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Tiny Clogs and Child Poverty in the Industrial Revolution: Virajita Kumar 

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Tiny Clogs and Child Poverty in the Industrial Revolution: Virajita Kumar 

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https://blog.scienceandindustrymuseum.org.uk/clogs-child-poverty/

Clogs were the primary shoes worn by the women, children, and men of Industrial Manchester

The children who wore these never owned them because were lent by Charter Street Ragged School in Angel Meadow to children whose families could not afford to buy shoes

In order to stop poor children or their families pawning them for money, they were stamped as “CSRS loaned, not to be pawned”

Due to many struggling to afford food, clothes, and a place to live, “ragged” school like Charter Street in Angel Meadow provided food, clothing, and basic education to Manchester’s poorest people

While workers could earn good wages, work was never guaranteed because there wasn’t enough to go around in Manchester’s textile mills

When cotton shortages or low demand for cloth shut down the mills, workers would have to go without wages, leading them to struggle to afford basic necessities such as food, clothes, and shelter

The clogs demonstrate the perilous lives of Manchester’s industrial workforce

More information:

Clogs came from patterns which people tended to wear over leather or fabric shoes

Clogs became very popular because they were durable and very cheap which was perfect for the very poor workers

The principal purpose of clogs were to prevent main footwear from getting dirty in the mud, however, money was very tight, and couldn’t be spent on such shoes, therefore, clogs were designed and heavily used

https://manchesterka.com/en/eternal/clogs-the-footwear-of-industrial-manchester

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As all the world knows, the first industrial revolution happened in England; specifically, in a rather small part of England that was bounded on the west by Coalbrookdale in Shropshire, on the south by Birmingham, on the east by Derby, and on the north by Preston, the county town of Lancashire.

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The “World Famous” Crossly Brothers, Innovators of the Gas Engine (Tise Deru)

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The “World Famous” Crossly Brothers, Innovators of the Gas Engine (Tise Deru)

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The Crossly brothers (Francis and William Crossley)are two brothers who were born in Ireland. Frank soon brought a firm (called John M Dunlop, was a partner of it), renamed it Crossley brothers with the help of William

Frank was the business manager, William was the engineer during the company’s turbulent times trying to save money.

Bought the Otto Atmospheric Gas Engine from Nicholas Otto, elevated it, then sold 1,400 of them by 1876. They would soon use these “four-stroke engines” as their main source of income and profit (due to their efficiency, silent sound, large and powerful stature)

In the 1890s, the Crossly Brothers started producing oil engines that used diesel, petroleum, or paraffin. They made new forms of transport such as buses, cars, power engines for locomotives, and diesel-powered engines for ships

By 1896, the Crossly brothers sold 20,000 of varying gas engines to its worldwide audience. This was due to their attractiveness compared to the outdated steam engines, which needed a fire to start them

Crossly engines were used for numerous different types of uses. Firstly, they were used for powering machine tools in workshops, businesses, and factories. Secondly, they could be used to power printing presses, which would be used for the mass distribution of news and articles. In addition, they were used for electrical generation, which would be used for personal generation of certain estates, cinemas, towns, and lighthouses

The Crossly brothers used their status as active christians to send money to charities (especially in the case of gaining revenues of places that would be unholy in the eyes of God), build factories, and have sound, efficient workmanship

They designed the modern internal combustion engine, which would be effective for converting fueled energy into energy used for mechanical work of machines.

The base of the Crossly Brothers was in the city of Manchester, and would demise there by 1960

Sources

https://www.sheffieldmuseums.org.uk/whats-on/crossley-gas-engine/

https://www.farmcollector.com/gas-engines/gas-engines-company-history/crossley-brothers-zmwz19marzhur/

https://www.scienceandindustrymuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/crossley-brothers

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William Henry Perkin and the World’s First Synthetic Dye (Sankeerth Malasandram)

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William Henry Perkin and the World’s First Synthetic Dye (Sankeerth Malasandram)

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https://www.sciencehistory.org/education/scientific-biographies/william-henry-perkin/

worlds first synthetic dye made by William Henry Perkin on August 26 1856

Perkin, who was originally hired to create a form of quinine, or treatment for malaria, discovered dye through his experiments and his invention became extremely successful

