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Education is a fundamental pillar of our society which shapes individuals and communities by transmitting knowledge, skills and values. The core of education is Pedagogy, which is crucial in defining HOW education is delivered by educators and experienced by students. Dewey (1987). emphasized the experiential nature of learning, arguing that education should be grounded in real world experiences to foster active participation. Gert Biesta (2015), critiqued the shift towards 'learnification' by warning against reducing education to mere knowledge acquisition without considering its broader social dimensions.

This conceptual map explores and critically examines two pressing contemporary issues in education: 1. Educational access and equity and 2. Commercialisation of education. We will analyse these issues through Sociocultural and scoiohistorical lenses.

We will also explore educational theories, including Critical pedagogy, Social reproduction theory and Connectivism, through which these challenges can be understood. We will engage with scholarly readings to provide critical analysis of the contemporary education and its advancing environment.

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Understanding Pedagogy: The Art and Science of Teaching

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Understanding Pedagogy: The Art and Science of Teaching

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Pedagogy is broadly defined as the art, science, or profession of teaching (Merriam-Webster Dictionary). Biesta (2015) explores the concept of pedagogy, particularly within the German tradition of Pädagogik, viewing it both as an academic discipline and an educational process focused on personal development. He describes Pädagogik as an autonomous and normative discipline that possesses its own theoretical structures and practices. Unlike purely empirical studies of education, pedagogy is based on normative considerations, meaning it focuses on what is best for the development of a child rather than just analyzing what happens in educational institutions (Biesta, 2020). Furthermore, Biesta (2011) asserts that pedagogy extends beyond formal teaching and school environments, emphasizing its role in shaping individuals and their process of becoming human.

A foundational perspective on pedagogy is provided by Dewey (1897) in My Pedagogical Creed, where he argues that education is fundamentally a social process. He advocates for experiential, interactive, and community-centered learning, stating that students learn most effectively when they actively engage with their surroundings. This approach fosters critical thinking and problem-solving skills, making learning more meaningful and applicable to real-life contexts.

Further insights into effective pedagogy are presented by Husbands and Pearce (2012) in What Makes Great Pedagogy?. They highlight key elements of effective teaching, including scaffolding, student participation, and lesson adaptation based on individual needs. They argue that learning should build on students' prior knowledge, with teachers providing structured guidance to help them progress. This concept aligns with Vygotsky’s (1978) Constructivist Theory, which emphasizes that students develop understanding more effectively when working with teachers and peers who support their progress within the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).

Similarly, Freire (1970) introduces Critical Pedagogy, challenging the "banking model" of education, where students are seen as passive recipients of information. Instead, he advocates for dialogue-based learning, where students actively participate in discussions, question ideas, and develop critical thinking skills. Piaget’s (1952) theory complements this perspective, suggesting that students construct their own knowledge through active exploration and engagement. Likewise, Bandura’s (1977) Social Learning Theory highlights the role of observation and interaction in shaping student learning. These theories collectively reinforce the view that pedagogy should be interactive, student-centered, and encourage deep engagement with learning processes.

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The Purpose of Education: Beyond Knowledge Acquisition

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The Purpose of Education: Beyond Knowledge Acquisition

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Education has multiple functions that extend beyond gaining knowledge—it serves different purposes in our lives. Biesta (2015) identifies three essential purposes of education: qualification, socialization, and subjectification.

Qualification means learning the skills and knowledge needed for jobs, careers, and further studies. For example, a student learning mathematics and science can later use these subjects to become an engineer or doctor. Schools help prepare for their future by providing qualifications needed to contribute to society.

Socialization is about learning the values, traditions, and behavior of a community. For instance, schools teach students about respect, teamwork, and cultural traditions through activities like lessons, group projects, and celebrations. This helps students understand their roles in society.

Subjectification is about thinking independently and questioning ideas instead of simply accepting them. When students debate current events or analyze literature, they learn to form their own opinions. Without this, education will only teach students to conform to norms rather than develop critical thinking. A key part of effective education is student voice and participation. Zippin et al. (2020) highlight how students learn better when they take an active role in education. For example, allowing students to choose projects or discuss classroom rules can make them more engaged and responsible for their own learning. Instead of merely listening to teachers, students should ask questions, express opinions, and collaborate with teachers to make learning more interactive and meaningful. Education should be dialogic and not didactic.

However, some education policies prioritize exams and job preparation, ignoring the need for independent thinking. Bacchi (2012) critiques how governments often shape education to serve economic goals and political interests rather than personal growth or democracy. If education institutes focus too much on standardized tests, then students may not develop critical thinking skills. This would be a case of favoring qualification over subjectification.

