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Working memory is also a temporary memory, but it is processed consciously. Working memory allows an individual to build, take apart, or rework information for it to eventually be stored long-term (Sousa, 2022). Working memory allows an individual to plan, comprehend, reason, and problem solve (Cowan, 2014). Working memory is crucial in the learning process as this is where new information will be stored or lost. If that information is stored, a person's working memory will also allow the individual to recall it from their long-term memory at a later time. In order for that information to be stored, it must make sense and have meaning to the individual (Sousa, 2022).

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Long-term memory is categorized into declarative and non-declarative memory.

Declarative memory is conscious and explicit where an individual can recall names, facts, objects, etc. (Sousa, 2022). Declarative memory can then be further split into semantic and episodic memory. Semantic memory allows a person to recall facts or information that often do not have a connection to the individual, such as remembering the capital of a state, or the names of famous leaders in history (Sousa, 2022). Episodic memory refers to recalling memories of the individual's life and gives them a sense of self such as remembering a birthday party or the first time they drove a car (Sousa, 2022).

Non-declarative memory in contrast is remembering information that cannot be explained in a straightforward way (Sousa, 2022). This includes procedural memory, in which you remember how to do something, the perceptual representation system, classical conditioning, and non-associative learning (Sousa, 2022). Non-declarative memory is implicit.

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Transfer is the most powerful part of learning as this is where a person takes previous information learned and is able to apply it somewhere else. Transfer has two steps; transfer during learning and the transfer of learning (Sousa, 2022).

Transfer during learning takes new information and combines it with previous information from long-term storage. This process occurs in a person's working memory. When the new information comes in, the brain will search for a connection within it's long-term storage. If there is a connection, neural networks will activate and the memories can be combined and then stored again (Sousa, 2022). This explains why it is so important for educators to build upon previous skills. This transfer can be positive or negative. Positive transfer is when past learning helps the new learning. Negative transfer is past learning interferes with new learning which often causes confusion (Sousa, 2022).

The transfer of learning refers to when a person takes the information they learned are able to apply it elsewhere (Sousa, 2022). This is the key to successful learning as children need previously taught skills to be successful in the future. The student may apply knowledge to a new situation or use previous information to problem-solve. Educators that use integrated units are often the most successful when promoting transfer (Sousa, 2022).

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Learning and retention are not the same concept. Learning takes in the information and stores it, but if there is little connection, sense, or meaning to the individual, the information may be lost over time (Sousa, 2022). During the learning process, only some of the information will be retained in long-term storage. Ways to increase retention is rehearsal of material, chunking material, and having a variety of teaching methods (Sousa, 2022). Information is often retained when there is a transfer during learning as the person forms a connection. If that information is stored it can often be applied elsewhere as well, hence, a transfer of learning.

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Short-term memory refers to information that the brain stores for a short period of time. It is often divided into two-subgroups: Immediate and working memory. Immediate memory comes through the senses and the information that is not lost will begin processing (Sousa, 2022). Immediate memory is processed within seconds subconsciously and is either blocked and lost or sent to working memory (Sousa, 2022). Immediate memory is often referred to as sensory memory.

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When a person experiences trauma, the structure and function of their brain can be affected (Lebow, 2021). The brain's main job is to keep you safe and past experiences and memory are recalled when creating new memories. For a person who has experienced trauma, their brain may overcompensate and create a new sense of danger based on past experiences (Lebow, 2021). When danger arrises, the brain will go into fight, flight, freeze, or fawn mode in attempt to protect itself. A person in this state does not have a higher focus on their working memory and will not learn at typical capacity. In addition to this, those with trauma are shown to have less active hippocampus' which can cause trouble with memory and problem-solving (Lebow, 2021).

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There are small simple things people can do in order to help their memory. This includes being physically and mentally active, getting adequate sleep, eating well, surrounding and themselves with others (Mayo Clinic, 2019). These activities keep both the body and the brain active and functioning which can improve and keep a person's memory sharp.

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In order for memories to be stored long-term it is important educators improve the learning process allowing for this to happen. By understanding the different kinds of memory and how to activate them, educators can help students be more successful in the classroom (DiTullio, 2021).

Here are some ways to improve memory in the learning process:

Activate background knowledge so students can make connections from prior experiences to their current learning.

Use retrieval practice such as flashcards, entry/exit tickets, and frequent assessments so students practice quick recalling of information.

Make learning interactive and relavant by connecting it to other material and having students collaborate with one another (DiTullio, 2021).

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Cowan, N. (2014). Working memory underpins cognitive development, learning, and education. Educational Psychology Review, 26(2), 197–223. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-013-9246-y

DiTullio, G. (2021, September 9). How to Engage Students’ Memory Processes to Improve Learning. Edutopia. https://www.edutopia.org/article/how-engage-students-memory-processes-improve-learning

Lebow, H. (2021, May 27). How Does PTSD Affect the Brain? The Physical Effects of Trauma. Psych Central. https://psychcentral.com/ptsd/the-science-behind-ptsd-symptoms-how-trauma-changes-the-brain

Mayo Clinic. (2019). Memory loss: 7 Tips to Improve Your Memory. Mayo Clinic. https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/healthy-aging/in-depth/memory-loss/art-20046518

Sousa, D. A. (2022). How the Brain Learns (6th ed.). Corwin Press.