Discovery of dye established modern chemical industry as it was an innovative approach to replace coal tars in dyeing

Mauveine, or aniline purple, was the world’s first synthetic dye and was mass produced

The Perkin collection includes four copies of the third edition of Perkin’s patent, as well as a bottled sample of the dye prepared by Perkin in 1862

Dr plater became curious of Perkins mass production of mauveine and used bottled dye to analyze the structure by liquid chomotography

Dr Plater discovers that Perkin made certain changes in dye related to mass production that he didn’t want his competitors to know

Perkins opened his dye factory at Greenford green, which wasn’t far from London

Perkins sold his business and retired at 36 so he could completely focus on research and he went into organic chemistry

In 1906 the Perkin medal was created to honor the discovery of mauve and Perkin was awarded the first medal

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Above is the chart made by John Dalton that contributed to the Periodic Table.

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Here are some key facts about John Dalton:

Early Life: He was born in Cumbria in 1766. He taught at local Quaker school as a principal until 1793, which is when he moved to Manchester to tutor at Manchester Academy.

Literary and Philosophical Society: Soon after moving to Manchester, he began to work at the Literary and Philosophical Society. He was given his own room and numerous promotions. Ultimately, he became the president. During his time there, he made many scientific advancements such as formulating a new atomic theory to explain chemical reactions and developing a theory that explains color vision deficiency (which he himself suffered from).

Atomic Theory: He formulated the Law of Potential Pressures in 1801. According to this law, the pressures of a mixed gas is the sum of the pressures that each of its components would exert if occupying the same space. His theory was developed into lectures to the Royal Society in 1803-04 and later on in his New System of Chemical Philosophy.

Contribution to the Periodic Table: He theorized that each element consisted of atoms that are all alike but differ from atoms of other elements. He assigned atomic weights to the elements that he knew of, which was used to help create the Periodic Table of Elements in the 19th century.

Teaching Methods: One of his models that he used to demonstrate the three-dimensional structure of atoms was by connecting 3 balls with a stick. This is still used today as a teaching method.

Color Blindness: He developed a theory to explain color vision deficiency (from which he also suffered from). He theorized that the color of the vitreous humor (the fluid in the eyes) acted as a filter to certain colors in the spectrum. He was met with resistance to his ideas, so he donated his eyes to be examined after his death. The autopsy was preformed by Joseph Ransome and his theory was proved to be incorrect.

Daltonism: In 1955, 150 years after his death, a DNA analysis published in the journal Science revealed that Dalton lacked the gene for the receptor sensitive to medium wavelength (green) light, which caused his red-green color blindness. The condition is called deuteranopia, but is referred to as Daltonism.

Subjects of Study: Delton was fascinated with and studied the atmosphere, atomic weights, chemical symbols, color blindness, ethyl ether, northern lights, rain, the law of definite proportions, the law of multiple proportions, and more.

Family: He was born into the a Quaker family of tradesmen. His grandfather, Johnathan Dalton, was a shoemaker and his father, Joseph, was a weaver. His mother was Deborah Greenup, who married his father in 1755. John Delton was the youngest of their three children who survived to adulthood.

Later Years: He achieved many accomplishments as his atomic theory finally began to prove worthy and gain recognition. He was elected into the fellowship of the Royal Society of London and the Royal Society of Edinburgh, awarded an honorary degree from the University of Oxford, and one of eight foreign associates elected of the French Academy of Sciences, received a pension on Civil List from the British crown, and more.

Website Link: link

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Here are some facts about this topic:

Clogs were the footwear worn by Manchester’s industrial women, children, and men. (They dated back to around the 1870s)

The children only borrowed them since their families couldn’t afford to purchase footwear, they were owned by the Charter Street Ragged School in Angel Meadow.

Since most children and families were poor, there was a high chance of theft.

To avoid stealing, on the side of the shoe, the phrase, “CSRS loaned, not to be pawned” was stamped.

Manchester’s textile mills provided good wages, but often there wasn’t much work to go around.

When mills were shut down due to shortages or low demand, people struggled to supply themselves of food, clothing, and a living space.

