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»Knowledge is power» - a well known quote by Francis Bacon. Yet, sometimes the morally right choice is to give up on information, in order to protect something bigger. But what is the case with the exploration of marine resources in the medical field?

We believe that it is a risk that should be taken. The medical benefits of marine biodiversity are already proven and have much yet to develope. Several compounds are proven to have antibacterial effect which is of great importance, since bacterial infections are a leading cause of death in the underdeveloped countries. Moreover, marine bioactives have demonstrated the qualities of anticancer compounds. The ocean´s biodiversity has given us hopes for possibly finding a drug to deal with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). To summarise, marine species have been proven to have antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, anti-obesity and sleep-enhancing properties.

Still there is a negative side which should not be overlooked. Harvesting marine resources can have a bad impact on the environment if it isn´t done in a sustainable way. One must be careful of exploiting the ocean´s biodiversity, which is always a problem for humanity, as experience has already shown us. Moreover, the production of organisms is dependant on the environment so it can not be relied on.

Although we looked at both sides of the problem, we still believe that marine resources could be a key to a big health revolution and should be explored. Even though there might be bad consequences for the nature, it is not morally right to ignore the opportunity to cure such serious sicknesses. The potential to save countless human lives, now and in the future, must be taken into consideration.

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Um vídeo da NOAA Ocean Today que explora de onde vêm os medicamentos, como os antibióticos, e o potencial do oceano.

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Explore oil and natural gas offshore. Yes or no?

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Explore oil and natural gas offshore. Yes or no?

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Exploration of oils and natural gases offshore

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Advantages of ocean resources for medical purposes

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Advantages of ocean resources for medical purposes

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Marine pharmacology offers a spectacular opportunity to discover the next generation of medicines, taking advantage of the vast and unique chemical diversity of oceanic life.

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✉Address for correspondence: Dr. Harshad Malve, E-mail: dr.harshad.malvegmail.com

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Exploring the ocean for new drug developments: Marine pharmacology

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Disease ailments are changing the patterns, and the new diseases are emerging due to changing environments. The enormous growth of world population has overburdened the existing resources for the drugs. And hence, the drug manufacturers are always…

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Examples of medicines that come from the sea

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Examples of medicines that come from the sea

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Some examples:

Ecteinascidin;

Discodermalide;

Bryostatin;

Pseudopterosins;

w-conotoxin MVIIA.

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Do medicines come from the sea? - NOAA Ocean Exploration

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Yes; while most drugs derived from natural sources currently come from terrestrial (land-based) organisms, research suggests that the ocean, with its amazing biodiversity and large number of yet-undiscovered species, may be a rich source for new medicines.

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Be aware of the potential risks involved in marine resource extraction and development. For example, methane hydrate extraction poses environmental risks that need to be carefully considered and mitigated.

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Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada

School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States

Conservation Biology Division, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Seattle, WA, United States

School of Marine and Environmental Affairs, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States

WorldFish, Penang, Malaysia

Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada

Daniel J. Evans School of Public Policy and Governance, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States

Resource Ecology and Fisheries Management Division, Alaska Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Seattle, WA, United States

School of Environmental and Forest Sciences, The Nature Conservancy, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States

Washington Sea Grant, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States

With the anticipated boom in the 'blue economy' and associated increases in industrialization across the world's oceans, new and complex risks are being introduced to ocean ecosystems. As a result, conservation and resource management increasingly look to factor in potential interactions among the social, ecological and economic components of these systems. Investigation of these interactions requires interdisciplinary frameworks that incorporate methods and insights from across the social and biophysical sciences. Risk assessment methods, which have been developed across numerous disciplines and applied to various real-world settings and problems, provide a unique connection point for cross-disciplinary engagement. However, research on risk is often conducted in distinct spheres by experts whose focus is on narrow sources or outcomes of risk. Movement toward a more integrated treatment of risk to ensure a balanced approach to developing and managing ocean resources requires cross-disciplinary engagement and understanding. Here, we provide a primer on risk assessment intended to encourage the development and implementation of integrated risk assessment processes in the emerging blue economy. First, we summarize the dominant framework for risk in the ecological/biophysical sciences. Then, we discuss six key insights from the long history of risk research in the social sciences that can inform integrated assessments of risk: (1) consider the subjective nature of risk, (2) understand individual social and cultural influences on risk perceptions, (3) include diverse expertise, (4) consider the social scales of analysis, (5) incorporate quantitative and qualitative approaches, and (6) understand interactions and feedbacks within systems. Finally, we show how these insights can be incorporated into risk assessment and management, and apply them to a case study of whale entanglements in fishing gear off the United States west coast.

Introduction

Risk is a boundary concept with established roots across social and biophysical sciences ( Renn, 1998), and is a focal component of decision support for EBM ( Burgman, 1993; Levin et al., 2009). Risk research has been applied across an incredibly diverse set of disciplines from medicine, behavioral psychology, ecology, public health, business, economics and many more. Specifically, "[r]isk refers to uncertainty about and severity of the consequences (or outcomes) of an activity [or decision] with respect to something that humans value" ( Aven and Renn, 2009, p. 2). Risk analyses include measurements of both losses and gains, as well as sensitivity and uncertainty in outcomes ( Fischhoff et al., 1984; Aven and Renn, 2009; Mahmoudi et al., 2013). Given the magnitude of uncertainty in ecosystem responses, risk analyses are ideally suited for EBM ( Carpenter, 1995; Aven and Renn, 2009). Thus, risk frameworks have the potential to serve as a unifying concept and bring disciplines together.

In addition to a lack of cross-pollination among disciplines on the topic of risk assessment, within ecological research there is substantial variability with use of the term "risk" in terms of scope and the level of connection to management outcomes. In an informal review of the literature, we found that across 20 recent publications (including our own) the term "risk" was used quite variably. Some authors used it to mean general threat, i.e., evaluating the risks to the ecosystem rather than linking risk to the delivery or maintenance of an outcome or some valued state, while others used the term risk to mean vulnerability, i.e., what is the expected impact, or probability, of a current or future threat. Finally, relatively few factored in the social components and perspectives on risk, or implicitly linked risk assessment to the broader risk management framework that considers risk to other parts of the system.

As a group of multi-disciplinary collaborators who have employed risk assessments ourselves, we have each come to understand that a broader, more holistic and integrated understanding of risk and risk assessment could improve our work individually and collectively. We thus identify and present insights that aim to move EBM scientists and practitioners toward this deeper understanding. Our hope is that, moving forward, when practitioners and researchers implement risk frameworks, a more complete picture of the system will emerge, enabling the enactment of the calls for social justice and inclusion in oceans management ( Bennett, 2018; Cohen et al., 2019). We envision increased collaboration such that biophysical and social scientists jointly conduct connected risk assessments that are useful in decision-making. The paper is organized in three parts. First is a brief review of risk assessment in the peer-reviewed ecological literature. Building on this, we review insights from the social sciences that can be leveraged to achieve a more holistic understanding of the broader risk context when conducting a risk assessment. Finally, to put these insights into context, using a case study we characterize how they pertain to an ongoing management challenge regarding whale entanglements in fishing gear along the United States west coast.

What is Ecological Risk Assessment, How is it Used and How is it Conducted?

