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Welcome to my timeline!

This timeline chronicles my journey through the history and culture of Latin America, as learned on this course, highlighting my evolving understanding of the complexities and resistances that have shaped this region.

Theoretical Framework:

Reception theory, developed by Hans Robert Jauss, serves as a foundational lens for interpreting the materials studied on this course. This approach underscores how individual experiences and historical contexts influence our understanding of texts, events, and works, particularly in the context of resistance.

While Jauss’ focus was primarily rooted in literary studies, reception theory offers profound insights into broader cultural analysis, especially when examining these works which are not all literary based.

Each slide hopes to present a nuanced analysis of each work, connecting personal insights with broader theoretical contexts that highlight themes of resistance.

This timeline is deeply informed by the knowledge gained from Iona Macintyre’s classes and PowerPoints, with the notes taken during these sessions forming the main source for the ideas expressed.

Sources:

Holub, Robert C., Reception Theory, (Routledge, 2013), doi:10.4324/9781315016061

Iona Macintyre, PowerPoints, Latin American History and Culture Entwined

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Frida Kahlo; Self-Portrait on the Border between Mexico and the United States, 1938.
31 × 35 cm, oil on metal, private collection of María and Manuel Reyero in New York.

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Autorretrato en la frontera entre México y EEUU (1932)

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Autorretrato en la frontera entre México y EEUU (1932)

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Reflecting on Frida Kahlo’s self-portrait after visiting Guadalupe Maravilla’s Piedras de Fuego (2024) at the Talbot Gallery reveals profound connections in their shared use of art as resistance.

Both artists transform personal and collective struggles into narratives of resilience, through their creative expressions.

Maravilla’s Tripa Chuca drawings, resembling maps and borders, explore “experiences of migration and displacement”. This echoes Kahlo’s self-portrait on the border between Mexico and the United States, which reflects her alienation and struggle as a “stranger in a strange land,” a sentiment shared in letters to her mother.

Maravilla’s collaboration with a Salvadoran refugee in Edinburgh to create spaces for healing underscores art’s capacity to resist and regenerate amidst trauma.

This thematic focus resonates with the ideas of Venezuelan writer Arturo Uslar Pietri, as highlighted by Miguel Ángel Asturias, who emphasised transforming pain through art into acts of regeneration and wielding it as “Un Instrumento de Lucha.”

Sources:

‘Guadalupe Maravilla / Piedras de Fuego (Fire Stones)’ <https://www.trg.ed.ac.uk/exhibition/guadalupe-maravilla-piedras-de-fuego-fire-stones> [accessed 25 March 2025]

Frida Kahlo; Self-Portrait on the Border between Mexico and the United States, 1938.31 × 35 cm, oil on metal, private collection of María and Manuel Reyero in New York.

Carolyn, Burke, ‘In “Gringolandia”’, The New York Times Company (New York, 2020)

Angel Asturias, Miguel, ‘La Novela Latinoamericana de Una Época’, Nobel Lecture, de diciembre de 1967 <https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/literature/1967/asturias/25600-miguel-angel-asturias-nobel-lecture-1967/> [accessed 25 March 2025]

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Autorretrato en la frontera entre México y EEUU (1932)

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Autorretrato en la frontera entre México y EEUU (1932)

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The commodification of Frida Kahlo’s art raises critical questions. While it amplifies her reach, it often comes at the cost of decontextualising her work and stripping it of its essence.

For example, when conservative leader Theresa May wore a Kahlo-themed bracelet in 2017, it starkly contrasted with Kahlo’s communist beliefs, illustrating how commodification can reduce art to something rather superficial.

This aligns with the theory of simulacra developed by Jean Baudrillard. A process that looks at how commodification detaches art from its socio-political roots.

However, commodification can also broaden her work’s reach, enabling it to empower new audiences, and inspire discussions on identity and feminism.

Ultimately, Kahlo’s case presents a complex dichotomy: does commodification democratise or depoliticise her art?

While her legacy as a symbol of resistance endures, in my opinion the commodified forms often dilute the struggles her work sought to amplify.