Charter Street Ragged School provided a supply of food, clothing, and basic education to poverty of Manchester, hence the term “ragged”.

Related Facts:

Modern industrial factories like metal foundries provide their workers with industrial safety clogs, instead of boots

The Northampton Town Football Club is named “The Cobblers” because of the number of shoe factories in the area.

There is a type of dance called English clog dancing, where the dancer can’t show any facial expressions, or move their upper and middle body parts. This is done so that the main focus is on the feet.

https://www.mylearning.org/stories/clogs-and-the-people-who-made-them-and-wore-them/1149

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The Gantry was first built in the 1800s at the heart of the Liverpool Road Goods Station

﻿﻿It supported steam-powered overhead cranes that moved heavy goods on and off of railway wagons

Goods from across the world were transferred from rail to road transport using machinery like the gantry crane

It became the biggest and most advanced haulage technology at the station

It supported two 10 ton traveling cranes to operate across two moving bridges which could unload up to 16 railway wagons worth of goods

Overhead gantry cranes could be powered by a steam engine or a self-contained engine and boiler

The smoke and steam dissipating could cause burning cinders to fall on workers below and cause injury

The crane was later converted to electricity in the 1920s and continued to be a vital part of the goods station’s success until it closed

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Manchester’s cotton and slaves (Soham Gupta)

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Manchester’s cotton and slaves (Soham Gupta)

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Transatlantic Slave Trade: 15th century, over the course of 300 years, 12 million Africans were forcibly transported to the Americas.

Millions of slaves were forced to work on plantations to produce things like tobacco and sugar, which were then exported to Europe.

Cotton textiles were some of the most demanded goods on the west coast of Africa. These were purchased by slave traders and sold in exchange for captured human beings.

British slave traders purchased Manchester made cotton goals, which were transported to the west coast of Africa to be traded for captured African people.

Manchester’s annual exports of textiles to Africa were estimated to be around 24 million pounds today.

By the 1780s, most of the cotton that was woven were grown by enslaved people in the Caribbean and in South America.

As textile manufacturing in Manchester continued to expand, the supply of raw cotton could’t meet the growing demand. This made Manchester’s mill owners turn to the USA, where cotton production with the use of enslaved people would skyrocket.

American planters and landowners saw the rising value of raw cotton due to the expansion of textile manufacturing in Manchester and other European countries.

The climate and soul in souther USA was good for growing cotton. The south already has an agricultural system of using enslaved people to produce different crops.

In 1786, enslaved people in USA grew the country’s first Sea Island cotton, which was cotton that had long, silky fibers. This type of cotton was highly prized by Manchester cotton spinners as it let them spin the fine, high quality thread they specialized in.

Because of the demand of Sea Island cotton, the production of it grew tremendously in the US, from less than 10,000 pounds to 6.4 million pounds in the span of ten years.

Upland cotton was grown farther from the US coast. Their fibers were shorter and attached tightly to their seeds. This made the cleaning process very slow.

In 1793, Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin which could remove the seeds of upland cotton quickly. This made the production of Upland cotton grow.

The cotton gin needed enslaved laborers to plant and pick raw cotton to keep u with the pace of the gins. In the 30 years after the cotton gin was invented, 250 million slaves had to be relocated to cotton growing areas.

The US government was also aggressive in securing territories for cotton growing, including land annexed against the Native Americans.

The territorial expansion and use of slaves fed the mills of Manchester. By 1860, US plantations supplied almost 90% of the cotton spun and woven in mills.

The Liverpool and Manchester Railway, built in 1830, sped up the transport of American raw cotton from Liverpool’s port to Manchester’s mills. This was one of the main reasons this railway was built. Transporting cotton by canal boat took about 12 hours, but this new railway needed just 2 hours.

The railway also allowed merchants and manufacturers who wanted to inspect stock, strike deals, or arrange shipping, to ravel by rail between Manchester and Liverpool to do business.

The slaves, women, and children who worked to get and use cotton had in wages, freedom, and were treated horribly.

Plantation owners often demanded more cotton for higher profits, and if these goals were not meant, enslaved people would be punished with violence.

Many families and friends were split up as they were forced to work on different plantations, and many children were separated from their parents.