Ecological risk assessment (ERA) has its roots in hazard and disaster management ( Adger, 2006) and eco-toxicological hazard and risk ( De Lange et al., 2010), and has been applied to a wide range of contexts for populations, species and ecosystems ( Adger, 2006; Astles et al., 2006; Teck et al., 2010; Chen et al., 2013; Fletcher, 2014). Much of the research on ERA developed as a result of legislation requiring risk assessment as part of environmental policy and management processes. In the United States the passing of the National Environmental Policy Act ( NEPA, 1969) established the requirement for risk assessment. In 1983 the National Research Council published the Red Book, Risk Assessment in the Federal Government ( NRC, 1983; Hoffmann, 2011) followed by several additional guidance documents, including Understanding Risk ( NRC, 1996), the more recent Silver Book, Science and Decisions; Advancing Risk Assessment in 2009 ( NRC, 2009) and US EPA guidance (e.g., United States, Environmental Protection Agency, 2010). Beyond the United States, ERA has been applied in a diversity of global contexts. Risk assessment guidelines have been developed by many nations for managing natural resources or at minimum ensuring safe management strategies [e.g., South Africa ( Claassen et al., 2001), India ( Ministry of Environment Forst and Climate Change, 2016), Philippines ( Environmental Management Bureau, 2007)] and their implementation is often supported by international organizations, such as the United Nations. This highlights that although ocean-focused risk assessment may not be broadly used, elements of this process are already employed in countries across the globe, which we hope will help to enable further adoption of these processes in the context of the blue economy.

Risk assessment, in turn, is a component in a larger process termed risk management. That process is made up of a series of steps, including communication, consultation, monitoring and review that is common to many decision-making processes ( Figure 1; ISO, 2009). Importantly, risk management first establishes the context for risk assessment. That is, knowledge of the relevant threats, states of nature and social circumstances that are preferred or to be avoided, the management context and the scale (individual, community, local, regional) are critical before proceeding with assessment. Once this context is established, risk assessment quantifies the consequences of exposure of individuals or populations to hazards ( Burgman, 2005). The products of a risk assessment are then used for weighing policy and management alternatives and selecting the most appropriate regulatory action ( Jasanoff, 1987). Essential to this process is that outputs are defined and generated in a way that is useful to decision makers ( Kienast et al., 1998).

Figure 1. Adapted from ISO Risk Assessment Standards ( ISO, 2009), the traditional risk management framework. Text in italics has been added, and refers to the ways in which changes to this traditional process incorporate the insights from this work.

Current risk assessment methods range from those that are qualitative ( Astles et al., 2006; Fletcher, 2014), to those that are highly quantitative ( Zhou and Griffiths, 2008; Chen et al., 2013) but applied to questions of limited scope, to finally those that integrate qualitative and quantitative knowledge to achieve an interdisciplinary characterization of risk ( Cullen and Small, 2003). Each of these is applicable in different contexts (see methods reviewed in Barnthouse, 1992; Burgman, 1993; Dale et al., 2008; Hobday et al., 2011; Chen et al., 2013; Suter, 2016). There is thus no single "correct" approach, but rather the breadth and type of information used will depend on a decision or management context external to the risk assessment.

Ecological risk assessment can be a stand-alone product, or increasingly, can be linked to broader socioeconomic considerations as a move toward social-ERA. This integrated approach is a core tenet of management in the era of the blue economy ( Klinger et al., 2018), yet multi-faceted approaches have yet to be developed and adopted ( Link et al., 2018). Some have argued that monetizing ecological benefits, e.g., by expressing them in the consistent unit of dollars, makes it possible to quantify trade-offs between economic and ecological considerations ( Chan et al., 2012; Fischer et al., 2016). Broader use of combined approaches include ecosystem services ( Chan et al., 2012), using ecological and economic objectives in decision frameworks ( Cullen et al., 2007; Fischer et al., 2016) and factoring human behavior into scenario analyses ( Wilen et al., 2002; van Putten et al., 2012). However, some economists have argued that economic considerations are frequently relegated to the cost-benefit factors used in decision-making, post hoc and separate from risk assessment ( Williams and Thompson, 2004; Hoffmann, 2011).

Improving Ecological Risk Assessment by Adopting Insights from Social Risk Research

While most practicing ecologists do research that could be useful for management and decision-making, fewer conduct work for the direct purpose of guiding a particular decision. We argue that engaging in risk research that recognizes the multiple dimensions of management systems (including both the ecological and social) will ensure that outputs are more likely to be used. Moving beyond an ecological focus requires consideration of social dimensions such as: social connections to the environment, including hunting and fishing, ceremonial use of species, subsistence harvests and sense of place ( Satterfield et al., 2011); economic factors, such as revenue variability and income diversification ( Kasperski and Holland, 2013) and dependence on natural resources ( Jacob et al., 2010); physical and psychological well-being ( Pfeiffer and Gratz, 2016); and legal considerations ( Kelly et al., 2017). This broader consideration does not require new risk management frameworks, as many already exist, including the ISO risk management loop ( Figure 1; ISO, 2009), the Red Book risk management approach ( NRC, 1983), iterative management procedures ( Kates and Kasperson, 1983) and adaptive management cycles ( Essington et al., 2016; Kaplan-Hallam and Bennett, 2017). Rather, it requires the incorporation of systems thinking and intentional efforts to achieve interdisciplinary collaboration ( Holsman et al., 2017).

Below, we identify and characterize six key insights from risk research in the social and interdisciplinary sciences that could be applied in an ocean resource management context and would be useful for researchers and practitioners with a diversity of backgrounds ( Figure 2). We have integrated these insights into the adapted ISO risk assessment process shown in Figure 1.

Figure 2. Fundamentals for an integrated approach to risk assessment, our six insights and how to begin to account for them.

Subjectivity Underlies Decision-Making

Many scientists are often taught to view their work as a "value-free" endeavor through which they conduct objective measurement and analysis. This leads to the impression that ERA is itself value-free ( Douglas, 2000), and the belief that scientists conducting risk assessments can determine the 'true' risk associated with an action ( Fischhoff et al., 1984; Hermansson, 2012). This belief is not entirely untrue. Many risk outcomes are objective, for example, it is a fact that harvesting fish kills them and has the potential to put fish populations at risk of decline. Nevertheless, determining which outcomes to assess as potentially harmful is necessarily subjective. As scientists we make decisions in the research process (such as level of statistical significance), often based on expertise, past evidence and disciplinary norms, but these also have subjective influences. As noted in the Silver Book ( NRC, 2009), choices at different decision points can shape the prediction of risk and the credibility of risk assessments.

In contrast, social science-informed approaches acknowledge that risk assessment is not a value-free endeavor ( Fischhoff, 1995; Renn, 2008). Many social sciences acknowledge subjectivity with an understanding that information is filtered through one's personal and cultural perspective ( Hermansson, 2012; Renn and Benighaus, 2013) and across types and levels of expertise ( Barke and Jenkins-Smith, 1993; Bostrom, 1997). Risk judgments - including the selection of endpoints to observe in a risk assessment - are demonstrably influenced by additional factors, such as who has control over the risk and the potential for catastrophic outcomes ( Barke and Jenkins-Smith, 1993; Slovic, 2000). The risk judgments and subjectivities of scientists and decision makers become topics of research and risk evaluation. Here, we provide some insights into research in the social risk sciences that can help in the integrated risk assessment process to understand where human perceptions, preferences and reactions may come from.

Even among experts, cognitive biases can influence risk perception, which in turn can influence the conduct of risk assessments ( Kahneman and Tversky, 1979; Renn, 1998, 2008). These cognitive biases are now fairly well-recognized ( Kahneman and Tversky, 1979), and include availability bias (events that come more easily to mind are thought to be more probable), anchoring bias (previously received information influences perception of subsequent information); representativeness bias (assuming that events experienced by an observer are representative of all related events); and finally a collection of biases that together allow individuals to avoid cognitive dissonance (where information that challenges one's belief system is down-played). These personal biases play a role both within the assessment process itself, as well as the context setting and use of information that is derived from these assessments. For example, Wilholt (2009) discusses multiple examples within biomedical research of biases influencing experimental designs all the way through to results interpretations. Perhaps the simplest bias that most researchers know of is "publication bias" ( Wilholt, 2009); our tendency to publish only significant results biases our resulting understanding of potential risks from a particular activity or decision. There is therefore an opportunity to improve risk assessment outputs by both being aware of personal biases and anticipating the way that information will be perceived by decision makers.

