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One strength of the biological explanations of offending behaviour is research on twins. Concordance rates for offending behaviour in MZ twins is 35%, compared to 14% in DZ twins. This suggests a genetic influence. Furthermore, a Finnish study found 2 candidate genes (MAOA, CDH13 which further supports influence of genes on offending behaviour.

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It may be argued Mednick's research may oversimplify the causes of offending by focusing too heavily on genetic predispositions and not giving enough attention to socio-economic factors. He takes a very strong stance on nature, and should involve the nurture debate.

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The nature of some of the research into neurochemistry and neurophysiology is often correlational, which means that there is no clear way to show cause and effect. For example, the low levels of serotonin found in offenders could be a cause of offending behaviour, but they could also be the effect of it. Similarly, the structural brain abnormalities found in Raine et al. (1997), could be a cause of offending behaviour or the result of some environmental factor, which in turn makes them more likely to become a criminal. This matters because it highlights the complexity of the relationship between biology and behaviour and suggests that further investigation is required.

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The biological approach suggests that offending is determined by genetic/neutral factors, meaning a person shouldn't be responsible for a crime. Although our justice system is based on the principle that we are all responsible for out own action.

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One criticism of neural explanations of offending behaviour is that they can be considered reductionist. For example, where researchers look at the way a neurotransmitter or brain region might contribute to offending behaviour, they are overlooking other important factors, such as how the environment might have an impact on these areas as well. That being said, such researchers will argue that to be reductionist allows a more straightforward investigation to be conducted as it would be nearly impossible to disentangle all of the possible explanations and their interactions and investigate them scientifically.This is important to consider as while reducing complex behaviour to its simplest form does require researchers to overlook key factors, it is also essential for good scientific practice.

- Ruby

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One limitation is the link between neural differences and APD, which may be more complex than stated. Farrington studied a group of men with APD who had all experienced different risk factors during childhood, for example, a convicted parent. These childhood experiences may actually be the reason for the cause of APD, alongside some neural differences. Furthermore, the association between neural differences, APD and offending is much more detailed and complex than suggested as there may be intervening variables that influence this.

-A.B

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Genetic explanations provide strong support for the nature side of the debate due to research using twins. This suggests there is some genetic explanation towards offending. However, it completely disregards the nurture argument that external factors could influence offending behaviour such as social influence. This means it can also be described as being reductionist as it may miss other key factors into offending behaviour.

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Kandel and Freed (1989):

Kandel and Freed’s work focused on the genetic influence on behavior.

They highlighted that genetic factors continue to play a role throughout life.

Neurological changes occur due to the activation of genes that strengthen connections between neurons, contributing to the formation of new memories and images.

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Evolutionary and Genetic Explanations of Violent Crime;   Martin Gottschalk & Lee Ellis

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Evolutionary and Genetic Explanations of Violent Crime;   Martin Gottschalk & Lee Ellis

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Genetic Explanations

of Violent Crime

Martin Gottschalk

Lee Ellis

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The study used 14000 Danish men born between 1924 and 1947 to see if criminal behaviour was influenced more by biological parents (nature) or adoptive parents (nurture). It showed that if the men's biological parents had committed a crime they themselves were twice as likely to commit a crime. This proved the idea that genetics influence people more than environment, although behaviour can still be affected by the environment.

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Add the evaluation of Neural explanations;

You may wish to consider.

Sampling Bias

Farrington (2006)

Raunch (2006)

Kandel and Freed (1989)

Representativeness

Correlation/Causation

Reductionism/Holism

Application/Usefulness

Freewill/Determinism

Nature/Nurture

Temporal Validity

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Add the evaluation of genetic explanations;

You may wish to consider.

Correlation/Causation

Reductionism/Holism

Application/Usefulness

Freewill/Determinism

Nature/Nurture

Temporal Validity

Mednick (1984) research

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Neural; Kent (2001) Limbic Abnormalities in affective processing by Criminal Psychopaths a revealed by fMRI

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Neural; Kent (2001) Limbic Abnormalities in affective processing by Criminal Psychopaths a revealed by fMRI

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BBC; Two genes linked with violent crime Published28 October 2014

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BBC; Two genes linked with violent crime Published28 October 2014

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By Melissa Hogenboom
Science reporter, BBC News

A genetic analysis of almost 900 offenders in Finland has revealed two genes associated with violent crime.

Those with the genes were 13 times more likely to have a history of repeated violent behaviour.

The authors of the study, published in the journal Molecular Psychiatry, said at least 5-10% of all violent crime in Finland could be attributed to individuals with these genotypes.

But they stressed the genes could not be used to screen criminals.

Many more genes may be involved in violent behaviour and environmental factors are also known to have a fundamental role.

Even if an individual has a "high-risk combination" of these genes the majority will never commit a crime, the lead author of the work Jari Tiihonen of the Karolinska Institutet in Sweden said.

"Committing a severe, violent crime is extremely rare in the general population. So even though the relative risk would be increased, the absolute risk is very low," he told the BBC.

The study, which involved analysis of almost 900 criminals, is the first to have looked at the genetic make-up of so many violent criminals in this way.

Warrior gene

Each criminal was given a profile based on their offences, categorising them into violent or non-violent. The association between genes and previous behaviour was strongest for the 78 who fitted the "extremely violent offender" profile.

This group had committed a total of 1,154 murders, manslaughters, attempted homicides or batteries. A replication group of 114 criminals had all committed at least one murder.

These all carried a low-activity version of the MAOA gene, which previous research has dubbed the "warrior gene" because of its link to aggressive behaviour.