A balanced education system should develop skills (qualification), help students understand society (socialization), and encourage them to think for themselves (subjectification). This way, education can help create confident, engaged, empowered, and well-informed learners who can contribute to the world in a meaningful way.

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Problem 1: Educational Equity and Access – Sociocultural Context

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Problem 1: Educational Equity and Access – Sociocultural Context

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Not all students have the same opportunities in education due to factors such as income, race, gender, and location. Schools in wealthier areas often have better teachers, more learning resources, and access to extracurricular activities, while schools in low-income neighbourhoods frequently struggle with overcrowded classrooms, outdated textbooks, and fewer qualified teachers.

Bourdieu’s Social Reproduction Theory (2018)

This theory explains how schools reinforce social inequalities rather than addressing them (Bourdieu, 2018). He introduced two key concepts:

Cultural Capital: Some students grow up in environments where they are exposed to books, intellectual discussions, and parents who assist with homework. These students enter school better prepared because their home environment aligns with school expectations. However, students from low-income families may not have these early learning experiences, making it harder for them to succeed in school. For example, a student who has never been read to at home may struggle with reading comprehension compared to a student whose parents have a home library (Bourdieu, 1977).

Social Capital: Wealthier students often have connections and networks that help them access better opportunities. For example, their parents may have professional contacts who can offer internships or provide recommendations for prestigious universities. Meanwhile, students from low-income backgrounds lack these social networks, making it harder for them to find opportunities beyond school (Bourdieu, 1977).

Critical Race Theory (Bell, 2018)

This theory examines how racism and systemic discrimination impact educational access and quality (Bell, 1980s). Many schools in predominantly minority communities receive less funding because they rely on local property taxes. Wealthier (and often predominantly white) neighbourhoods have higher property values, leading to better-funded schools with more advanced courses, better facilities, and highly qualified teachers (Bell, 2018).

For example, in the United States, schools in Black and Hispanic communities often experience funding shortages, resulting in larger class sizes, fewer extracurricular programs, and outdated technology. This funding gap limits students’ ability to compete with their wealthier peers for university admissions and career opportunities (Bell, 2018).

Intersectionality (Crenshaw, 1989)

Some students experience multiple layers of disadvantage due to overlapping factors such as race, gender, disability, or geography (Crenshaw, 1989).

Girls in STEM: Many girls are discouraged from pursuing careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) because of gender stereotypes. Teachers and parents may unintentionally encourage boys to pursue math and science, while steering girls towards literature and social sciences (Crenshaw, 1989).

Geographic Barriers: Students in rural areas often have fewer educational resources compared to students in urban centres. They may lack access to science labs, advanced placement courses, or experienced teachers. For example, a student in a remote village may need to travel several hours just to attend high school, placing them at a disadvantage compared to city students who have better access to specialized programs (Crenshaw, 1989).

By understanding these sociocultural barriers, policymakers and educators can develop strategies to promote educational equity, ensuring that all students—regardless of socioeconomic status, race, or location—have access to quality education.

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Problem 1: Educational Equity and Access – Sociohistorical Context

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Problem 1: Educational Equity and Access – Sociohistorical Context

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To understand modern educational inequality, we must look at historical policies and changes that have shaped today’s school systems.

John Dewey (1987) believed that education should be student-centered, hands-on, and focused on real-world learning (Dewey, 1987). He argued that students learn best when they are actively engaged, rather than passively memorizing facts.

However, today’s education system often contradicts Dewey’s vision. In wealthier schools, students engage in experiments, group discussions, and creative projects. In contrast, underfunded schools often rely on rote memorization and standardized tests, making learning less engaging (Dewey, 1987). For example, a private school might offer robotics classes, field trips, and project-based learning, while a struggling public school may only provide textbook-based lessons and multiple-choice tests.

Bowles and Gintis’ Correspondence Theory (1976)

Bowles and Gintis argue that education is designed to prepare students for their future jobs, but in an unequal way (Bowles & Gintis, 1976). Schools train students from wealthier backgrounds to become leaders, while students from low-income families are often pushed into low-paying jobs.

For example, students in elite private schools are encouraged to think critically, develop leadership skills, and take advanced courses, preparing them for prestigious careers (Bowles & Gintis, 1976). Meanwhile, students in low-income public schools may be offered more vocational courses, guiding them toward jobs that require manual labor rather than academic expertise.

Freire’s Pedagogy (2020)

Freire criticized the “banking model” of education, where students are treated as empty containers to be filled with information, rather than as active thinkers (Freire, 2020). He argued that education should encourage students to question and challenge ideas.