Many enslaved people revolted, even though it was highly dangerous. Some ways the enslaved could resist was by working slowly, damaging property, pretending to be ill, or running away. Despite the threat of punishment, many rebelled against their owners. This made owners fear such rebellions.

Enslaved people took part in their cultures and traditions through music, religion, food, and crafting. They had relationships, raised families, and made communities.

The British slave trade was abolished in 1807, and slavery ended in the British Caribbean in 1833. In 1837, the British government game 20 million pounds in compensation to former slave owners, while former enslaved people weren’t given anything.

Manchester had a complex opinion on the abolition of slavery. Some were against the abolition as it would seriously impact many businesses which heavily depended on the labor of slaves, while others were for the abolition.

The Guardian(theguardian.com)

The importation of vividly colored fabrics from South Asia drove demand for cotton manufacturers.

The population of Manchester in the 18th century grew from 9,000 in 1717 to 25,000 in 1773. This was largely because of the demand for labor in the textile industry. This number later grew to 344,683 in 1861

By 1853, there were 108 cotton mills in Manchester, and it started being referred to as a Cottonopolis, or having a monopoly over cotton.

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John Dalton’s Impact in Manchester (Sahasra Valeti)

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John Dalton’s Impact in Manchester (Sahasra Valeti)

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Here are some key points about John Dalton:

Born: September 6, 1766, in Eaglesfield, Cumberland, England.

Profession: English chemist, physicist, and meteorologist.

Major Contribution: Best known for developing the Atomic Theory of matter, which laid the foundation for modern chemistry.

Key elements of Dalton's Atomic Theory:

All matter is made up of tiny indivisible particles called atoms.

Atoms of the same element are identical in mass and properties.

Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole-number ratios to form compounds.

Chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of atoms; atoms are not created or destroyed in chemical reactions.

Color Blindness: Dalton was colorblind, a condition he researched and published a paper on in 1794, providing a scientific explanation for the condition (now called Daltonism in his honor).

Work in Meteorology: Dalton also made contributions to meteorology, studying the behavior of gases and formulating Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures, which states that the total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the sum of the partial pressures of the individual gases.

Influence: Dalton's work was a major step in the development of atomic theory and chemistry, influencing later scientists like J.J. Thomson and Ernest Rutherford.

Death: He died on July 27, 1844, in Manchester, England.

Legacy: The unit of atomic mass, the dalton (Da), is named in his honor.

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Raw cotton was planted and picked by enslaved Africans on American soils

Most of Manchesters cotton spun and woven was from South America and the Caribbean

As the demand for the cotton spun and woven increased, Americans intensified the work load to get more cotton

South Asia demand for cotton was high and Britain couldn’t make enough so they turned to slaves

Slave voyages made a growing market in Manchesters textiles and because of this the population kept increasing

To make manufacturing easier people created new inventions with the knowledge of steam power

Since the population kept increasing, the city became more populated and the first industrial city

https://www.theguardian.com/news/ng-interactive/2023/apr/03/cotton-capital-how-slavery-made-manchester-the-worlds-first-industrial-city

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Present-day Manchester is home to 552,000 residents, at the centre of a wider region of 2.87 million, the product of three centuries of migration and economic change.

It is a city with a global reputation for its cultural and sporting influence, a long list of world firsts in science and technology, and as a centre of political reform movements.

Cheek-by-jowl with the rising Manc-hattan skyscrapers stand many of the old warehouses and mills, repurposed into modern apartment and office blocks along the outward-creeping fringe of gentrification. A few remnants of the pre-industrial market town remain around the Cathedral Quarter while the grand late-Victorian warehouses and civic architecture recall a time when cotton was king and Manchester was its capital.

Still poorly acknowledged and understood is how essential the system of slavery was to the emergence of Cottonopolis, the world's first industrial city, and how it can still be witnessed in today's built environment.

Here is a brief history of the growth of Manchester from a Lancashire manorial town of about 9,000 residents in 1700 to the "shock city" of industrial capitalism by the mid-19th century.

We start with a visual exploration of the city's development.

From small-time township to sprawling metropolis: a visual tour

A closer look

The story of Manchester's rise is also the story of global industrialised capitalism, and it reveals the essential underpinning role of colonisation and slavery to the processes that completely transformed societies, cultures, and the environment.