Crime genes

The two genes associated with violent repeat offenders were the MAOA gene and a variant of cadherin 13 (CDH13)

The MAOA gene codes for the enzyme monoamine oxidase A, which is important for controlling the amount of dopamine and serotonin in the brain

CDH13 has previously been associated with substance abuse and ADHD

Those classified as non-violent offenders did not have this genetic profile

A deficiency of the enzyme this controls could result in "dopamine hyperactivity" especially when an individual drinks alcohol or takes drugs such as amphetamines, said Prof Tiihonen. The majority of all individuals who commit severe violent crime in Finland do so under the influence of alcohol or drugs.

Free will

For now, a person's genetic information should not have any influence on conviction outcomes in criminal courts, Prof Tiihonen added.

"There are many things which can contribute to a person's mental capacity. The only thing that matters is the mental capacity of the individual to understand the consequences of what he or she is doing and whether or not the individual can control his or her own behaviour."

Christopher Ferguson of Stetson University in the US state of Florida agreed. He said it must be remembered that there was not "one or even two genes that by themselves code for violence or crime".

"To some extent we're all products of genetics and the environment but I don't think that robs us of free will or understanding right and wrong."

Despite this view, echoed by many other scientists, there have been several instances of defence lawyers using genetic information to reduce sentences.

In 2009, a court in Italy reduced the sentence of a criminal with genes linked to bad behaviour. In a similar case in the US a murderer's genetic profile was highlighted as a contributing factor for his crime.

Commenting on the latest study, Dr Ferguson said it added to our understanding of the factors involved in violent crime.

"Studies like this really document that a large percentage of our behaviour in terms of violence or aggression is influenced by our biology - our genes - and our brain anatomy.

"It's important to conceptualise crime and violence, where it comes from, even if we would not want to radically change the criminal justice system."

Brett Haberstick from the University of Colorado, Boulder in the US, said the work illustrates that "finding genes for criminal behaviour is going to be difficult", despite a long tradition of biological work in the area of criminology.

He said it would be important for others with similar data to replicate the study.

"It is worthwhile to look for biological contributions to criminal or antisocial behaviour as their impact on individuals, communities and society in general is sizeable. What I think, however, is that it is vital that environmental influences are considered as well," he told BBC News.

Jan Schnupp at the University of Oxford was critical of the work. He commented that up to half the population could have one of the genes involved.

"To call these alleles 'genes for violence' would therefore be a massive exaggeration. In combination with many other factors these genes may make it a little harder for you to control violent urges, but they most emphatically do not predetermine you for a life of crime."

More on this story

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By Melissa Hogenboom Science reporter, BBC News A genetic analysis of almost 900 offenders in Finland has revealed two genes associated with violent crime. Those with the genes were 13 times more likely to have a history of repeated violent behaviour.

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Two genes found linked to tendency for violent crime

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Two genes found linked to tendency for violent crime

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Finnish study blames genes with between five and 10 per cent of severe violent crime

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Violent behaviour could be in our genes, study finds

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Finnish study blames genes with between five and 10 per cent of severe violent crime

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Neural; Morgan, A. B., & Lilienfeld, S. O. (2000). A meta-analytic review of the relation between antisocial behaviour and neuropsychological measures of executive function. Clinical Psychology Review, 20(1), 113–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7358(98)00096-8

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Neural; Morgan, A. B., & Lilienfeld, S. O. (2000). A meta-analytic review of the relation between antisocial behaviour and neuropsychological measures of executive function. Clinical Psychology Review, 20(1), 113–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7358(98)00096-8

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What Makes a Murderer S01E01 John Massey

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What Makes a Murderer S01E01 John Massey

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Neural foundations to moral reasoning and antisocial behaviour

Adrian Raine and Yaling Yang

Department of Psychology and Neuroscience Program, University of Southern California,

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Neural foundations to moral reasoning and antisocial behavior

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Abstract. A common feature of the antisocial, rule-breaking behavior that is central to criminal, violent and psychopathic individuals is the failure to follow

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While genetic and neural explanations provide valuable insights into offending behavior, they face criticisms. Critics argue these explanations may oversimplify the complex interaction of genetic, neural, and environmental factors. Additionally, there's concern about the implications for free will and responsibility, as well as the potential for stigmatization of individuals with certain genetic markers or brain abnormalities.

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Studies on neurotransmitters, such as serotonin and dopamine, suggest they play a significant role in regulating mood and behaviour. Imbalances or dysfunctions in these neurotransmitter systems have been linked to aggressive and impulsive behaviours, providing further support for neural explanations. However, the relationship between neurotransmitters and offending behaviour is complex and influenced by genetic and environmental factors.

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Neural Explanations of Offending Behaviour

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Neural Explanations of Offending Behaviour

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Neural explanations focus on the role of brain structures and functions in offending behaviour. Research has shown that abnormalities in certain brain areas, like the prefrontal cortex, are associated with impulsivity and aggressive behaviour, supporting the neural perspective. However, it's important to note that not all individuals with these brain abnormalities go on to offend, indicating other factors are also at play.

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The MAOA gene has been linked to aggressive behaviour, with some studies suggesting a correlation between the low-activity variant of the MAOA gene and increased aggression. This evidence supports the genetic explanation but also highlights the complexity of genetic factors and their interactions with environmental influences.

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Genetic Explanations of Offending Behaviour

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Genetic Explanations of Offending Behaviour

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Genetic explanations suggest that offending behavior may be heritable. Twin and adoption studies provide support for this perspective, indicating a significant genetic component. However, critics argue that environmental factors play a crucial role and that genetics cannot fully explain criminal behavior.