In wealthier schools, students are often encouraged to debate, discuss, and explore different perspectives, making them more confident and prepared for leadership roles (Freire, 2020).

In underfunded schools, students often face a rigid system focused on memorization and discipline, limiting their ability to think critically.

For example, private schools may allow students to challenge teachers' ideas, explore controversial topics, and engage in open-ended discussions, while low-income schools may enforce strict rules and emphasize obedience, leaving little room for creativity (Freire, 2020).

These historical perspectives show how education has been structured to maintain existing social and economic divisions. To achieve greater educational equity, changes such as increased funding for public schools, a more balanced curriculum, and student-centered learning approaches are necessary.

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Problem 1: Educational Equity and Access

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Problem 1: Educational Equity and Access

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Several educational theories help explain why educational inequality continues today.

(Freire, 2020): Encourages students to question what they learn and become active learners instead of just memorizing facts (Freire, 1970). A more interactive and discussion-based approach in all schools could help students think more critically.

Social Reproduction Theory (Bourdieu, 2018): Explains why wealthy students succeed more easily because they inherit advantages like better education, social networks, and parental support (Bourdieu, 1977). To address this, schools could provide mentorship programs, free tutoring, and better access to extracurricular activities for low-income students.

Bacchi’s WPR Approach: Shows that governments often blame students for underperforming instead of fixing the real issue—lack of funding, resources, and support (Bacchi, 2012). Instead of focusing on competition and ranking, education should prioritize fair access for all students, regardless of their background.

Conclusion

Educational inequality is not just about how hard a student works; it is shaped by social, economic, and historical factors that give some students an advantage while making it harder for others to succeed. Schools, governments, and educators need to recognize these challenges and create policies that support all students, such as fairer school funding, diverse learning approaches, and equal access to educational resources.

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Problem 2 – Commercialization of Education

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Problem 2 – Commercialization of Education

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Education was once seen as a public good, something that should be available to everyone, but today, it is increasingly treated like a business (Harvey, 2007). Schools and universities focus more on privatisation, competition, and rankings rather than just student learning (Apple, 2012).

Many private companies profit from education by selling standardized tests, tutoring services, and expensive online courses (Selwyn, 2015). This makes it harder for low-income students to get the same opportunities as wealthier students, who can afford better schools, extra classes, and expensive university degrees, thereby increasing inequality (Bourdieu, 2018).

Over time, governments have reduced funding for public education, making schools rely more on private companies for resources (Friedman, 1970s). As a result, education is becoming less about learning and more about profit. To understand this shift, we can look at historical events, social inequalities, and economic policies that have shaped education into a market-driven system. Using different theories, we can also explore how to make education fairer and more accessible for everyone.

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Problem 2 – Commercialization of Education: Sociocultural Context

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Problem 2 – Commercialization of Education: Sociocultural Context

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Education has become more like a business, where students from wealthy families receive better opportunities, while students from low-income backgrounds struggle to access quality education (Harvey, 2005). Neoliberal policies have encouraged privatization, competition, and profit-making in education (Apple, 2001).

Governments now promote private schools, charter schools, and standardized testing, turning education into a money-making system rather than a public service (Harvey, 2005). Many universities focus on recruiting international students and forming business partnerships, often prioritizing profits over student learning (Harvey, 2005). Additionally, tutoring companies and test preparation businesses take advantage of students’ fear of failure, making education even more expensive.

Bourdieu’s Social Reproduction Theory (2018) explains that students from wealthy families have more advantages in school, such as access to elite private schools, tutoring, and test prep services. Meanwhile, students from low-income backgrounds rely on underfunded public schools with fewer resources, making it harder for them to compete (Bourdieu, 2018).

Snyder’s Hidden Curriculum (1970) also shows that schools teach unspoken rules about social class. Private schools prepare students for leadership roles, teaching them confidence and networking, while public schools focus on basic education and discipline, which makes it more difficult for students to move up in society (Snyder, 1970).

Another issue is credentialism, where education is used to maintain class differences rather than to prove real skills (Collins, 2000. Many universities and private institutions sell expensive degrees and certifications, promising better career opportunities. However, wealthy students can easily afford these programs, while poorer students take on large student loans without a guaranteed job outcome (Collins, 2000). This highlights how education is now more focused on financial gain rather than helping students learn, further widening the gap between the rich and the poor.