As technology advanced, manufacturing moved from the home to mass production, bringing increased transport capacity and connectivity across the globe. Higher levels of productivity required markets and investment, land and labour.

The produce of enslaved labour and profits from slave trading and plantation agriculture drove the Industrial Revolution, created this city, and left local and global legacies we are still only beginning to understand and repair.

Traditional industries go global

The importation of south Asian chintzes and decorated textiles in the 1600s drove demand in Great Britain and particularly in west Africa for cotton manufacturers. With an established skills base and trade links in textile manufacture, Manchester was ideally positioned to meet this demand and the town started to expand.

Technological improvements in spinning and weaving increased productivity and, in 1734, the River Irwell Navigation provided direct shipping to Liverpool, which was fast becoming Europe's leading slave-trading port.

Raw cotton was imported from the eastern Mediterranean and, increasingly, from the Caribbean, where it was grown by enslaved labourers. It would arrive at the foot of Quay Street on boats laden with goods from across the world, particularly slave-grown sugar.

Until the 1780s, production had taken place in homes or in units with just a few machines. Increased employment opportunities led to the population almost doubling between 1717 and 1758.

How important was slavery to Manchester's growth?

Seminal historian Eric Williams, who later became the first prime minister of Trinidad and Tobago, outlined in 1944 how it was a "tremendous dependence on the triangular trade that made Manchester". Up to 1770, one-third of Lancashire's exports were used in the slave trade to west Africa and half were sold to the plantation colonies in the Caribbean and North America.

In 1788 the privy council estimated that Manchester exported £200,000 worth of goods a year to west Africa, representing an investment of £300,000 and supporting 180,000 jobs for men, women and children across the wider region. Converted to today's prices that is £26.9m of exports and £40.3m of investment a year.

Merchants and manufacturers such as Robinson & Heywood, William Hanson and John Parke advertised themselves as specialist "Africa goods" or "Africa checks" suppliers, while Manchester's key financial institution in the 1790s, Heywood's bank, was funded by the profits of the Heywoods' slave-trading activities.

The mill and the gin

The development of steam power heralded the age of the cotton mill. Manchester's first was established at Shudehill in 1782, followed by the Salvin's and Piccadilly mills in the late 1780s.

The construction of the Bridgewater canal provided regular, cheaper coal supplies to power the new machinery and improved transport links to Liverpool.

The invention of the cotton gin in 1793 proved crucial in shaping Manchester's future. From that moment, the spread of the plantation slavery complex across North America and the booming Lancashire textile industry became symbiotically linked.

The annual US cotton crop grew from 9,000 bales to 210,000 between 1790 and 1800. During the same period, the number of cotton mills in Manchester had grown from three to 19 and the population had increased to more than 70,000. Even though Britain ended involvement in the slave trade in 1807, the reliance of the town's development and prosperity on enslavement actually deepened year-by-year.

From virtually zero in 1790, raw cotton from the US made up 40% of British imports in the 1800s, 50% during the 1810s, and 71% in the 1820s.

Production, poverty, protest

McConnel & Kennedy's and Murray's mills on the banks of the newly built Rochdale canal were some of the first in Ancoats, the world's first industrial suburb, which emerged in the early 19th century.

Child and adult workers moved between deafening, dangerous factories and cramped slums with poor sanitation and little open space. In 1819, 41% of children born to men working at McConnel & Kennedy had not survived to adulthood. From 1832, regular deadly cholera outbreaks hit Manchester's working-class communities.

Irish migrants, often pushed into the lowest-paid, most insecure work, had a major impact on the town's growth and culture. Important centres of Irish residence included Angel Meadow and Little Ireland, near the Chorlton Mills complex.

The Peterloo massacre of 1819 sent shockwaves through Britain, as peaceful working-class protesters demanding universal manhood suffrage were attacked by the authorities. The Manchester Guardian was founded by a group of cotton merchants and manufacturers in reaction to the massacre.

Intensifying growth in the age of reform

Manchester's middle classes moved to the suburbs, while the industrial centre became increasingly overcrowded, the population growing by 50,000 over 10 years to reach 163,700 in 1831 - a 132% increase since 1800. British cotton exports had increased almost eightfold in the same period.