Risk assessment ultimately requires subjective judgments ( NRC, 1983, 1996). Conducting any scientific analysis requires framing the problem and choosing the methods and unit of analysis, which are to some extent subjective choices; such decisions are also required in technical risk assessments ( Douglas, 2000). Although researchers are trained to remove personal bias from their work, recognizing where personal perspectives and preferences enter into risk assessment can help reconcile the assessments of those with diverse training and backgrounds across the sciences. Failure to recognize the inherent subjectivity in ERA means, minimally, that an individual's work will ultimately be less useful in practice because information is not presented in a way that aligns with the way the people receive and process information. At worst, failing to recognize these biases leads to misdirected guidance because the values that underlie even seemingly subtle decisions are not highlighted. Risk assessments are stronger when scientists simply acknowledge where subjectivity has played a role and provide justifications behind associated decisions.

Individual and Cultural Influences Inform Our Risk Perceptions and Preferences

Loss aversion plays out in our interpretation of different options which might be placed before us and even at times in the metrics used for identifying possible courses of action. For example, in fisheries management, metrics of risk may entirely focus on risk to livelihoods of fishers or communities ( Essington et al., 2018), where these may be communities writ large, or specific communities or sectors. Alternatively, metrics may focus on ecological endpoints intended to reduce risk to fish populations ( Hobday et al., 2011) or may consider both simultaneously ( Siple et al., 2019). To ensure a comprehensive set of metrics requires a careful process of context setting in the risk management process and inclusion of a diversity of stakeholders (see insight 3).

Integrated Analysis Requires Engaging Multiple Social and Ecological Dimensions Through Interdisciplinary Teams

It has been our experience that these risk assessment processes are intended to engage and incorporate diverse teams and expertise, but in reality, this is most often not the case. For example, it is often a single person who is brought in to represent an entire diversity of social science disciplines, whereas biophysical scientists are well-represented in the process. This is partly because within many government agencies, there is inadequate social science capacity. For example, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Marine Fisheries Service in the United States is the organization responsible for Integrated Ecosystem Assessments, which factor in social dimensions and use risk assessment as a framework. Yet, currently ca. <1% of employees are non-economic social scientists. In addition, while there may be interest in interdisciplinary views from the decision maker, they may ultimately implicitly rank particular elements higher than others. These issues can be addressed by intentionally balancing representation of disciplines and stakeholders on risk assessment teams ( Figure 2) and working to achieve consensus on the most appropriate way to rank risks.

Decisions Made During the Risk Assessment Process Influence Risk Management Outcomes; Bounding the Scale and Selecting the Unit of Analysis Can Influence How Risks Are Assessed and Interpreted

Experiences and realizations of risks vary and are distributed across space and time ( Boer et al., 1997; Shapiro, 2005; Cullen and Anderson, 2016; Hodgson et al., 2016). Furthermore, management decisions do not impact all groups in the same manner ( Checker, 2007). Populations can be more or less vulnerable due to different socio-cultural, economic, or political factors ( Arquette et al., 2002; Cutter et al., 2003; Allison et al., 2009). For example, climate change can differentially and inequitably affect some socioeconomic and ethnic groups and genders ( Ajibade et al., 2013; Cullen and Anderson, 2016; Davies et al., 2018). Frequently, risk assessments rely on statistics based on majority populations - such as results from males alone, or particular socioeconomic communities - or averages across groups ( Hermansson, 2012). These majority and aggregated metrics may obfuscate the fact that some individuals and communities are at higher risk.

Addressing this challenge requires awareness of how the selection of bounds and units (e.g., individuals, landscapes) and scale(s) of analysis (e.g., spatial, temporal, organizational) may influence outcomes. Units in social systems range from individuals, to households, to industrial sectors, to communities (of place or of practice, defined by social activities) and to political jurisdictions. When considering metrics, it is vital to address how risk is distributed among units and across scales of analysis. Using multiple units of analysis is one approach to addressing this concern. For example, it has long been recognized that within fisheries management different approaches may benefit or disadvantage particular groups ( Guyader and Thébaud, 2001), such that small-scale fishers may be disadvantaged by approaches such as individual-transferable quotas as compared to large scale producers. While this is not necessarily always the case ( Brandt, 2005), small scale fishers are a prime example of a user group that needs to be factored in decision-making as we face a time with increasing competition between ocean uses, and large asymmetries of power between those users and their ability to mobilize knowledge (including risk assessments) to advance their case for use of ocean and coastal space ( Cohen et al., 2019).

Integrate Qualitative Elements With Quantifiable Metrics to Enrich Risk Assessments

One example approach to risk assessment within the social sciences is social impact assessment ( Vanclay, 2003; Mahmoudi et al., 2013). Social impact assessment "is [the process of] analyzing, monitoring and managing the social consequences of development" ( Vanclay, 2003). Social impact assessments can involve narrative, explanatory and interpretive elements with both qualitative and quantitative approaches. One of the goals is to understand socioeconomic risks - such as impacts to employment, household income and infrastructure - from a management decision, which are defined by what individuals perceive as risks. Social impacts can be diverse; individuals may be concerned about their well-being, inclusion in decision-making, property rights and/or their culture ( Vanclay, 2003; Biedenweg et al., 2016; Bennett et al., 2017; Kaplan-Hallam and Bennett, 2017). Assessing risk to the social parts of social-ecological systems will be aided by engaging with those implicated in the risk identification and assessment processes.

Complementing quantitative analyses with qualitative analyses can build more robust understandings of risk, including how impacts of risk vary, as well as what is at stake for whom, why it matters and what priority actions are possible for responding ( Bennett et al., 2016; Charnley et al., 2017). Qualitative research is generally viewed as useful for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to systems and risks ( Creswell, 2014), whereas at the most basic level, quantitative research is more often used to assess covariation and model fit ( Gerring, 2017). Tools that can factor in both quantitative and qualitative elements provide one approach to joining them. Many social and interdisciplinary scientists employ mixed methods, using both qualitative and quantitative elements (see Parker and Kozel, 2007; Creswell, 2014) and multi-criteria decision analysis ( Mendoza and Martins, 2006). Qualitative and mixed methods approaches can afford a broader perspective on risk and risk assessment.

Feedbacks Can Occur Between and Within the Biophysical and Social Parts of the System

Social-ecological systems are complex and interconnected, and consequently unexpected feedbacks can result from changes within the system ( Liu et al., 2007; Horan et al., 2011; Holsman et al., 2017; Tekwa et al., 2019). Unintended interactions can occur when management decisions do not account for social responses to an ecological problem, and vice versa, if they do not consider ecological changes that result from social processes ( Horan et al., 2011; Tekwa et al., 2019). For example, wildlife conservation can bring attention to a species of concern which may result in increased demand for the species in trade ( Larrosa et al., 2016).

Three types of social feedbacks can influence social-ecological systems, but are infrequently included in ERAs: stabilizing, amplifying, and adapting ( Kaplan-Hallam et al., 2017). Stabilizing feedbacks occur when the management decision made results in a mitigation of undesired outcomes. Amplification results from the filtering of risk assessment and communication through social structures (individuals, communities, and institutions) whereby responses of those structures can contribute to exacerbating consequences ( Cullen and Small, 2003; Pidgeon et al., 2003). These reactions and amplifying feedbacks within social structures can have disproportionately large consequences for both the social and ecological parts of the system. For example, this may occur when fear of a potential impact leads to behavioral changes with a negative feedback on the economy; for example, fear of the marine microorganism Pfiesteria led to reduced fish consumption, with multimillion dollar economic consequences ( Kempton and Falk, 2000). In this way, the process of identifying risks can lead to further societal changes ( Kasperson et al., 1988). Kaplan-Hallam et al. (2017) describe adaptive feedbacks as those that result in a desired change. Accounting for feedbacks is part of ongoing management and iterative assessment cycles ( Figure 2).

