulsive and risky behaviour in teenagers. Teenagers need to take risks to grow and develop.

You can support your child in choosing healthy risks - like sports and travel - instead of negative ones like smoking and stealing. All risk-taking involves the possibility of failure. Your child will need your support to get over any setbacks.

Stress and the teenage brain

With so many changes happening to your child's brain, it's especially important that your child is protected and nurtured.

The incidence of poor mental health increases during the teenage years. It's thought this could be related to the fact that the developing brain is more vulnerable to stress factors than the adult brain.

Teenage stresses can include alcohol and other drugs, high-risk behaviour, experiences like starting a new school and peer pressure, or major life events like moving house or the death of a loved one.

But too much protection and attention might not be good for your relationship either.

Instead, staying connected and involved in your child's life can help you to learn more about how your child is coping with stress. It can also help you keep an open relationship with your child and ensure that your child sees you as someone to talk to - even about embarrassing or uncomfortable topics.

It's thought that children are more likely to be open to parental guidance and monitoring during their teenage years if they've grown up in a supportive and nurturing home environment.

Every teenage child is unique, and teenagers respond to stress in different and unique ways. You know your child best, so it's OK to trust your instinct on how to support your child if they're going through a stressful time. It's also OK to ask for help from friends, family members or professionals like your GP.

Getting help

Every child experiences changes at a different rate.

If you're concerned about your child's rate of development or you have concerns about your child's changing body, thinking or behaviour, you could start by talking to a school counsellor or your GP. If you're really worried, you could look for a counsellor or psychologist. You don't need a referral, but you might prefer to have your GP recommend someone.

Other parents can also be a great source of support. Try talking with friends, relatives or parents at your child's school.

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Teenage brain development: the basics Children's brains have a massive growth spurt when they're very young. By the time they're six, their brains are already about 90-95% of adult size. But the brain still needs a lot of remodelling before it can function as an adult brain.

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Teen Brain: Behavior, Problem Solving, and Decision Making

No. 95; September 2017

Many parents do not understand why their teenagers occasionally behave in an impulsive, irrational, or dangerous way. At times, it seems like teens don't think things through or fully consider the consequences of their actions. Adolescents differ from adults in the way they behave, solve problems, and make decisions. There is a biological explanation for this difference. Studies have shown that brains continue to mature and develop throughout childhood and adolescence and well into early adulthood.

Scientists have identified a specific region of the brain called the amygdala that is responsible for immediate reactions including fear and aggressive behavior. This region develops early. However, the frontal cortex, the area of the brain that controls reasoning and helps us think before we act, develops later. This part of the brain is still changing and maturing well into adulthood.

Other changes in the brain during adolescence include a rapid increase in the connections between the brain cells and making the brain pathways more effective. Nerve cells develop myelin, an insulating layer that helps cells communicate. All these changes are essential for the development of coordinated thought, action, and behavior.
Changing Brains Mean that Adolescents Act Differently From Adults
Pictures of the brain in action show that adolescents' brains work differently than adults when they make decisions or solve problems. Their actions are guided more by the emotional and reactive amygdala and less by the thoughtful, logical frontal cortex. Research has also shown that exposure to drugs and alcohol during the teen years can change or delay these developments.

Based on the stage of their brain development, adolescents are more likely to:

act on impulse

misread or misinterpret social cues and emotions

get into accidents of all kinds

get involved in fights

engage in dangerous or risky behavior

Adolescents are less likely to:

think before they act

pause to consider the consequences of their actions

change their dangerous or inappropriate behaviors

These brain differences don't mean that young people can't make good decisions or tell the difference between right and wrong. It also doesn't mean that they shouldn't be held responsible for their actions. However, an awareness of these differences can help parents, teachers, advocates, and policy makers understand, anticipate, and manage the behavior of adolescents.

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Teen Brain: Behavior, Problem Solving, and Decision Making

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Many parents do not understand why their teenagers occasionally behave in an impulsive, irrational, or dangerous way.

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Teens. OMG. What on earth is going on inside their brains to make them act so, well, like crazy teenagers?

The mood swings, the fiery emotions, the delusions of immortality, all the things that make a teenager a teenager might just seem like a phase we all have to put up with. However, research increasingly shows that the behaviors of teenagers aren't just there to annoy parents, they serve a real evolutionary purpose.