The 1830 opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway - the world's first intercity line - further expanded import and export capacity. Manchester gained parliamentary representation two years later, electing Mark Philips, cousin to the Guardian founder and enslaver George Philips, although only one-fifth of adult men were eligible to vote.

The Abolition Act of 1833 replaced slavery in the British empire with a system of apprenticeship, with full emancipation following in 1838. Former enslavers received a total of £20m of government compensation for their former human property which was reinvested into railways, industry, and key local institutions. The formerly enslaved received no compensation.

Cottonopolis

The success of the Anti-Corn Law League and establishment of the Free Trade Hall in the 1840s burnished the reputation of Manchester's middle classes as leading proponents of Victorian political and economic liberalism. The working classes formed trade unions and Chartist organisations to advance their rights.

Writers such as Tocqueville and Engels established Manchester's reputation as the "shock city" of industrial capitalism, detailing the emergence of an entirely new mode of social and economic life and the unprecedented pollution created by mass fossil-fuelled production.

The number of cotton mills peaked at 108 in 1853, the year Manchester was granted city status. The name "Cottonopolis" - literally, the city of cotton - came into use around this time.

The US cotton crop grew by a factor of seven from 1830 to 1860 while UK cotton exports grew five times larger. Meeting labour demands, Manchester's population reached more than 344,000 in 1861.

Cotton famine to warehouse city

As the United States descended into civil war in 1861 over the issue of slavery, 440,000 cotton workers across the north-west of England, and their wider families and communities, experienced unemployment, poverty, and hunger as the Union blockade of Confederate exports created the "cotton famine".

Public opinion remained generally favourable to abolition thanks to 15 years of organising and campaigning. Abraham Lincoln's public declaration of thanks "to the working-men of Manchester" for their solidarity is commemorated by the statue in today's Lincoln Square.

The Union victory in the US civil war led to emancipation in 1865, but slave-grown cotton from Brazil continued to make up a minority of imports until 1888.

Much of the Victorian architectural and transportational fabric of central Manchester today derives from its role in the late 19th century as the commercial and warehouse hub of the wider Lancashire manufacturing region.

Source notes
Historical maps
All the historical maps in the visual tour have been provided by Manchester Libraries, Information & Archives, with special thanks to Dr Martin Dodge, department of geography, University of Manchester. The publication date of each historical map shown should be treated with a degree of caution as the street geography and surveying may be older and inconsistent. The publication dates and full map titles are as follows:
Casson and Berry, 1750.
Green's map, 1794.
Aston's map, 1816.
Slater's map, 1848.
Bradshaw's map, 1879. The data for the locations highlighted on the maps has been provided by Dr Matthew Stallard. The visualisation of the locations of the known Manchester business suppliers includes 31 addresses; there are a further US raw cotton export data
Source: James L GB/UK manufactured cotton exports
Source: Edward Baines, History Of The Cotton Manufacture In Great Britain (London, 1937).

Satellite imagery
Via Google maps: ©2023 TerraMetrics, CNES/Airbus, Getmapping Plc, Infoterra Ltd & Bluesky, Landsat/Copernicus, Maxar Technologies, The GeoInformation Group Watkins, King Cotton: A Historical and Statistical Review 1790 to 1908 (New York, 1908) five known suppliers for which the addresses are not documented in sufficient detail to include on the map. The addresses are compiled from Manchester directories between 1781 and 1800 and include all Manchester suppliers to 50 voyages owned by the Liverpool trafficker William Davenport, all businesses in the directories specifically listed as focusing on the African market, and the well-documented slave trade suppliers the Hibberts, Touchets, and Rawlinsons.

This article was amended on 26 June to correct an error relating to the year in which the Liverpool and Manchester Railway was opened; the correct date is 1830.