Sources:

Genosko, Gary, Baudrillard and Signs, (Routledge, 2002), doi:10.4324/9780203201145

Prasad, Priya, ‘COMMODIFYING ICONS: THE COMMERCIALIZATION OF FRIDA KAHLO’, The Gallatin Research Journal <https://wp.nyu.edu/compass/2018/11/13/commodifying-icons-the-commercialization-of-frida-kahlo/> [accessed 27 March 2025]

Herrera, Hayden, Frida: una biografía de Frida Kahlo, Booket, 3046, 7. ed (Planeta, 2004)

Bryant, Kenzie, ‘BRACELET DIPLOMACY’, Theresa May, Avowed Conservative, Wore Jewelry Featuring Frida Kahlo, Avowed Communist, 4 October 2017 <https://www.vanityfair.com/style/2017/10/theresa-may-frida-kahlo-bracelet-speech> [accessed 27 March 2025]

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Paulo Freire’s Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1968) revolutionised educational theory by exposing the oppressive dynamics embedded in traditional learning systems, particularly through his critique of the “banking model” of education.

Freire’s alternative, a problem-posing pedagogy, emphasises dialogue and reflection to empower learners to critically engage with their realities and challenge oppression. He believed that fostering critical literacy enables oppressed individuals to reclaim their voices.

Freire’s ideas were considered subversive by authoritarian regimes, such as Brazil’s military dictatorship (1964-1985), which imprisoned and exiled him for challenging cultural hegemony.

Nowadays, his work still remains relevant, with figures like Jair Bolsonaro dismissing him as an “energúmeno” highlighting how his vision challenges entrenched power structures.

Globally, debates over Freire’s relevance reflect tensions between progressive educational ideals and conservative agendas, underscoring his assertion that pedagogy is inherently political: either advancing liberation or sustaining oppression.

Sources:

Freire, Paulo, ‘Chapter 2 from “Pedagogy of the Oppressed”’, Race/Ethnicity : Multidisciplinary Global Contexts, 2.2 (2009), 163–74

McLaren, Peter, and Peter Leonard, eds., Paulo Freire: A Critical Encounter (Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2004)

Mazui, Guilherme, ‘Bolsonaro Chama Paulo Freire de “energúmeno” e Diz Que TV Escola “Deseduca”’, 16 December 2019 <https://g1.globo.com/politica/noticia/2019/12/16/bolsonaro-chama-paulo-freire-de-energumeno-e-diz-que-tv-escola-deseduca.ghtml> [accessed 27 March 2025]

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Jair Bolsonaro chama educador Paulo Freire de ‘energúmeno’

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O presidente Jair Bolsonaro chamou Paulo Freire, patrono da educação brasileira, de “energúmeno” e declarou que a programação da TV Escola “deseduca”. As declarações foram dadas nesta segunda-feira (16), na saída do Palácio da Alvorada.

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Paulo Freire’s legacy exemplifies how education serves as a form of resistance against systemic oppression, extending beyond Latin America to influence global movements for emancipatory learning.

For instance, in Bahia, Freire’s methods have been instrumental in Afro-Brazilian educational movements resisting cultural erasure and advancing racial and social justice. These initiatives link his work to broader struggles against colonialism, racism, and patriarchy, highlighting education’s transformative potential as a tool for liberation.

Furthermore, Edinburgh’s Adult Learning Project (ALP) applied Freirean principles to a Western context, fostering community empowerment through critical reflection and action.

By empowering marginalised communities to reclaim their narratives and challenge oppressive systems, Freire’s pedagogy serves as a powerful framework for resistance.

Ultimately, Freire’s pedagogy exemplifies how education can serve as both a site of resistance and a catalyst for societal transformation. By fostering critical consciousness and collective action, it empowers individuals to resist oppression and envision more equitable futures.

Sources:

Mallows, David; dos Santos Costa, Graça; Lessa, Patricia, ‘Paulo Freire, the Decolonial Curriculum and the Experience of the Professional in Youth and Adult Education in Bahia, Brazil’, The Adult Learner: The Irish Journal of Adult and Community Education, 2020, pp. 96–110

Cuthbert, Jean, ‘Adult Learning Project’, Courses in Women’s Studies, Politics, Culture and Community, Literacies, the Arts and Community Development <https://wealothianwomensforum.org.uk/BreakingtheMould/alp.html> [accessed 27 March 2025]

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Gilberto Gil’s Aquele Abraço (1969) is a profound anthem of resistance, born in the shadow of Brazil’s military dictatorship.

Written shortly after his imprisonment and on the eve of his forced exile (Ash Wednesday), the song blends personal farewell with cultural celebration, subtly critiquing the regime while embracing the vibrancy of Rio de Janeiro. Through references to neighbourhoods, samba schools, and iconic figures, Gil transforms his farewell into a powerful act of defiance, celebrating the cultural resilience of a city under repression.