You can think of the cautious part of the brain (the prefrontal cortex) as the "Spock" of the brain.

The limbic system is the more impulsive and emotional part of the brain - similar to Captain Kirk.
Credit: Star Trek / ViacomCBS

Changing minds

What is a teenager? Our standard definition is arbitrary: If your age ends in "-teen," you're a teenager. The brain, however, follows a different set of rules.

"From a neuroscience perspective, we know that the brain keeps growing and developing," said Adriana Galván, associate professor of psychology at UCLA and director of the UCLA Developmental Neuroscience Lab. "Current literature suggests that it's around age 25 or so when the brain finishes the period of adolescence."

It's not that the brain stops changing - every time we learn something new, our brain changes - but by around 25, our brain has finished its long process of structural development. For teens, not only is the brain still very much in development, but different regions of the brain are changing at different rates, with important consequences.

"What that means is the regions in these different parts of the brain keep refining themselves," said Galván. "In particular, there's greater activation in emotion centers deep in the brain, and there's also continued development of the prefrontal cortex, which is found right above the eyes."

The prefrontal cortex is what allows us to think about the future, to understand consequences, and generally make better decisions. Not surprisingly, the prefrontal cortex of teens still has a lot of work to do to grow into adulthood.

One way to think about it is that brain has two sides, an impulsive side, and a cautious side, that balance one another.

Before we reach adulthood, the impulsive side of the brain is charging ahead, while the cautious side of the brain is still playing catchup. The result is a teenager.

"The analogy is that these two are kind of going head-to-head. And then eventually, as individuals become adults, the prefrontal cortex will win out, and have more influence over behavior than the impulsive part of the brain," said Galván.

During our teenage years, the limbic system develops quickly and the prefrontal cortex is trying to catch up. Eventually it does and is able to exert more influence over our behavior.
Source: Casey et al, 2008

The game of risk

The delayed development of the prefrontal cortex might not be a simple side-effect of human development. Teen behaviors that grownups often dismiss as mere annoyances are actually adaptive traits that help teens learn and succeed, Galván and others have found.

Teenage behaviors aren't unique to humans: adolescent chimpanzees, for example, begin courtship behaviors, play less, and increase their grooming of other, among other changes.

While some teens can appear chimp-like at times, humans have their own unique set of adolescent behaviors, including increased risk-taking and the onset of powerful emotions that weren't present in childhood.

"Risky behavior, regardless of what the risk is, taps into the very same neural regions that process reward," explained Galván. "So when you experience a risk in a positive way, the brain activation is the same as if you experienced a reward."

The brain's reward center, the striatum, is activated when you experience a reward (like a cookie).

Galván's research has found that not only are teens more sensitive to rewards than adults, this makes them better learners.

"Compared to adults, adolescents have more [reward center] activation when they're learning a new task, and this greater activation helps them learn from the environment in a more adaptive and efficient way than the adults," said Galván. "It's kind of a surprising result."

Compared to children and adults, teens show greater levels of activation in the brain's reward center.

High emotions may also benefit teens in ways that even the teens themselves likely don't appreciate.

"There is probably an evolutionary reason for why teenagers are more emotional. One reason is that emotions help us connect with other people," said Galván. "Emotions also serve as an important learning tool. When you feel a particular emotion, you're more likely to remember the event."

If something negative happens, the emotions you experience will help you steer clear of those events in the future. Positive emotions will reinforce a behavior, making you more likely to repeat it.

If Galván could bust one myth about teenagers, it's that teenagers should be quieted down until adulthood.

"The idea that the adolescent years don't serve a purpose other than annoying parents or hanging out with friends, is, I think, misguided," said Galván. "All of the experiences that happen during adolescence are important for the individual's growth."

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The evolutionary advantage of the teenage brain

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Research is showing that the behaviors of teenagers aren't just there to annoy parents. They serve a real evolutionary purpose.

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Why the early years count

​In the first years of a child's life, their brain development will create the foundations for all learning and development later in life. While genetics provide the initial 'map' for development, it is everyday experiences and relationships that shape a child's brain.

A baby's brain begins developing before birth and, in the early years, significant 'wiring' occurs within the brain, effectively programming the child's development. Between 2 to 6 months a baby will learn about emotions through watching how you react to them when they coo, cry, smile or yell.

Making important connections

In the first 9 months, a baby's brain is forming connections between what they see, hear, taste and feel.