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Cotton Capital: how slavery made Manchester the world's first industrial city

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A visual exploration of historical Manchester's rapid growth into a 'shock city' - and how slavery was key to the emergence of Cottonopolis

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Manchester was Known as Cottonopolis due to it being the center of Cotton Production

powerful cotton machines were developed to make high quality cotton

this cotton made here was especially valuable and known to be sold around the world

however to gain more profits the Peking class was exploited completely at the cotton mills

the transatlantic slave trade also greatly increased cotton production

the slaves were also forced onto cotton plantations

due to cotton textiles having such high demand people would want cotton a lot, so textiles were bought from India traded for African slaves who then helped with the growth of cotton production

most cotton spun in Manchester was from plantations in South America

The rich of Manchester further exploited land to Maximize labor for raw cotton gains

As the industry grew Manchester couldn’t keep up in terms of raw cotton and turned to the slavery infested USA for cotton off of their plantations

https://www.scienceandindustrymuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/manchester-cotton-and-slavery

https://www.britannica.com/place/Manchester-England/Evolution-of-the-modern-city

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Programming Patterns : The story of Jacquard Loom(Keertana Maturi)

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Programming Patterns : The story of Jacquard Loom(Keertana Maturi)

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Introduction :

invented by Joseph-Marie Jacquard, a French weaver and merchant, he built on past eventions and made it possible for detailed patterns to be created by unskilled workers

This invention caused fashionable cloth cost to increase and revolutionized the patterned cloth and how it was woven

Weaving Patterns

to create a weaving pattern, the weft(a thread) is put under the warp(set of threads) and they interlace each other creating a cloth; the way the it occurs changes the pattern that is woven

The key of the invention was the changeable cards that had instructions on them, this took over the job of the draw boys that used to raise and lower threads by hand, creating a much faster process

Jacquard looms were able to multiple any pattern and replicate it over and over, because of these cards

Uses of Jacquard fabric

Intricate patterns are made, letting the user to create simple patterns to highly detailed designs

The composition of the Jacquard fabric is breathable, stretchable, and soft. Some common fibers used are cotton, silk, linen, wool, and synthetic blends

The fabric also has good heat retaining abilities, making it good to wear for different climates and seasons

Source - https://alnassaj.com/jacquard-fabric/#:~:text=Features%20Of%20Jacquard%20Loom&text=Punched%20Cards%3A%20The%20defining%20feature,threads%20are%20raised%20or%20lowered.

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Richard Arkwright: Father of the Factory System- Saanvi Srinivasan

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Richard Arkwright: Father of the Factory System- Saanvi Srinivasan

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https://www.scienceandindustrymuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/richard-arkwright

https://www.lindahall.org/about/news/scientist-of-the-day/richard-arkwright/

Richard Arkwright, a Lankshire entrepreneur, made a simple spinning machine to meet the growing need for cotton cloth and yarn.

His invention replaced the work of using human hands. The water frame enabled it to spin cotton quickly and in bigger quantities.

He was born on 1732 in Preston to a poor family that had a successful hair-cutting and wig-making business in Bolton.

By 1767, he met John Kay, who was a skilled clockmaker. Together, they made the first prototype of the spinning machine. The spinning machine was initially designed to be operated by horsepower.

The spinning machine had moving rollers that drew out cotton fibers, imitating the spinner’s fingers, and then, rotating spindles would twist the cotton into yarn and wound it into a bobbin.

In 1769, Arkwright got a spinning machine patent; after that, he and his business partners decided they wanted to make money from it. They built a multi-story factory in Cromford, Derbyshire which was along the River Derwent.

Later, Arkwright realized that powering the spinning machine with water rather than horsepower was more efficient. At the mill, he installed huge waterwheels driven by the water and they provided the rotary motion that drove the machine.

The spinning machine became known as the water frame.

Unskilled workers could run the spinning machine. They just had to feed the machines with cotton, piece breakages in the yarn, and change the full bobbins for empty ones.

Arkwright also invented the factory system. His Cranford mill was the first step tha reshaped England’s landscape in the next half-century.

By 1800, almost 1,000 men women, and children worked in his mills, and they had to work two 13-hour shifts a day.

The workers worked so many hours with the loud machines that they got hearing loss.

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-The Lockstitch sewing machine was made by Elias Howe in Lowell, Massachusetts in the year 1846

-It was the first practical sewing machine to be brought to England from America in that year

-Howe sold the machine to William Thomas who took out a British patent for the design and founded the Thomas Company

-Howe struggled financially, unable to enlist interest in his machine in the US, he went to England in 1847 where he entered the employment of William Thomas

-He returned to the US after only 2 years, returning penniless, and went back to work as a journeyman machinist.

