# data[].attributes.headline
Cholera and the origins of the American sanitary order in the Philippines

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Cholera and the origins of the American sanitary order in the Philippines

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Ileto, R. (1988). Cholera and the origins of the American sanitary order in the Philippines. Ortiga, Y. Y., Diño, M. J. S., & Macabasag, R. L. A. (2022). Clocking out: Nurses refusing to work in a time of pandemic. Social Science & Medicine, 305, 115114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.115114

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Cholera spreads rapidly among crowded and unsanitary conditions in areas affected by the conflict, such as Manila and other urban centers.

The movement of troops and civilians exacerbates the spread of the disease, similar to the spread of COVID-19 in densely populated areas during the pandemic.

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Civilians and combatants struggle to access medical care due to the destruction of healthcare infrastructure and the prioritization of resources for the war effort.

Similarly, during the COVID-19 pandemic, overwhelmed healthcare systems and resource allocation challenges hindered access to medical care for many individuals.

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3. Public Health Measures Hindered by Conflict

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3. Public Health Measures Hindered by Conflict

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Efforts to contain the cholera outbreak, such as quarantine measures and sanitation improvements, are hindered by the ongoing conflict between Filipino resistance forces and American military authorities.

This mirrors the challenges faced during the COVID-19 pandemic, where public health measures were sometimes undermined by political conflicts and disagreements.

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Indigenous communities in remote areas of the Philippines are particularly vulnerable to the cholera epidemic due to limited access to healthcare and clean water sources.

Similarly, marginalized and indigenous populations around the world faced disproportionate impacts from COVID-19 due to existing social and economic disparities.

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5. Economic Disruption and Social Unrest

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5. Economic Disruption and Social Unrest

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The cholera epidemic exacerbates economic disruption caused by the war, leading to social unrest and further instability in affected regions.

Similarly, the economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, including job losses and disruptions to supply chains, contributed to social unrest and political tensions in many countries.

These events highlight the intersecting impacts of disease outbreaks and armed conflicts on communities, healthcare systems, and socio-political dynamics.

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Retrieved from: Hu, B., Guo, H., Zhou, P., & Shi, Z. L. (2020, October 6). Characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19. Nature Reviews Microbiology. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41579-020-00459-7

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December 2019: First cases of COVID-19 reported in Wuhan, China.

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December 2019: First cases of COVID-19 reported in Wuhan, China.

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Date: December 2019

Location: Wuhan, Hubei Province, China

Description: The first cases of a novel coronavirus, later named COVID-19, were reported in Wuhan, China. The virus was linked to a seafood market in the city (Hu et al., 2020).

References

- Hu, B., Guo, H., Zhou, P., & Shi, Z. L. (2020, October 6). Characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19. Nature Reviews Microbiology. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41579-020-00459-7

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January 2020: WHO declares COVID-19 a Public Health Emergency of International Concern.

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January 2020: WHO declares COVID-19 a Public Health Emergency of International Concern.

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Date: January 2020

Location: Global

Description: The World Health Organization (WHO) declared COVID-19 a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) due to its rapid spread and the threat it posed to global health security (Boseley, 2020).

References

- Boseley, S. (2020, July 1). WHO declares coronavirus  a global health emergency. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jan/30/who-declares-coronavirus-a-global-health-emergency

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Retrieved from: McCarthy, N. (2020, April 2). The Status Of Global COVID-19 Border Closures. Statista Daily Data. https://www.statista.com/chart/21326/coronavirus-border-closures/

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March 2020: Many countries impose lockdowns and travel restrictions.

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March 2020: Many countries impose lockdowns and travel restrictions.

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Date: March 2020

Location: Global

Description: In response to the escalating COVID-19 pandemic, numerous countries implemented lockdowns, quarantine measures, and travel restrictions to contain the spread of the virus and mitigate its impact on public health systems (McCarthy, 2020).

References

- McCarthy, N. (2020, April 2). The Status Of Global COVID-19 Border Closures. Statista Daily Data. https://www.statista.com/chart/21326/coronavirus-border-closures/

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Retrieved from: Singapore Institute of International Affairs |  Infographic: Covid-19 – Global Overview (20 April 2020). (n.d.). https://www.siiaonline.org/infographic-covid-19-global-overview-20-april-2020/

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April 2020: Global cases surpass 1 million.

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April 2020: Global cases surpass 1 million.

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Date: April 2020

Location: Global

Description: The number of confirmed COVID-19 cases worldwide surpassed 1 million, highlighting the rapid spread of the virus and its significant impact on populations across the globe.

(Singapore Institute of International Affairs |  Infographic: Covid-19 – Global Overview (20 April 2020), n.d.)

References

- Singapore Institute of International Affairs |  Infographic: Covid-19 – Global Overview (20 April 2020). (n.d.). https://www.siiaonline.org/infographic-covid-19-global-overview-20-april-2020/

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"Cholera's Voyage: The Hong Kong Ship That Brought Disease"

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"Cholera's Voyage: The Hong Kong Ship That Brought Disease"

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Date: Specific date unknown (occurred during the Philippine-American War, roughly between 1902-1904)

Location: Philippines

Description: A vessel arriving from Hong Kong introduced cholera to the Philippines during the Philippine-American War, leading to a widespread outbreak of the disease (Ileto, 2017).