Leveraging Interdisciplinary Integrative Risk Assessment: The Example of Whale Entanglements in Fishing Gear in California

In this concluding section, we explore the recent management challenge of whale entanglements in fishing gear on the United States west coast, an example of conflicts in an increasingly crowded ocean. Both whale watching and crab-fishing are significant elements of California's 'blue economy.' This case study is used to demonstrate how approaching risk from an integrated perspective can reveal the contributions of ecological considerations relative to other factors, allowing decision makers to account for different influences in a transparent manner. By broadening the perspective of risk, this example is also intended to help those involved in ecosystem assessment and management understand cases where the scope is beyond a particular ecological concern, and may include risks to other factors including political risk, financial risk, legal risk, etc.

In spring of 2014, reports of increasing numbers of whale entanglements in fishing gear on the United States west coast resulted in a public outcry because of concerns for the whales (e.g., Shahagun, 2015). The number of reported whale entanglements were substantially higher than the historical average of 10 per year: 61 (48 confirmed) in 2015, 71 (48 confirmed) in 2016, 41 (30 confirmed) in 2017, and 57 (46 confirmed) in 2018 ( NOAA, 2016, 2017, 2019). Dungeness crab trap lines accounted for 31% of all reported entanglements in 2016 (22 of 71) and 22% in 2017 (9 of 41), more than any other fishing method (personal communications, NOAA).

There was a series of responses to these entanglements. In 2014 a Dungeness crab working group formed, composed of crabber, government, and non-profit representatives. Recommendations from the working group, made in 2016 included gear modifications, enhanced reporting and lost gear recovery. The California state legislature passed a law (Senate Bill No. 1287) in 2016 to incentivize the removal of derelict gear both during and after the crabbing season. In October 2017, the Center for Biological Diversity (CBD) filed a lawsuit against the California Department of Fish and Wildlife, over risks to whales and turtles, where they sought "common-sense reforms to the fishery such as restricting the amount of gear in whale hotspots like Monterey Bay and reducing the amount of rope running through the water" ( CBD, 2017).

Despite the actions taken by the state of California and the fishing industry, public concerns made it clear that additional management measures should be considered ( Lebon and Kelly, 2019). A variety of management actions have been proposed, such as spatio-temporal management, entanglement caps and technological innovations. Each poses risk in different ways. In 2019 as part of their settlement agreement with the CBD and the Pacific Coast Federation of Fishermen's Associations, the California DFW decided to close the fishery statewide beginning April 15 th in an effort to reduce entanglements ( Center for Biological Diversity v. Bonham et al., 2019). Here we describe how this problem may be approached from two perspectives; first, based on current risk assessment practices that focus primarily on ecological risk. We then illustrate how applying the insights described in this paper better addresses the complexities of the problem to achieve a more integrated risk assessment, and provide a post hoc interpretation of why California reached the early closure decision this year (2019).

A Disciplinary Ecological Risk Approach

From a narrow ecological point of view, the focus would be on the risks to individuals and populations of whales and the marine ecosystem ( Figure 3A). At the individual animal scale, ERA might consider physiological costs of injuries and impacts on survivorship. At the population scale, an ERA would consider risks to whale population abundance and growth rate from increased mortality. Finally, analysis at the ecosystem scale would likely consider ecosystem impacts generated by changes in whale and crab abundances. For example, if management measures reduced rates of crabbing, what would be the change to the ecosystem from an increase in crab populations resulting from reduced fishing pressure?

Figure 3. Demonstrating the different elements of the system which may be considered under the current standard of only an ecological focus (A), as compared to a broader perspective, considering economic, socio-cultural, legal and physical risks (B). Within the social institutions, we define scales as follows. Individuals are people who may participate in crabbing recreationally or professionally, or individuals who enjoy whale watching, advocate for the protection of whales or are employed by the whale watching industry or conservation organizations. Communities are people that live in and around a community center on the coast, in locations where there are crab and/or whale watching industries, they may include people employed by those industries but those individuals represent only a portion of the larger community. Industries include the crab and whale watching industries. Finally, government includes both elected government bodies and government agencies.

Considering the Interconnected System

Taking an interdisciplinary integrative approach, the risks considered would likely expand to include risks to social institutions. Figure 3B illustrates this broader set of risk categories: economic, socio-cultural, legal and physical. This figure is illustrative rather than exhaustive, since a fully integrative approach requires stakeholder input. The insights identified above highlight a number of factors to include in the process of considering risk.

Including a diversity of stakeholders and experts will help to ensure that specific individual biases do not disproportionately influence the risk assessment process or resulting decisions. The Dungeness crab task force has been a mechanism for stakeholder engagement in this particular case study. Members of this task force consisted of multiple groups including fishers (commercial and sport), eNGOs, state and federal agency representatives and government and academic scientists. This task force represents an advance over a disciplinarily focused ERA, and because stakeholders have been involved in the management process from the beginning, the likelihood that the process and outcomes will be trusted and used in future decision-making is higher ( NRC, 2008). Nonetheless, broader engagement across stakeholders and experts, including across the social and biophysical sciences, would likely improve the prospects for achieving integrative risk assessment.

As noted in insight 4, the distribution of outcomes across scales is a central piece of integrated risk analyses, as opposed to only considering risk in the aggregate. In the case of whale entanglement, it is evident that a variety of risks might be experienced across social and ecological scales and within different categories of risk ( Figure 3B). While not all of these elements should necessarily be factored into the decision-making process, identifying an expanded set of potential risks would enable an integrated assessment. In an integrated assessment, the diverse stakeholders involved would deliberate the list of potential risks to be included in the assessment, informed by an interdisciplinary science team.

For example, should a management action reduce crabbing activities, there will likely be economic consequences for the crabbing industry. As a result, the management change may affect individuals participating in those industries, communities where the industries are based and even government institutions that receive tax revenue through landing taxes. Individual crabbers are likely to feel these impacts differently - depending on their catch diversity, vessel size and dependence on crabbing as a primary source of income ( Fuller et al., 2017). Where an economic cost-benefit analysis might reveal marginal risks of closing the crab fishery to regional economies, there are profound distributional effects where one segment of the community would bear most of the risk of loss.

By comparison, if activities continue under the current trajectory, and it is found that there is a substantial risk to whale populations from entanglement (which has not been proven), there could be different types of consequences for both whale watching and crabbing industries. If demonstrated, risk to whale population viability from crabbing could be translated to reductions in revenues for the whale watching industry. At the same time, there are non-monetary socio-cultural risks associated with the lived experiences of individuals found in coastal communities or participating in the identified industries, where impacts may be felt through well-being and changes in identity ( Pollnac et al., 2001). For crabbers and larger social institutions there are possible reputational risks through vilification of the industry and loss of social license to fish ( Lien, 1995). Regardless of risk to whales or not, reputational risks to different stakeholders are possible as there is a strong perception of impacts from crabbing.

In addition, there are potential legal risks associated with different management actions. At the larger scale, industry or government may face legal action, such as the CBD lawsuit citing that entanglements of certain species of whales is in violation of the Endangered Species Act ( CBD, 2017). Alternatively, should management enforce measures to reduce crabbing pressure, individuals may break the law in order to make a necessary income. Finally, it is important to consider the risks to physical well-being; fishing is a dangerous job, and other crabbing industries have experienced management changes, in part, to increase safety (e.g., NIOSH, 2016).