From 9 months to 12 months, a baby will become increasingly vocal, as their understanding of emotions develops.

By the age of 3, a child has around 1,000 trillion brain connections (synapses), the most they will ever have in their life, as these are 'pruned' in later development.

These initial brain connections are formed as a result of the everyday experiences, relationships and care a child receives in their early years, and will provide the foundations for further brain development later in life.

What you can do

Parents, caregivers and family members play an important role in the ongoing development of a child. Providing a safe and caring environment for your child and engaging with them through talking, reading and playtime has a great influence on their early development.

Community and learning environments can also play a key role in supporting optimal development through providing support, learning opportunities and social experiences.

Brain development from birth

Essential brain development occurs in the first years of a child's life. When you look at the years in which the main brain development is made and the effect this development has in schooling and later years, the importance of positive experiences in the early years is clear.

As a parent or guardian, you can support your child's early development by providing a safe and nurturing environment with learning opportunities and minimal stress.

Ante-natal

Your child's brain has already started developing. All 5 senses begin to function before birth. During this time, prenatal sensory experiences help shape the brain and nervous system.

2-6 months

Significant 'wiring' of the brain occurs in the first years of a child's life and your baby's brain is developing as a result of the experiences and relationships they are exposed to each day. Babies learn emotions through observing their parents and caregivers, and how they react to various movements and sounds such as crying, yelling, smiling and cooing.

6-9 months

By 9 months your child's brain has already undergone a rapid growth spurt that helps form connections between what they see, hear, feel and taste. Playtime and interactions with parents and family members provides key learning opportunities for early development.

3 years

By 3 years of age a child's brain has around 1,000 trillion brain connections (synapses). The early years are a rapid period of brain development which can be fostered by positive relationships with parents and optimal community environments for families and children. Engaging with your child and providing a safe environment and physical care to your child has a significant impact on your child's development.

3-5 years

By school, a child's brain development is built upon the now solid foundation created in the first 5 years. It is more difficult for children to take advantage of learning environments, such as school, if they have not had optimal early learning experiences or a nurturing home environment.

Adolescence

When adolescence is reached, brain synapses will number around 500 trillion, a figure that remains relatively steady into adulthood. The brain development prioritises the connections used most often, resulting in 'pruning' of the brain networks and circuits.

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kindy; early childhood; brain development

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​In the first years of a child's life, their brain development will create the foundations for all learning and development later in life. While genetics provide the initial 'map' for development, it is everyday experiences and relationships that shape a child's brain.

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Brain Development

The brain grows at an amazing rate during development. At times during brain development, 250,000 neurons are added every minute! The brain continues to grow for a few years after a person is born. The brain reaches about 80% of its adult size when a person is about 2 years old.

You may wonder, "How does the brain continue to grow, if the brain has most of the neurons it will get when you are born?". The answer is in glial cells. Glia continues to divide and multiply. Glia carries out many important functions for normal brain function including insulating nerve cells with myelin. The neurons in the brain also make many new connections after birth.

The Brain During Development

The nervous system develops from embryonic tissue called the ectoderm. The first sign of the developing nervous system is the neural plate that can be seen at about the 16th day of development. Over the next few days, a "trench" is formed in the neural plate - this creates a neural groove. By the 21st day of development, a neural tube is formed when the edges of the neural groove meet. The rostral (front) part of the neural tubes goes on to develop into the brain and the rest of the neural tube develops into the spinal cord. Neural crest cells become the peripheral nervous system.

At the front end of the neural tube, three major brain areas are formed: the prosencephalon (forebrain), mesencepalon (midbrain) and rhombencephalon (hindbrain). By the 7th week of development, these three areas divide again. This process is called encephalization.

Average brain weights (BW)

AGE          BW - Male (grams)   BW - Female (grams)
--------     -----------------   -----------------
Newborn           380                  360
1 year            970                  940
2 years         1,120                1,040
3 years         1,270                1,090
10-12 years     1,440                1,260
19-21 years     1,450                1,310
56-60 years     1,370                1,250
81-85 years     1,310                1,170

(Data from Dekaban, A.S. and Sadowsky, D., Changes in brain weights during the span of human life: relation of brain weights to body heights and body weights, Ann. Neurology, 4:345-356, 1978)

Brain Weight

The top graph on the left shows the brain weights of males and females at different ages. The bottom graph shows the brain weight to total body weight ratio (expressed as a percentage). The adult brain makes up about 2% of the total body weight.
(Data from Dekaban, A.S. and Sadowsky, D., Changes in brain weights during the span of human life: relation of brain weights to body heights and body weights, Ann. Neurology, 4:345-356, 1978)

DID YOU KNOW? Touch is the first sense to develop. The developing fetus responds to touch of the lips and cheeks by 8 weeks and to other parts of its body at 14 week. The sense of taste may develop by 12 weeks and that of sound at 22-24 weeks. (Reference: Hepper, P., "Unraveling our beginnings", The Psychologist, 18:474-477, 2005.)