References

- Hickman, K. (2018, December 3). Spanish-American War: Battle of Manila Bay. ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/spanish-american-war-battle-manila-bay-2361185

- Ileto, R. C. (2017, March 1). Cholera and the origins of the American sanitary order in the Philippines. Manchester University Press eBooks. https://doi.org/10.7765/9781526123664.00009

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"Echoes of Crisis: International Recognition of Cholera's Threat during the Philippine-American War"

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"Echoes of Crisis: International Recognition of Cholera's Threat during the Philippine-American War"

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Date: 1902-1904

Location: Philippines

Description: International health authorities recognized the severity of the cholera outbreak during the Philippine-American War, highlighting the global implications of the disease's spread (Philippine-American War | Facts, History, & Significance, 2024).

References

- Ileto, R. C. (2017, March 1). Cholera and the origins of the American sanitary order in the Philippines. Manchester University Press eBooks. https://doi.org/10.7765/9781526123664.00009

- Philippine-American War | Facts, History, & Significance. (2024, February 16). Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Philippine-American-War

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Retrieved from: Nzpinoy (2019, March 20). 20 March, 1902. Pinoy Stop. https://www.pinoystop.org/20-march-1902/

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"Under Siege: Cholera Lockdowns and Restrictions in the Philippine-American War"

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"Under Siege: Cholera Lockdowns and Restrictions in the Philippine-American War"

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Date: 1902-1904

Location: Philippines

Description: Local authorities and military commanders imposed lockdowns and restrictions in affected areas to control the spread of cholera during the Philippine-American War, including quarantines, curfews, and movement restrictions (Nzpinoy, 2019).

References

- Ileto, R. C. (2017, March 1). Cholera and the origins of the American sanitary order in the Philippines. Manchester University Press eBooks. https://doi.org/10.7765/9781526123664.00009

- Nzpinoy (2019, March 20). 20 March, 1902. Pinoy Stop. https://www.pinoystop.org/20-march-1902/

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"1902 Cholera Crisis: Thousands Stricken as Disease Ravages Post-War Philippines"

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"1902 Cholera Crisis: Thousands Stricken as Disease Ravages Post-War Philippines"

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Date: 1902

Location: Philippines

Description: In 1902, there was a significant surge in cholera cases across the Philippines, resulting in thousands of infections and a devastating toll on civilian populations, particularly in the aftermath of the Philippine-American War.

References

- Facebook. (n.d.). https://www.facebook.com/HistoricManil

-a/posts/the-cholera-epidemic-1901-1905-march-20-1902-

a-ship-from-hongkong-arrived-in-man/130938678468014/

- Ileto, R. C. (2017, March 1). Cholera and the origins of the American sanitary order in the Philippines. Manchester University Press eBooks. https://doi.org/10.7765/9781526123664.00009

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"Struggles Against Cholera: Vaccination Campaigns Amidst Conflict in the Philippines During the Philippine-American War"

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"Struggles Against Cholera: Vaccination Campaigns Amidst Conflict in the Philippines During the Philippine-American War"

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Date: 1902-1904

Location: Philippines

Description: Vaccination campaigns were undertaken, particularly among American military personnel stationed in the Philippines during the Philippine-American War, aiming to protect soldiers from cholera outbreaks amidst the conflict (Longley, 2020).

References

- Ileto, R. C. (2017, March 1). Cholera and the origins of the American sanitary order in the Philippines. Manchester University Press eBooks. https://doi.org/10.7765/9781526123664.00009

- Longley, R. (2020, May 26). Philippine-American War: Causes and Consequences. ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/philippine-american-war-4846100

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Retrieved from: Peterson, C., Lee, B., & Nugent, K. (2022, June 15). COVID-19 Vaccination Hesitancy among Healthcare Workers—A Review. Vaccines. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines10060948

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December 2020: Vaccination campaigns begin in various countries.

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December 2020: Vaccination campaigns begin in various countries.

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Date: December 2020

Location: Various countries worldwide

Description: Vaccination campaigns against COVID-19 began in multiple countries, marking a critical milestone in the global effort to control the pandemic. Vaccines were rolled out to prioritize healthcare workers, vulnerable populations, and eventually, the general public (Peterson et al., 2022).

References

- Peterson, C., Lee, B., & Nugent, K. (2022, June 15). COVID-19 Vaccination Hesitancy among Healthcare Workers—A Review. Vaccines. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines10060948

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The quick international spread of both COVID-19 and cholera underscores the ease with which infectious diseases can move throughout nations and continents in today's linked globe.

In their comparison of COVID-19 and cholera, Jensen et al. (2024) emphasize the two diseases' similar global distribution and social consequences. In order to better understand and combat contemporary infectious diseases like COVID-19, they support a revisitation of past epidemics such as cholera.