Tropicália rejected rigid nationalism and embraced pluralism, diversity, and freedom of expression. A truly anti exclusivist / oppressive movement and song, reinforced by the idea of a hug, symbolic of friendhsip, kindness, and love.

By reimagining national identity through inclusivity and cultural fusion, Gil challenged the dictatorship’s attempts to impose cultural homogeneity.

His work underscores how art can serve as a site of resistance, empowering individuals to challenge oppressive systems.

Sources:

Hertzman, Marc A., Gilberto Gil’s Refazenda, 33 1/3 (Bloomsbury Academic, 2020)

Dunn, Christopher, Brutality Garden: Tropicália and the Emergence of a Brazilian Counterculture (University of North Carolina Press, 2010)

Gil, Gilberto, Aquele Abraço <https://youtu.be/zFGMLQ3q15c?si=DLnmlx0JH2xszRxM> [accessed 27 March 2025]

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Gilberto Gil’s Aquele Abraço aligns with Paulo Freire’s philosophy of liberation by embodying resistance through cultural empowerment and transformation. Both figures from Bahia shared a commitment to justice, challenging systemic oppression through their respective mediums.

Both Freire and Gil demonstrate how resistance can be rooted in creativity and inclusivity. Together, their legacies highlight the transformative potential of art and education in resisting systemic injustices and inspiring movements for liberation.

Beyond Brazil, music has also been a powerful tool for protest in Puerto Rico. During the 2019 demonstrations against Governor Ricardo Rosselló, reggaeton artists like Daddy Yankee and Nicky Jam had their songs turned into rallying cries.

These songs in Puerto Rico in a similar way to Gilberto Gil, highlight the universal power of music to inspire collective action and challenge injustice, acting ultimately as tools of resistance.

Sources:

The Washington Post, ‘How Music Took down Puerto Rico’s Governor’, 1 August 2019 <https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2019/08/01/how-music-took-down-puerto-ricos-governor/> [accessed 29 March 2025]

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Paisaje con mendigos (2009) highlights the portrayal of poverty in Latin American art, aligning with themes of resistance by exposing the voyeuristic nature of pornomiseria.

This theoretical notion, coined by Colombian filmmakers Luis Ospina and Carlos Mayolo in their film Agarrando Pueblo (1977), refers to the commodification of human suffering for elitist consumption. In their film, an example of mise en abyme, the profilmic directors critique the production process of exploiting poverty to sell to foreign audiences in Europe.

The poem, originally written by Juan Manuel Roca, resists this glorification of poverty by examining the structures that sustain it - such as “the priests who seek them out like food” or the “Town mayors”.

I interpret this poem as invoking a deeper reflection on societal and religious complicity in cases of poverty not just in Latin America, but around the world.

Sources:

Agarrando pueblo, dir. by Carlos Mayolo and Luis Ospina (1977)

Dastidar, Rishi, ‘Rebels with a Cause: Powerful Poetry to Inspire Change’, 28 January 2021 <https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/jan/28/rebels-with-a-cause-powerful-poetry-to-inspire-change> [accessed 28 March 2025]

Gwyn, Richard, ‘Landscape with Beggars’ <https://richardgwyn.me/2016/03/24/landscape-with-beggars/> [accessed 26 March 2025]

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Latin American literature is often reductively defined by the genre of magical realism, a legacy deeply tied to the Postboom era and iconic writers such as Gabriel García Márquez, Alejo Carpentier, Miguel Ángel Asturias, and Isabel Allende. While this categorisation highlights a significant literary movement, it risks overshadowing works that challenge or diverge from its conventions. By focusing solely on magical realism, the rich diversity of Latin American literary expression may be diminished, neglecting voices and narratives that fall outside this generic boundary.

For instance, works like Paisaje con mendigos (2009) serve as vital reminders that Latin American literature cannot be confined to a single stylistic or thematic stereotype. This poem resists the oversimplification of associating the region exclusively with magical realism and instead showcases the complexity and multiplicity of Latin American literature beyond its most famous label.