More about Brain Development

Copyright © 1996-2015, Eric H. Chudler, University of Washington

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The brain grows at an amazing rate during development. At times during brain development, 250,000 neurons are added every minute! The brain continues to grow for a few years after a person is born. The brain reaches about 80% of its adult size when a person is about 2 years old.

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Cerebro: del año 0 al año 20 (I) | El Cedazo

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Here is a chart that summarizes the stages of development from "Newborn" to "Five".
Parents should take into consideration how mobile the child becomes as it ages, and take precautions. They need to child proof their house, especially at the mobile toddler age.

Child, as you might have noticed in the stages of development picture, go through many growing phases. Here are a couple of stages that you should also keep in mind while you are raising a child.

The Sensorimotor Stage:
This stage lasts from birth to two years of age. This is when the child uses its senses and motor skills to explore and learn the environment around them. They also begin to copy words and noises.

Pre-operational Period:
This stage spans from age two to seven. They are very egocentric at this age. The child begins to use words in the right context and they begin to form proper sentences. Along with that, their memory begins to develop, and they begin to use their imagination more often. Even though they can form sentences, they have not developed enough to use logically thinking, so be prepared to teach them the differences from right and wrong.

Concrete Operations Period:
This stage lasts from age seven to eleven. They begin to understand simple math skills, cause and effect principles, and understands concrete theories. They skill have difficulties with abstract thinking, and need to be encouraged to think outside of the box.

Formal Operations:
From ages eleven to fifteen. The child begins to fully understand their actions and their consequences of their actions. They also think about reason, become more logical, and understand abstract thinking. They begin to question themselves often and will try to figure things out for themselves before they come to a parent for help.
Frequency Asked Questions: Question: Why do children go through stages like these?
Answer: Because of the development that their brain undergoes as they age.These stages are the natural processes that the body and brain goes through to reach maturity.
The Brain does a lot of maturing as the child grows older. In fact, the brain doesn't reach full size until the mid twenties. And even so, boys and girls have different rates of reaching maturity (boys in the twenties, girls in their teen years). It all depends on the nature of the child and how they are raised.

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Here is a chart that summarizes the stages of development from "Newborn" to "Five". Parents should take into consideration how mobile the child becomes as it ages, and take precautions. They need to child proof their house, especially at the mobile toddler age.

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Nov 14, 2017 - What you choose to put in your body will affect your child for the rest of their life. Here are 5 best ways to improve your baby’s brain during pregnancy.

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National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)

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¿Sabía que hay cambios grandes e importantes que ocurren en el cerebro durante la adolescencia? A continuación, le indicamos 7 cosas que usted debe saber sobre el cerebro de los adolescentes:

1. La adolescencia es un período importante para el desarrollo del cerebro.

Aunque el cerebro alcanza su mayor tamaño en la adolescencia temprana, los años de la adolescencia sirven para afinar su funcionamiento. El cerebro termina de desarrollarse y de madurar entre los 25 y los 30 años. La parte del cerebro detrás de la frente, que se llama corteza prefrontal, es una de las últimas partes en madurar. Esta área es responsable de habilidades como planificar, establecer prioridades y tomar buenas decisiones.

2. El desarrollo del cerebro está relacionado con las experiencias sociales durante la adolescencia.

Los cambios en las áreas del cerebro que son responsables de los procesos sociales pueden hacer que los adolescentes se concentren más en las relaciones con los compañeros y las experiencias sociales. El énfasis en las relaciones con los compañeros, junto con el desarrollo continuo de la corteza prefrontal, podría ocasionar que los jóvenes corran más riesgos, ya que para ellos los beneficios sociales superan las posibles consecuencias de una decisión. Estos riesgos pueden ser negativos o peligrosos, o pueden ser positivos, como hablar con un nuevo compañero de clase, unirse a un nuevo club o practicar un nuevo deporte.