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Quarantine, case isolation, contact tracking, and promotion of hygienic practices such as handwashing and sanitization were among the public health measures necessitated by both epidemics. The objectives of these actions were to slow down the illnesses' progress and minimize transmission.

Strong public health initiatives are essential in combating infectious diseases such as cholera and COVID-19, as noted by Ortiga et al. (2024), particularly in light of the movement of healthcare workers worldwide. Their examination of Filipino nurses' responses to the deployment ban highlights the need for all-encompassing public health plans to handle the intricate interactions between international workforce migration and disease prevention.

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The rush of patients in need of medical attention caused the healthcare systems in places severely afflicted by COVID-19 or cholera to become overloaded. Hospitals found it difficult to meet the increased demand for healthcare services by offering enough staff, resources, and treatment.

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Both epidemics had a major negative impact on the economy, causing strain on government finances, business interruptions, and personal income losses. In an effort to slow the spread of the illnesses, lockdowns, travel restrictions, and the shutdown of non-essential companies were frequent measures, although they also caused economic downturns.

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Causative Agents and Mode of Transmission

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Causative Agents and Mode of Transmission

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COVID-19 is mostly spread by respiratory droplets and aerosols, whereas cholera is primarily caused by a bacteria that is spread by contaminated food and water.

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While non-pharmaceutical interventions including mask wearing, social distancing, and lockdowns are also included in COVID-19 containment measures, cholera containment measures usually center on enhancing the infrastructure for water and sanitation.

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Public health professionals had to deal with difficulties that were particular to each outbreak

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Public health professionals had to deal with difficulties that were particular to each outbreak

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Addressing insufficient infrastructure for water and sanitation was a barrier for cholera, but identifying and controlling the spread of a novel virus, creating and disseminating vaccinations, and dispelling false information were challenges for COVID-19.

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Historical and contemporary views on cholera transmission: are we repeating past discussions? Can lessons learned from cholera be applied to COVID‐19?

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Historical and contemporary views on cholera transmission: are we repeating past discussions? Can lessons learned from cholera be applied to COVID‐19?

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Jensen, P. K. M., Grant, S. L., Perner, M. L., Hossain, Z. Z., Ferdous, J., Sultana, R., ... & Begum, A. (2021). Historical and contemporary views on cholera transmission: are we repeating past discussions? Can lessons learned from cholera be applied to COVID‐19?. Apmis, 129(7), 421-430. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8014510/

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How pandemics have shaped the development of anaesthesia and intensive care medicine. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care

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How pandemics have shaped the development of anaesthesia and intensive care medicine. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care

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Levin, A. B., Ball, C. M., & Featherstone, P. J. (2020). From cholera to COVID-19: how pandemics have shaped the development of anaesthesia and intensive care medicine. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care, 48(3_suppl), 28-38. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0310057X20969701

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Introduction of the Personal Domain in Water Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH), a New Approach to Identify Missing Health Impacts

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Introduction of the Personal Domain in Water Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH), a New Approach to Identify Missing Health Impacts

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Jensen, P. K. M., Hossain, Z. Z., Sultana, R., Ferdous, J., Almeida, S., & Begum, A. (2023). Introduction of the personal domain in Water Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH), a New approach to identify missing health impacts. Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease, 8(5), 252. https://www.mdpi.com/2414-6366/8/5/252

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Public health experts recognized the value of access to clean water and proper sanitation during the cholera pandemic in order to stop the spread of waterborne illnesses. Lessons learned from the COVID-19 pandemic include the necessity of strong healthcare systems that can withstand spikes in demand, the significance of early discovery and response, and international cooperation in vaccine research and delivery.

Ortiga et al. (2024) emphasize the need of proper cleanliness, particularly in hospital settings, in preventing the development of infectious diseases like cholera and COVID-19. Their findings highlight the necessity of strong sanitation standards in protecting the health of both healthcare professionals and patients during public health crises, as evidenced by Filipino nurses' actions despite deployment constraints.

In conclusion, there are important distinctions between the two epidemics even if there are some parallels between the cholera epidemic and the COVID-19 pandemic in terms of societal effects, public health initiatives, and government reactions. Comprehending these parallels and divergences can facilitate the development of future reactions to analogous public health emergencies.

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The COVID-19 pandemic of the twenty-first century and the cholera epidemic of the nineteenth century occurred at different times, which affected containment measures and brought attention to issues encountered by public health experts. In contrast to 19th-century epidemics, which concentrated on sanitation and quarantine due to a lack of scientific knowledge and technology, COVID-19 benefited from scientific collaboration and technological developments, allowing for faster containment techniques and international communication. The value of early diagnosis, clear communication, and infrastructure investment in public health is highlighted by the lessons learnt.

Jensen et al. (2020) offer a thorough examination of the historical and modern perspectives on the spread of cholera, drawing comparisons between COVID-19 and the disease. The authors emphasize how crucial it is to take lessons from previous discussions and apply them to improve our comprehension and response to the challenges posed by infectious diseases today. They do this by reviewing historical data from the Copenhagen cholera outbreak of 1853 and looking at recent empirical evidence from Bangladesh.