Sources:

Hart, Stephen M., ed., The Cambridge Companion to Latin American Poetry, 1st edn (Cambridge University Press, 2018), doi:10.1017/9781108178648

Gwyn, Richard, ‘Landscape with Beggars’ <https://richardgwyn.me/2016/03/24/landscape-with-beggars/> [accessed 26 March 2025]

Williams, Raymond L., A Companion to Gabriel García Márquez, Coleccion Tamesis. Serie A, Monografías, 276 (Boydell & Brewer, 2013)

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Gabriela Cabezón Cámara’s Las aventuras de la China Iron (2016) exemplifies resistance by dismantling patriarchal, colonial, and nationalist narratives embedded in Argentina’s foundational myth of nationhood. By reimagining Martín Fierro through the perspective of China Iron (his wife, who remained voiceless in José Hernández’s original novel), Cámara explores a historically marginalised character as the modern protagonist.

The novel reclaims history through a feminist lens, dismantling the glorification of settler colonialism and violence. It draws attention to indigenous presence in Argentina, possibly indirectly critiquing the historical erasure of indigenous and Black communities—exemplified by the ‘Conquista del Desierto’ of General Julio Argentino Roca during the 1870s. Additionally, the portrayal of China’s journey, including her relationship with Liz, aligns with contemporary feminist and LGBTQ+ movements, celebrating self-discovery and diversity.

Sources:

Cabezón Cámara, Gabriela, The Adventures of China Iron (Charco Press, 2019)

Brudney, Edward. “Manifest Destiny, the Frontier, and ‘El Indio’ in Argentina’s Conquista Del Desierto.” Journal of Global South Studies 36, no. 1 (2019): 116–44.

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The novel’s ecological themes further amplify its resistance. Through vivid depictions of the pampa—with its rivers, flora, and incredible array of fauna (“worms, grubs, cuys, hares, partridges, rats, vizcachas, assorted armadillos, ñandús, red deer, pumas, and wild boar” A Dust Cloud Can Linger)—Cámara draws attention to the incredible ecological diversity in Argentina.

In Argentina, where climate change and environmental concerns are pressing issues, as recently highlighted by flash flooding in Bahía Blanca (the Buenos Aires province), care and attention is required to preserve such ecological sanctuaries.

However, under figures like Javier Milei—described as a “climate denier” by Constanza Lambertucci in El País—Argentina is set to announce its departure from the Paris climate accord, following the withdrawal of negotiators at the COP29 summit in Baku. This may impact the reception of this book for readers, as the threat of environmental exploitation looms in the very country it is set.

Sources:

Greenfield, Patrick, and Oliver Milman, ‘Fears Grow That Milei Will Withdraw Argentina from Paris Climate Accord’, 15 November 2024 <https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/nov/15/argentina-milei-paris-climate-accord> [accessed 29 March 2025]

Greenfield, Patrick, ‘Argentina Withdraws Negotiators from Cop29 Summit’ <https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2024/nov/13/argentina-withdraws-negotiators-from-cop29-summit> [accessed 29 March 2025]

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“Un violador en tu camino,” created by the Chilean feminist collective LasTesis, is a powerful act of resistance against systemic gendered violence and patriarchal oppression. Its chant, “El violador eres tú” (“The rapist is you”), shifts accountability from victims to perpetrators and institutions like the police, judiciary, and government.

The choreography, featuring blindfolds and squatting motions, connects historical trauma—such as sexual violence under Pinochet’s dictatorship (11 September 1973-11 March 1990)—to ongoing abuses by police forces, linking past and present struggles.

Rooted in Latin American traditions of resistance, the performance addresses cultural wounds, including impunity for gender-based crimes. It aligns with broader movements like Ni Una Menos and bridges feminist theory with activism, creating a tool for collective action. Indeed, LasTesis transforms art into resistance by reclaiming public spaces and turning bodies into instruments of empowerment.

Sources:

‘A Rapist in Your Path’: Chilean Protest Song Becomes Feminist Anthem <https://youtu.be/s5AAscy7qbI?si=uR4IRMy8o2OlCWKE> [accessed 26 March 2025]

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'A rapist in your path': Chilean protest song becomes feminist anthem

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“Un violador en tu camino” ignited a global wave of feminist resistance, with performances in over 300 cities worldwide. By addressing universal issues of gender-based violence and adapting to local contexts, it fostered a sense of solidarity across cultures.

The performance not only inspired academic analysis and activism but also faced resistance from entrenched power structures. Performers encountered police repression, for example in Turkey, and misogynistic criticism, showcased in the Club América’s Sub-17 football team, highlighting the deep-seated resistance to change.