Following risk identification, multiple methods can enhance the risk assessment process. Some aspects of risk to this social-ecological system are conducive to quantification: population impacts for whales and economic impacts from management strategies. This type of quantification is common. However, risks to other aspects of the system are likely to require qualitative assessment, at least initially, such as reputational risk to the crabbing industry or the emotional distress stemming from the reductions in opportunities to crab and/or sightsee for whales. Thus, mixed methods approaches can contribute to more holistic understanding of risk and can be applied to assess diverse management options. Figure 2 illustrates the importance of moving beyond the numbers and leveraging the use of perceptions as data, to achieve integrated risk assessment.

The decision to close the Dungeness crab fishery early this year is a case in point. The legal and reputational risks to California and the fishery (Pacific Coast Federation of Fishermen's Associations and Institute for Fisheries Resources), combined with perceived ecological risk to whales under status quo fishery management, seems to have made a disproportionate contribution ( Center for Biological Diversity v. Bonham et al., 2019). The perception of some stakeholders was that decision makers felt it was more important to act immediately to avoid the high reputational and legal risks associated with continuing to fish for crab in the spring than to follow the stakeholder-driven working group process ( French, 2019). Although the settlement agreement clearly leaves open the possibility of identifying less stringent management measures that will reduce ecological risk sufficiently to avoid early closures in the future, the presumption of high ecological risk until alternative evidence emerges is clear. Indeed, exchanges in the literature underscore the need to define "risk to what?," to which we propose an answer, inclusion of risk to human well-being defined quite broadly.

As described above, ongoing monitoring and iterative analysis is essential to discover unanticipated interactions in social-ecological systems. This could include further research into the causes of whale entanglements, in order to inform adaptive management and policy adjustments. It could also include additional scoping and engagement to ensure that a sufficiently broad group of stakeholders and experts were engaged in the risk assessment, as different mitigation efforts are implemented and the realizations and perceptions of risk change. Leveraging ongoing monitoring and iterative analysis creates a form of adaptive management that has the potential to factor in a much broader sweep of ecologically and socially relevant aspects of the system, by taking into fuller consideration the social and ecological repercussions of the decision. In the case of whale entanglement, this is already envisioned, as those involved in the Dungeness crab working group are well aware of the need for ongoing monitoring and management. What is less clear is how to incorporate this broader vision and these fuller considerations into future decisions, given ever-changing ecological conditions, legal context and pressures to take action.

Conclusion

In the era of increasing competition for ocean resources, any environmental management decision has implications for multiple components of linked social-ecological systems. Although benefits of EBM have long been recognized, implementation has been slow and modest in most places ( Link et al., 2018). Working to better ensure that social and biophysical sciences contribute to risk assessments in a rigorous and independent way is a prerequisite for achieving integrated risk assessment. With the growing recognition of the importance of interdisciplinary approaches ( Liu et al., 2007; Bennett et al., 2017), we offer practical steps toward these challenging goals ( Figure 2). In the era of increasing competition for ocean space, this approach will help in the process of identifying and minimizing risks, managing impacts and trade-offs across domains and mitigating undesirable and unavoidable negative consequences.

Author Contributions

EH, TE, JS, NB, AB, SK, PL, and MP participated in a 1-day workshop discussion on risk across disciplines. EA and AC contributed written insights for this discussion. Collectively, all authors conceptualized the manuscript. EH led the writing of the manuscript, with input from all authors at different points and based on different author's subject area expertise.

Funding

EH was funded by the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship Program (Grant No. DGE-1256082). NB acknowledges support from a Liber Ero Postdoctoral Fellowship and the OceanCanada Partnership.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

We thank the School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences which funded the 1-day workshop that led to this manuscript. We also thank the two reviewers and the editor for insightful comments on an earlier draft of the manuscript.

Footnotes

References

Cutter, S. L., Boruff, B. J., and Shirley, W. L. (2003). Social vulnerability to environmental hazards ∗. Soc. Sci. Q. 84, 242-261. doi: 10.1111/1540-6237.8402002

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

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Frontiers | Integrated Risk Assessment for the Blue Economy

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With the anticipated boom in the 'blue economy' and associated increases in industrialization across the world's oceans, new and complex risks are introduced...

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Consequences of the role of the ocean in climate change

# data[].attributes.headline
Which is the role of the ocean in climate

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Which is the role of the ocean in climate

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The ocean plays a critical role in climate change by acting as a buffer.

It plays a main role in:

Heat absorption: The ocean absorbs excess heat caused by global warming, and slows down the increase of atmospheric temperature

Carbon absorption: It absorbs about 23-30% of human-caused carbon dioxide emissions. The ocean plays an importante role in preventing the carbon from accumulating in the atmosphere.

Climate regulation: Ocean currents help to spread and redistribute heat around the globe, through this they regulate global temperatures and weather patterns.

Oxygen production: Marine plants and algae produce about half of the Earth's oxygen.

But there are consequences:

The absorption of excess heat is causing the ocean's temperature to rise, leading to impacts like sea level rise due to thermal expansion.

As the ocean absorbs more

CO2, it becomes more acidic. This harms marine life with calcium carbonate shells and skeletons, such as corals and shellfish.

Warmer water holds less dissolved oxygen, which is creating low-oxygen "dead zones" that are harmful to marine ecosystems.

Warmer ocean temperatures can intensify storms and increase rainfall.

In conclusion:

The ocean plays a very importante role in regulating temperatures, but the ocean's capacity to buffer the effects of climate change is not limitless.

The oceans will eventually become overwhelmed, and the impacts will be felt more severely on land if the greenhouse gas emissions continue to rise.

Mesures to take:

To mitigate the worst impacts of climate change on the ocean and the planet, it is crucial to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions and factory emissions.

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Maritime transportation should generally be promoted, but only with strong environmental and safety regulations. It remains the most energy-efficient way to move large quantities of goods over long distances, and it supports the global economy by enabling affordable international trade. Ships reduce congestion on land routes and can transport bulk goods far more cost-effectively than trucks or airplanes. However, maritime transport also brings challenges, including CO₂ emissions, risks of oil spills, and negative impacts on marine ecosystems. Port cities often face pollution due to heavy ship traffic, and global supply chains that rely too heavily on maritime routes can be vulnerable to disruptions. For these reasons, maritime transportation should not be discouraged, but rather modernized with cleaner technologies and stricter international regulations. This approach allows us to keep its economic benefits while minimizing its environmental footprint.

# data[].attributes.headline
 Maritime resources with cosmetics industry

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 Maritime resources with cosmetics industry

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Sea water has a lot of functions including to substitue the warmful industry chemicals for natural and healthy ones. If people use this healthy water instaed of the big cosmetic products, they can grow with a better skin, hair, and even a better lungs. Sea water forever!

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We have made a list of the most sustainable water sports globaly, five of them are swimming, surfing mermaiding, windsurfing and wing foiling.

The list of the not sustainable sports have sports like jet skiing, yachting wakeboarding, kneeboarding, water skiing.

In conclusion the sustainable sports doesn't require any type of engine that is powered by any type of fuel and the not sustainable use engines or some type of motor.

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There are dozens of commonly played sports that involve water. These include sports that are located underwater, over water, or in water. One-person recreational activities, such as scuba diving and swimming, as well as competitive sports, such as such as boat racing and underwater football, are all considered to be water sports.[according to whom?

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Sustainable Energy Transitions in Maritime Transport

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Sustainable Energy Transitions in Maritime Transport

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In maritime transport, progress towards a reduction in the environmental impacts, and responses to more recent calls for corporate social responsibility (CSR) have been slow and geographically highly uneven. In this paper the multi-level perspective of transition studies is used as an analytical setting to understand the drivers and barriers for the environmental upgrading of maritime transport in the Baltic Sea region. The specific focus of the analysis is on energy questions in the shipping industry. A case study methodology is followed in gathering and analysis of the data.