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Problem 2: Commercialization of Education – How Education Became a Business: A Sociohistorical Perspective

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Problem 2: Commercialization of Education – How Education Became a Business: A Sociohistorical Perspective

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Education was once seen as something that should be available to everyone, helping people learn skills and knowledge to contribute to society. However, over time, economic and political changes have turned education into a for-profit industry. One of the earliest shifts happened during the Industrial Revolution with Taylorism and the Factory Model of Education (Leland, 2002). Schools started to train students for specific jobs instead of focusing on creativity and critical thinking. This is when standardized testing became a way to sort students into different careers (Leland , 2002). Today, many universities operate like businesses, focusing on increasing student numbers, improving rankings, and making money, rather than providing meaningful education (Leland, 2002). Schools also rely on performance data and test scores, treating students more like numbers rather than individual learners with unique needs.

In the 1970s, neoliberal policies made education even more commercialized (Friedman, 1970s). Governments cut public funding for schools and universities, which meant that schools had to find private investors and raise tuition fees. This led to the rise of for-profit universities and expensive private schools, where money became more important than student learning (Friedman, 1970). Public schools also started to focus on rankings, test scores, and efficiency, rather than ensuring that students received a well-rounded education. Another major issue is that student loans and tuition fees have turned education into a debt industry, forcing many students to borrow large amounts of money just to get a degree (Friedman, 1970).

Technology has also added to the problem by making education more expensive for some students. Selwyn (2015) explains that digital learning is often promoted as a way to make education accessible, but in reality, it creates more inequality. Wealthier students have access to fast internet, modern computers, and high-quality digital tools, while low-income students struggle with outdated computers and slow internet (Selwyn, 2015). Additionally, many online learning platforms like Coursera, Udemy, and Kaplan charge high fees, making quality education too expensive for many students (Selwyn, 2015).

While privatization and technology have brought some benefits, they have also increased the gap between wealthy and low-income students. Today, education is seen more as a business than a basic right, making it harder for disadvantaged students to succeed.

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Education for Sale: How Commercialization Reinforces Inequality

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Education for Sale: How Commercialization Reinforces Inequality

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Education, once considered a public service, has increasingly become a profit-driven industry, benefiting those with financial resources while disadvantaging marginalized students. Harvey (2005) explains that neoliberal policies have led to reduced government funding for public education, forcing schools and universities to seek private investment. This shift has resulted in the expansion of private schools, standardized testing industries, and tutoring businesses, making education more of a commodity than a right.

Bourdieu’s Social Reproduction Theory (2018) supports this by showing how wealthier students gain an unfair advantage through private schooling, expensive degrees, and elite tutoring services, reinforcing class divisions (Bourdieu, 2018). Similarly, Snyder's Hidden Curriculum (1970) highlights how private schools focus on leadership and confidence, preparing students for high-status careers, while public schools emphasize discipline and obedience, limiting upward mobility (Snyder, 1970).

Additionally, Collins (2000) argues that educational credentials serve as tools for maintaining social class, rather than simply proving skills or knowledge. Wealthy students can afford prestigious universities and costly certifications, securing better jobs, while poorer students struggle with rising tuition fees and student loan debt (Collins, 2000).

The Industrial Revolution and Factory Model of Education (Leland, 2002) further illustrates how education has been designed to train students for workforce roles, rather than encouraging creativity or critical thinking (Leland, 2002). In today’s digital era, Selwyn (2015) highlights the Digital Divide, where students in wealthy schools use advanced learning technologies, while students in underfunded schools rely on outdated digital tools and limited internet access (Selwyn, 2015).

These perspectives collectively show that commercialized education prioritizes financial gain over equal learning opportunities, deepening the divide between privileged and disadvantaged students.

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Conclusion: The Role of Education in an Evolving Society

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Conclusion: The Role of Education in an Evolving Society

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Education is an essential part of society that helps people gain knowledge, skills, and values. However, not everyone has the same access to quality education. This discussion looked at two big challenges in education—educational inequality and the commercialization of education—and how they affect students.

Many students face educational inequality because of factors like money, race, gender, and location. Wealthier schools have better teachers, more resources, and more learning opportunities, while schools in low-income areas struggle with fewer books, outdated technology, and large class sizes. Education is supposed to help people succeed, but when resources are not shared equally, some students have fewer chances to reach their full potential. To fix this, schools need better funding, fairer policies, and programs that help all students, no matter their background.

At the same time, education is becoming more like a business, where private companies profit from tutoring, standardized tests, and expensive university programs. This makes learning harder to afford for students from lower-income families, while wealthy students have better access to private education, test preparation, and high-ranking universities. Instead of focusing only on profits, education should remain a public good that helps everyone learn and grow.

To create a fairer education system, governments and schools must make learning accessible and affordable for all students. Public schools should receive enough funding, education costs should be controlled, and online learning should be available to everyone. Education should be about learning and improving lives, not just making money. By ensuring equal opportunities for all students, education can truly help people succeed and contribute to a better society.

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