A friend of mine studying Spanish and German at Trinity College Dublin has launched a campaign through song, protesting against the misogynistic behaviour towards the statue of Molly Malone in Ireland.

Although smaller in scale compared to Lastesis’ inspiring performance, it demonstrates how music and art can be potent tools for inspiring change and fostering resistance.

Sources:

Irish Ballad ‘Molly Malone’ Beautifully Performed by Tilly Cripwell at the Molly Malone Statue. <https://youtu.be/mytQZOtlIRw?si=Qiv_AbweQpXexH-N> [accessed 27 March 2025]

Jugadores Del América Sub 17 Hacen Parodia de ‘Un Violador En Tu Camino’ <https://youtu.be/EODtnYizDqE?si=eBvGfDQ-p7JUgW7m> [accessed 27 March 2025]

‘In Turkey, Seven Women Are On Trial for Playing “A Rapist in Your Way”’, 19 December 2019 <https://www.leftvoice.org/in-turkey-seven-women-are-on-trial-for-playing-a-rapist-in-your-way/> [accessed 27 March 2025]

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Irish Ballad "Molly Malone" Beautifully Performed by Tilly Cripwell at the Molly Malone Statue.

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Pope Francis’s Querida Amazonia (2020) is a landmark apostolic exhortation addressing the Amazon region's ecological, cultural, social, and ecclesial challenges. The document articulates four "dreams": advocating for social justice, preserving indigenous cultures, protecting the environment, and fostering a Church deeply rooted in the Amazonian context.

However, its reception has been polarising. Some conservative Catholics criticised the use of indigenous symbols like Pachamama, perceiving them as idolatrous, while others praised the document’s efforts to embrace cultural diversity and inculturation. This controversy underscores how religious symbolism can provoke theological debates, shaping perceptions of sacredness and heresy.

Ultimately, Querida Amazonia challenges the global Church to engage with marginalised communities and environmental stewardship in a way that transcends regional concerns.

Sources:

Francis, Beloved Amazonia: The Apostolic Exhortation and Other Documents from the Pan-Amazonian Synod (Orbis Books, 2020)

‘Pope Apologises for Theft of Amazon Statue from Rome Church’ <https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/oct/25/pope-apologises-for-theft-of-amazon-statue-from-rome-church> [accessed 28 March 2025]

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Pope Francis, born Jorge Mario Bergoglio in Buenos Aires, Argentina, crafted Querida Amazonia to address the ecological, cultural, and social crises of the Amazon region. His deep connection to Latin American culture shaped this document.

The resistance to Querida Amazonia is amplified by Brazil’s political landscape under Jair Bolsonaro, whose policies have threatened indigenous rights and cultural survival through deforestation and weakened protections for native lands.

However, it is important to note the fact that the Amazon rainforest “is a vast biome that spans eight rapidly developing countries—Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, and Suriname—and French Guiana, an overseas territory of France”.

Therefore, the issues facing the “1.4 billion acres of dense forests” is a communal topic of importance in Latin America, and not one that should be merely focused through a Brazil centric mindset - as exemplified by my sole point above regarding Bolsonaro.

Sources:

WWF, ‘Amazon’ <https://www.worldwildlife.org/places/amazon> [accessed 29 March 2025]

‘Earth’s Future Depends on the Amazon. This Month, It’s up for a Vote.’ <https://www.vox.com/down-to-earth/2022/9/29/23373427/amazon-rainforest-brazil-jair-bolsonaro-lula-deforestation> [accessed 29 March 2025]

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The works explored in this timeline demonstrate how resistance in Latin American culture transcends art, literature, and education to challenge systemic oppression. Kahlo’s self-portrait illustrates the dichotomy between the United States and Mexico, while Paulo Freire’s pedagogy and Gilberto Gil’s music reveal how education and cultural expression can empower marginalised voices. Paisaje con mendigos can be read to critique the exploitation of poverty, and Las aventuras de la China Iron reimagines a character overlooked in one of Argentina’s most famous works. Meanwhile, Un violador en tu camino and Querida Amazonia highlight contemporary struggles against patriarchy and the Catholic Church in the Amazon region.

Together, these works illustrate resistance as a dynamic, creative force, rooted in local histories yet globally resonant. They underscore Latin America’s enduring fight for justice and equity, proving that culture is not merely a reflection of society but a powerful tool for its transformation.