3. El cerebro adolescente está listo para aprender y adaptarse.

El cerebro adolescente tiene una capacidad asombrosa para adaptarse y responder a nuevas experiencias y situaciones. Tomar clases desafiantes, hacer ejercicio y participar en actividades creativas, como el arte o la música, pueden fortalecer los circuitos cerebrales y ayudar al cerebro a madurar.

4. El cerebro adolescente puede responder de manera diferente al estrés.

Debido a que el cerebro de los adolescentes aún se está desarrollando, ellos pueden responder al estrés de manera diferente a los adultos. Esto podría aumentar la posibilidad de que los adolescentes desarrollen enfermedades mentales relacionadas con el estrés, como la ansiedad y la depresión. Reconocer los posibles factores desencadenantes y practicar técnicas eficaces de afrontamiento puede ayudar a los adolescentes a sobrellevar el estrés. Encuentre más información sobre el control del estrés.

5. La mayoría de los adolescentes no duermen lo suficiente.

Diversas investigaciones muestran que la hormona del sueño llamada melatonina funciona de forma diferente en los adolescentes que en los niños y los adultos. En la adolescencia, los niveles de melatonina permanecen altos hasta más tarde en la noche y no bajan sino hasta más tarde en la mañana, lo que puede explicar por qué los adolescentes pueden quedarse despiertos hasta tarde y tener dificultades para despertarse temprano. Muchos adolescentes no duermen lo suficiente, lo que les dificulta prestar atención, controlar sus impulsos y desempeñarse bien en la escuela. Dormir bien por la noche puede ayudar a la salud mental.

6. Las enfermedades mentales pueden comenzar a aparecer durante la adolescencia.

Los cambios continuos en el cerebro, junto con los cambios físicos, emocionales y sociales, pueden hacer que los adolescentes sean más propensos a tener problemas de salud mental. El hecho de que todos estos cambios ocurren al mismo tiempo puede explicar por qué muchas enfermedades mentales, como la esquizofrenia, la ansiedad, la depresión, el trastorno bipolar y los trastornos alimentarios, surgen durante la adolescencia.

7. El cerebro de los adolescentes es resistente.

Aunque la adolescencia es una etapa vulnerable para el cerebro y para los adolescentes en general, la mayoría de los adolescentes crecen y llegan a ser adultos sanos. Ciertos cambios en el cerebro durante esta fase tan importante del desarrollo podrían realmente ayudarles a protegerse contra trastornos mentales a largo plazo.

Cómo encontrar ayuda

Si usted o alguien que conoce tiene una enfermedad mental, dificultades emocionales o está preocupado por su salud mental, hay maneras de obtener ayuda. Obtenga más información sobre dónde puede encontrar ayuda.

Una buena comunicación entre usted y el médico u otro proveedor de atención médica de su hijo puede mejorar los cuidados que recibe y ayudar a ambos a tomar decisiones adecuadas sobre su salud. Encuentre consejos que le ayudarán a preparase para su consulta y aprovecharla al máximo.

Si usted o alguien que conoce está pasando dificultades o tiene pensamientos suicidas, llame en español o en inglés al 988, la Línea de Prevención del Suicidio y Crisis . Si habla inglés, también puede enviar un mensaje de texto al 988 o puede chatear en 988lifeline.org . En situaciones potencialmente mortales, llame al 911.

Departamento de Salud y Servicios Humanos de los Estados Unidos
Institutos Nacionales de la Salud
Publicación de NIH Núm. 23-MH-8078S
Revisada en 2023

Reproducciones

La información en esta publicación es de dominio público y se puede reutilizar y copiar sin necesidad de pedir permiso. Sin embargo, no puede reutilizar o copiar las imágenes. Por favor cite al Instituto Nacional de la Salud Mental como la fuente. Para obtener más información sobre el uso de las publicaciones del NIMH, consulte las pautas del NIMH para reproducir sus materiales.

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El cerebro de los adolescentes: 7 cosas que usted debe saber

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Esta hoja informativa describe cómo el cerebro de los adolescentes crece, madura y se adapta al mundo. También presenta información sobre la resistencia del cerebro adolescente, la susceptibilidad al estrés, los problemas de salud mental y los patrones de sueño en los adolescentes.