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Yes, exploring the mineral resources at the bottom of the ocean can be justified because it provides essential minerals for technologies like electric vehicles, electronics, and green energy. It could also reduce dependence on politically sensitive regions and support economic and technological growth. However, this exploration must be approached with strong environmental protections, as deep-sea mining can threaten fragile ecosystems, lead to biodiversity loss, and disrupt important oceanic processes.

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In our opinion ocean fish is better for our health than farmed fish because they grown in their natural environment, so there is no human intervention and so it's more natural and healthier for us, but for our environment, in our opinion, is the oposite, the farmed fish is better than ocean fish because it prevents overfishing and fishes in the verge of extinction.

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 As plastics reach the ocean, should we replace them or reduce them? 

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 As plastics reach the ocean, should we replace them or reduce them? 

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We should mainly reduce the use of plastics, and only replace them when necessary. Why reduce? It is the only way to actually decrease the amount of plastic entering the ocean.

Less production = less waste, less pollution, fewer microplastics.

The effects are immediate: fewer single-use items, more reuse, better recycling. And replacing?

It can help, but it is not a full solution. Many “bioplastics” do not degrade in the ocean and can still cause pollution. Replacing without reducing just swaps one problem for another.

Conclusion. The most effective solution is to reduce plastic use as much as possible, and only replace plastic when the alternatives are truly sustainable.

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The Influence of Economic Barriers and Drivers on Energy Efficiency

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The Influence of Economic Barriers and Drivers on Energy Efficiency

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Maritime transport stands out as a strategic sector; the increasing trend in maritime traffic makes it essential to reduce energy consumption and emissions through investment in energy efficiency.

Analyze what factors influence investment decisions—and how they do so—when there are principal-agent problems in the shipowner–charterer relationship.

The results corroborate the hypotheses and indicate that principal-agent problems and split incentives, especially in time charter contracts, and a lack of verified information make the shipowners less likely to invest. Moreover, energy efficiency measures are less likely to be implemented in older vessels, possibly due to the difficulty associated with recovering the investment.

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The Influence of Economic Barriers and Drivers on Energy Efficiency Investments in Maritime Shipping, from the Perspective of the Principal-Agent Problem

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Maritime transport stands out as a strategic sector; the increasing trend in maritime traffic makes it essential to reduce energy consumption and emissions through investment in energy efficiency. However, investments can be hindered by barriers, and drivers are necessary to reduce or overcome them and promote investment. Consequently, the purpose of this study is to analyze what factors influence investment decisions—and how they do so—when there are principal-agent problems in the shipowner–charterer relationship. The methodology is based on the following process: model and hypotheses formulation, variable definition, the creation of a study sample and statistical treatment through a descriptive analysis of variables and a binomial logistic regression model, all based on a state-of-the-art application. The results corroborate the hypotheses and indicate that principal-agent problems and split incentives, especially in time charter contracts, and a lack of verified information make the shipowners less likely to invest. Moreover, energy efficiency measures are less likely to be implemented in older vessels, possibly due to the difficulty associated with recovering the investment; they are more likely in larger and newer vessels, and regulation encourage their adoption. Furthermore, investment is more likely in vessels with verified information and high levels of both activity and harmful emissions. Improved knowledge in this field could help businesses and governments to act in a more sustainable manner, without detriment to an innovative and competitive sector.

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New plastic material fully degrades in the ocean

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New plastic material fully degrades in the ocean

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Scientists have developed an alternative to plastics that won’t pollute the oceans. This new material is as strong and durable as conventional plastics, with one key difference it fully dissolves in seawater, leaving behind molecules that can be eaten by microorganisms.

Tests revealed that the new material is non-toxic and non-flammable. Like other plastics, its shape can be molded at high temperatures. After dissolving it in salt water, the scientists were able to recover 91% and 82% of the two original building blocks, showing that it is easy to recycle.

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New plastic material fully degrades in the ocean - Advanced Science News

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A new material designed to dissolve only in salt water could help us prevent the accumulation of microplastics in the seas.

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If you want to take our service to build your business, our expert team members are always here to help you to make you successful.

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Video comparing the aquaculture (farmed fish) to the ocean fish (caught fish)

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Video comparing the aquaculture (farmed fish) to the ocean fish (caught fish)

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There is not a clarified answer to this question. We can't tell which one is better and more sustainable.

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Which Seafood Is Better for the Environment: Farmed or Wild Caught?

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To sum up, investing in maritime resources for cosmetics industry is worth it if done correctly.

As the global population is seeking a better quality and longer life, the significance of health and well being emerges as a paramount societal concern. Maritime resourses have a lot of benefits about the skin, hair and health. That is because they are natural and contribute to environmental sustainability.

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Deep-sea mining:A Hidden Threat to Ocean Ecosystems in 2025

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Deep-sea mining:A Hidden Threat to Ocean Ecosystems in 2025

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Deep-Sea Mining: Risks, Impact, and Alternatives

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Deep-sea mining poses serious threats to ocean ecosystems. Learn about the risks, global moratoriums, and sustainable alternatives to protect marine life.

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In our opinion, we think we should controll the number of people on beaches and islands is often necessary to manage the negative impacts of overtourism, which include environmental degradation, pollution, and a poor experience for both tourists and locals. Limiting visitor numbers through measures like capacity control helps protect fragile ecosystems, preserve the local culture, and ensure long-term sustainability.

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We have a list of the most sustainable water sports globaly, five of them are swimming, surfing mermaiding, windsurfing and wing foiling.

In conclusion these are sustainable sports beacause it desn't requie any type of engine that is powered by any type of fuel

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The opportunities, challenges and advantages of deep-sea mining

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The opportunities, challenges and advantages of deep-sea mining

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Short video explaining the benefits of biotech marine.

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3.3K views · 64 reactions | Active marine ingredients for cosmetics
🇫🇷 produced in France
🌊 inspired by nature 
🌍 which preserve ecosystems 

➡️ This is what Biotech Marine, a subsidiary of Seppic (Air Liquide), produces. Watch. 👇 | Air Liquide

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Active marine ingredients for cosmetics
🇫🇷 produced in France
🌊 inspired by nature 
🌍 which preserve ecosystems 

➡️ This is what Biotech Marine, a subsidiary of Seppic (Air Liquide), produces. Watch. 👇

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The cosmetics industry is increasingly turning to the sea and oceans in the search for new ingredients. “Sea materials from coastal plants, seaweeds, algae, and sea minerals are especially favoured by natural cosmetic companies seeking new sources of innovation. The answer is yes!

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Bormioli Luigi launches Edge, a new standard glass bottle

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Sustainability of marine ingredients in cosmetics questioned

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The cosmetics industry is increasingly turning to the sea and oceans in the search for new ingredients. “Sea materials from coastal plants, seaweeds, algae, and sea minerals are especially favoured by natural cosmetic companies seeking new sources of innovation. Sea algae, rich in vitamins and minerals, are also becoming a common source of anti-ageing actives,” says market research firm Organic Monitor. Simultaneously, high demand for marine ingredients is increasing the number of raw…

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Artical from Naticional Geographic explaining about this topic.

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From seaweed to shellfish, this fast-growing industry is ensuring that humans have enough protein for our diets. Here’s what to know about aquaculture.

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Overtourism occurs when the number of visitors exceeds a destination’s capacity to handle them sustainably. This creates pressure on the environment, the local population, and even the tourists’ own experience.

Key Points

• What overtourism means

Overtourism happens when places become overwhelmed by tourists to the point where daily life for residents is disrupted and the natural or cultural environment suffers. It’s not only about crowding—it's about exceeding what the destination can support.

• Environmental consequences

Tourist traffic and irresponsible behavior can damage fragile natural sites like coral reefs, beaches, and protected landscapes. Increased flights, cruises, and transport also add to global carbon emissions. Wildlife and ecosystems often deteriorate under this pressure.

• Social and economic impacts

Local communities feel the effects through rising housing costs, as properties are converted into short-term rentals. This leads to displacement of residents and changes the character of neighborhoods. Everyday life becomes more expensive and less comfortable for locals due to congestion, noise, and overcrowded public spaces.

• Decline in tourist experience

Paradoxically, the very tourists who come seeking beauty and culture end up experiencing long lines, noisy streets, and packed attractions, reducing the quality of their visit.

• Real-world examples

Places like Hallstatt (Austria) have seen enormous crowds despite being tiny towns. Venice has had to restrict cruise ships to protect its historic center. In Orkney (Scotland), locals are protesting the rising number of cruise passengers arriving each day.

• Measures and solutions

Cities are adopting different strategies, such as tourist taxes, limiting the number of daily visitors, creating ticketing systems for popular sites, and enforcing environmental rules. Some destinations promote travel during the off-season or encourage tourists to explore less-visited areas.

• Looking ahead

Tourism continues to grow globally, and numbers are expected to surpass pre-pandemic levels. Experts emphasize that there is no universal solution—each destination must develop its own approach together with the local community. The aim is to balance economic benefits with long-term sustainability.

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As major cities are starting to impose bans, fines and taxes to combat tourism, we take a look at what it means for locals - and visitors.

Photograph Maxiphoto, Getty Images

When locals in the charming Austrian lakeside village of Hallstatt staged a blockade of the main access tunnel, brandishing placards asking visitors to 'think of the children', it highlighted what can happen when places start to feel overrun by tourists. Hallstatt has just 800 residents but has opened its doors to around 10,000 visitors a day - a population increase of over 1,000%. And it's just one of a growing number of places where residents are up in arms at the influx of travellers.

The term 'overtourism' is relatively new, having been coined over a decade ago to highlight the spiralling numbers of visitors taking a toll on cities, landmarks and landscapes. As tourist numbers worldwide return towards pre-pandemic levels, the debate around what constitutes 'too many' visitors continues. While many destinations, reliant on the income that tourism brings, are still keen for arrivals, a handful of major cities and sites are now imposing bans, fines, taxes and time-slot systems, and, in some cases, even launching campaigns of discouragement in a bid to curb tourist numbers.

What is overtourism?

In essence, overtourism is too many people in one place at any given time. While there isn't a definitive figure stipulating the number of visitors allowed, an accumulation of economic, social and environmental factors determine if and how numbers are creeping up.

There are the wide-reaching effects, such as climate change. Coral reefs, like the Great Barrier Reef and Maya Bay, Thailand, made famous by the Leonardo DiCaprio film, The Beach, are being degraded from visitors snorkelling, diving and touching the corals, as well as tour boats anchoring in the waters. And 2030 transport-related carbon emissions from tourism are expected to grow 25% from 2016 levels, representing an increase from 5% to 5.3% of all man-made emissions, according to the United Nations World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO). More localised issues are affecting locals, too. Renters are being evicted by landlords in favour of turning properties into holiday lets, and house prices are escalating as a result. As visitors and rental properties outnumber local residents, communities are being lost. And, skyrocketing prices, excessive queues, crowded beaches, exorbitant noise levels, damage at historical sites and the ramifications to nature as people overwhelm or stray from official paths are also reasons the positives of tourism can have a negative impact.

Conversely, 'undertourism' is a term applied to less-frequented destinations, particularly in the aftermath of the pandemic. The economic, social and environmental benefits of tourism aren't always passed on to those with plenty of capacity and, while tourist boards are always keen for visitors to visit their lesser-known attractions, it's a more sustainable and rewarding experience for both residents and visitors.

Scenic views of Hallstätter See, Dachstein Mountains and the town itself is what draws the crowds to Hallstatt.

Photograph by Alan Tow, Getty Images

What's the main problem with it?

Overcrowding is an issue for both locals and tourists. It can ruin the experience of sightseeing for those trapped in long queues, unable to visit museums, galleries and sites without advance booking, incurring escalating costs for basics like food, drink and hotels, and faced with the inability to experience the wonder of a place in relative solitude. The absence of any real regulations has seen places take it upon themselves to try and establish some form of crowd control, meaning no cohesion and no real solution.

Justin Francis, co-founder and CEO of Responsible Travel, a tour operator that focuses on more sustainable travel, says "Social media has concentrated tourism in hotspots and exacerbated the problem, and tourist numbers globally are increasing while destinations have a finite capacity. Until local people are properly consulted about what they want and don't want from tourism, we'll see more protests."

A French start up, Murmuration, which monitors the environmental impact of tourism by using satellite data, states that 80% of travellers visit just 10% of the world's tourism destinations, meaning bigger crowds in fewer spots. And, the UNWTO predicts that by 2030, the number of worldwide tourists, which peaked at 1.5 billion in 2019, will reach 1.8 billion,likely leading to greater pressure on already popular spots and more objection from locals.

Who has been protesting?

Of the 800 residents in the UNESCO-listed village of Hallstatt, around 100 turned out in August to show their displeasure and to push for a cap on daily visitors and a curfew on tour coach arrivals.

Elsewhere, residents in Venice fought long and hard for a ban on cruise ships, with protest flags often draped from windows. In 2021, large cruise ships over 25,000 tonnes were banned from using the main Giudecca Canal, leaving only smaller passenger ferries and freight vessels able to dock.

In France, the Marseille Provence Cruise Club introduced a flow management system for cruise line passengers in 2020, easing congestion around the popular Notre-Dame-de-la-Garde Basilica. A Cruise Lines International Association (CLIA) spokesperson said, "Coaches are limited to four per ship during the morning or afternoon at the Basilica to ensure a good visitor experience and safety for residents and local businesses. This is a voluntary arrangement respected by cruise lines."

While in Orkney, Scotland, residents have been up in arms at the number of cruise ships docking on its shores. At the beginning of 2023, the local council confirmed that 214 cruise ship calls were scheduled for the year, bringing around £15 million in revenue to the islands. Following backlash from locals, the council has since proposed a plan to restrict the number of ships on any day.

Large cruise ships have been banned in Venice's Giudecca Canal since 2021.

Photograph by Bruce Hodd, Getty Images

What steps are being taken?

City taxes have become increasingly popular, with Barcelona increasing its nightly levy in April 2023 - which was originally introduced in 2012 and varies depending on the type of accommodation - and Venice expects to charge day-trippers a €5 fee from 2024.

In Amsterdam this summer, the city council voted to ban cruise ships, while the mayor, Femke Halsema, commissioned a campaign of discouragement, asking young British men who planned to have a 'vacation from morals' to stay away. In Rome, sitting at popular sites, such as the Trevi Fountain and the Spanish Steps, has been restricted by the authorities.

And in Kenya's Maasai Mara, meanwhile, the Narok County governor has introduced on-the-spot fines for off-roading. He also plans to double nightly park fees in peak season.

What are the forecasts for global tourism?

During the Covid pandemic, tourism was one of the hardest-hit industries - according to UNWTO, international tourist arrivals dropped 72% in 2020. However, traveller numbers have since been rapidly increasing, with double the number of people venturing abroad in the first three months of 2023 than in the same period in 2022. And, according to the World Travel Tourism Council, the tourism sector is expected to reach £7.5 trillion this year, 95% of its pre-pandemic levels.

While the tourism industry is forecast to represent 11.6% of the global economy by 2033, it's also predicted that an increasing number of people will show more interest in travelling more sustainably. In a 2022 survey by Booking.com, 64% of the people asked said they would be prepared to stay away from busy tourist sites to avoid adding to congestion.

Are there any solutions?

There are ways to better manage tourism by promoting more off-season travel, limiting numbers where possible and having greater regulation within the industry. Encouraging more sustainable travel and finding solutions to reduce friction between residents and tourists could also have positive impacts. Promoting alternative, less-visited spots to redirect travellers may also offer some benefits.

Harold Goodwin, emeritus professor at Manchester Metropolitan University, says, "Overtourism is a function of visitor volumes, but also of conflicting behaviours, crowding in inappropriate places and privacy. Social anthropologists talk about frontstage and backstage spaces. Tourists are rarely welcome in backstage spaces. To manage crowds, it's first necessary to analyse and determine the causes of them.

Francis adds: "However, we must be careful not to just recreate the same problems elsewhere. The most important thing is to form a clear strategy, in consultation with local people about what a place wants or needs from tourism."

As it stands, overtourism is a seasonal issue for a small number of destinations. While there is no one-size-fits-all solution, a range of measures are clearly an option depending on the scale of the problem. For the majority of the world, tourism remains a force for good with many benefits beyond simple economic growth.

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With visitor numbers around the world increasing towards pre-pandemic levels, the issue of overtourism is once again rearing its head.

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A Sustainable and Promising Source for Cosmetic Industries

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Marine-derived substances or compounds are unique and have many benefits when compared to terrestrial sources. These marine-derived products also play an important role in cosmetic industries.

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Video about aquaculture and how it can improve our environment

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Video about aquaculture and how it can improve our environment

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Aquaculture prevents overfishing

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What is aquaculture and can it prevent overfishing?

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Fonts:

PNUMA ( Programa das Nações Unidas para o Meio Ambiente)

IDRA ( International Desalination and Reuse Association)

The process of removing salts anfd others minerals from water, primarily to make seawater or brackish water suitable for human consumption, irrigsation or industrial uses. To do the desalination you can use the thermal distillation method which consists in heat the water so the salt will evaporate and after that the vapor condenses into pure fresh water. So, no, the desalination is not good for the environment because it has significant impacts, primarily from its high energy consuption and it will have a big impact in the athmosphere because of the CO2 consumption. It also ruins the inner world in the ocean and his biosphere.

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2.3 From Desalination to Destruction – Environmental ScienceBites

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Encontrado no Google com origem em ohiostate.pressbooks.pub.

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Marine cosmetics and the blue bioeconomy

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This review outlines a comprehensive framework of activities and essential considerations for the development of new value chains in marine cosmetics.

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Wave and tidal energy should be used because they are clean, renewable sources that produce no greenhouse gases and are highly predictable. They can provide reliable power for coastal regions and help reduce dependence on fossil fuels. However, they are expensive to build and may affect marine ecosystems in certain areas. Overall, their benefits outweigh the drawbacks, making them a strong option for sustainable energy.

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The ocean has basically become garbage soup. Animals can get tangled up in this trash or ingest it either because they mistake it for food or because the plastic has been broken up into tiny particles floating through their habitats.

So we have 10 ways to reduce the plastic pollution.

1. Wean yourself off single-use plastics.

2. Stop buying bottled water.

3. Boycott microbeads.

4. Cook more.

5. Purchase items secondhand.

6. Recycle.

7. Support a bag tax or ban.

8. Buy in bulk and look for eco-friendly packaging.

9. Choose clothing made from natural fibers.

10. Put pressure on manufacturers.

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This constant barrage (the equivalent of 136 billion milk jugs each year, estimates a study published in the journal Science) poses a serious danger to marine life. Animals can get tangled up in this trash or ingest it-either because they mistake it as prey or because the plastic has been broken down into tiny particles by seawater.

Plastic, of course, is uniquely problematic because it's nonbiodegradable and therefore sticks around for a lot longer (like up to 1,000 years longer) than other forms of trash. And we're not just talking about people dumping their garbage overboard. Around 80 percent of marine litter actually originates on land-either swept in from the coastline or carried to rivers from the streets during heavy rain via storm drains and sewer overflows.

So the best thing we can do to protect our waterways is try to keep as much plastic as possible out of the waste stream in the first place. The good news? There are many small ways you can have a big impact.

1. Wean yourself off disposable plastics.

Ninety percent of the plastic items in our daily lives are used once and then chucked: grocery bags, plastic wrap, disposable cutlery, straws, coffee-cup lids. Take note of how often you rely on these products and replace them with reusable versions. It only takes a few times of bringing your own bags to the store, silverware to the office, or travel mug to Starbucks before it becomes habit.

2. Stop buying water.

Each year, close to 20 billion plastic bottles are tossed in the trash. Carry a reusable bottle in your bag, and you'll never be caught having to resort to a Poland Spring or Evian again. If you're nervous about the quality of your local tap water, look for a model with a built-in filter.

3. Boycott microbeads.

Those little plastic scrubbers found in so many beauty products-facial scrubs, toothpaste, body washes-might look harmless, but their tiny size allows them to slip through water-treatment plants. Unfortunately, they also look just like food to some marine animals. Opt for products with natural exfoliants, like oatmeal or salt, instead.

4. Cook more.

Not only is it healthier, but making your own meals doesn't involve takeout containers or doggy bags. For those times when you do order in or eat out, tell the establishment you don't need any plastic cutlery or, for some serious extra credit, bring your own food-storage containers to restaurants for leftovers.

5. Purchase items secondhand.

New toys and electronic gadgets, especially, come with all kinds of plastic packaging-from those frustrating hard-to-crack shells to twisty ties. Search the shelves of thrift stores, neighborhood garage sales, or online postings for items that are just as good when previously used. You'll save yourself a few bucks, too.

It seems obvious, but we're not doing a great job of it. For example, less than 14 percent of plastic packaging is recycled. Confused about what can and can't go in the bin? Check out the number on the bottom of the container. Most beverage and liquid cleaner bottles will be #1 (PET), which is commonly accepted by most curbside recycling companies. Containers marked #2 (HDPE; typically slightly heavier-duty bottles for milk, juice, and laundry detergent) and #5 (PP; plastic cutlery, yogurt and margarine tubs, ketchup bottles) are also recyclable in some areas. For the specifics on your area, check out Earth911.org's recycling directory.

7. Support a bag tax or ban.

Urge your elected officials to follow the lead of those in San Francisco, Chicago, and close to 150 other cities and counties by introducing or supporting legislation that would make plastic-bag use less desirable.

8. Buy in bulk.

Single-serving yogurts, travel-size toiletries, tiny packages of nuts-consider the product-to-packaging ratio of items you tend to buy often and select the bigger container instead of buying several smaller ones over time.

9. Bring your own garment bag to the dry cleaner.

Invest in a zippered fabric bag and request that your cleaned items be returned in it instead of sheathed in plastic. (And while you're at it, make sure you're frequenting a dry cleaner that skips the perc, a toxic chemical found in some cleaning solvents.)

10. Put pressure on manufacturers.

Though we can make a difference through our own habits, corporations obviously have a much bigger footprint. If you believe a company could be smarter about its packaging, make your voice heard. Write a letter, send a tweet, or hit them where it really hurts: Give your money to a more sustainable competitor.

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The first step towards a plastic pollution solution is learning how to reduce plastic use. Follow these steps to do your part in keeping our earth a cleaner place.

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Channel the power of the ocean by developing and deploying wave and tidal energy converters as a ceaseless source of renewable energy.

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Department for Energy Security & Net Zero (DESNZ)

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Tidal v Wave energy: ocean power explained