-In England, the sewing machine gained massive popularity and widely recognized

-Howe Eventually became a rich man, receiving royalties on their machines.

Source:

https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co44744/sewing-machine-by-elias-howe

https://www.loc.gov/item/today-in-history/july-09/

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Sewing machine by Elias Howe | Science Museum Group Collection

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Lockstitch sewing machine by Elias Howe, Lowell, Massachusetts, United States, made about 1846, the first sewing machine to be brought to England from America in that year.

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Cotton factories on Union Street in Manchester’s Ancoats, about 1830

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SLUMS AND SUBURBS: WATER AND SANITATION IN THE FIRST INDUSTRIAL CITY (Devin Yee)

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SLUMS AND SUBURBS: WATER AND SANITATION IN THE FIRST INDUSTRIAL CITY (Devin Yee)

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• Manchester gained a reputation as one of the most filthy, overcrowded and unhealthily place in Britain

• With more opportunities for a new future, the population grew from 60,000 to 142,000

• Deaths rates caused life expectancies to drop dramatically

• Water was valuable, out of 47,00 homes only 11,000 had piped water

• Many households took water from polluted streams and shallow wells

• Pollution was caused on how factories dumped their waste in the waters, as they didn’t know where they could dispose of it

• Instead of addressing the problem, they ignored the problem and put all of there waste in the rivers and streams

• Although Manchester has sewer networks, it didn’t help stop the problem as they were inadequate.

Source:

https://www.scienceandindustrymuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/water-and-sanitation

Outside info:

All the slums had poor quality housing which weren’t habitable

Some houses didn’t have bathrooms’

Slums were built to house workers who operated facilities

Source:

https://manchesterhistorian.com/2023/forgotten-communities-the-hidden-faces-of-manchesters-slum-clearance-by-emma-breslin/#:~:text=These%20slums%20were%20built%20in,%2C%20Cheetham%20Hill%2C%20and%20Broughton.

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Ancoats, an Industrial Center Turned Hip (Lillian Zhou)

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Ancoats, an Industrial Center Turned Hip (Lillian Zhou)

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Ancoats wasn’t always one of the hippest places to live.

As described by a journalist (Angus Reach) in the Morning Chronicle, Ancoats was ‘the grimiest, sootiest, filthiest lumps of masonry in all of Manchester’ and it was a ‘perfectly ugly spot.

Observers that visited the city were horrified and shocked at crowded streets filled with houses, cotton mills that spewed steam, and the canals.

Ancoats was known for its overcrowded and badly built homes.

In 1831, when cholera passed through, the Board of Health found most Ancoats homes didn’t have any plumbing and it was until the end of 19th century that these conditions improved.

The shoe at Murray’s Mills:

A shoe was found in the roof space of Murray’s Mills while it was being surveyed by achaeologists.

It was likely that the shoe was deliberately placed there due to the old belief that concealed shoes in buildings would bring the occupants good luck and protect them.

Murray’s Mills and their neighbors, McConnel and Kennedy were all part of a complex of cotton-spinning that transformed Ancoats.

Textile mills were also part of the city, bringing in engineers whose expertise also helped the cotton-spinning factories, as were glassworks that made everything, from decorative glass pieces to functional bottles used by chemical firms in the city.

The city also has a brief connection to aviation, through A.V. Roe & Co., which was a company that set up its first shop in the basement of Brownsfield Mill and eventually made the WWI biplane, Afro 504K.

Pollard Street, on the banks of the Ashton Canal

Peel & Williams was an iron foundry that manufactured steam engines and boilers along the Ashton Canal.

John Hetherington & Sons made textile machinery.

There were many businesses along Ancoats’ network of canals and it was no coincidence that there were.

Businesses used canals to bring in large quantities of bulky raw material and ship out finished goods.

Italians

Over 2,000 Italians moved into Ancoats and a small community called ‘Ancoats Little Italy’ was created.

The Italians introduced things like the barrel piano, ice, wafers, cones, and ice cream to the streets of Manchester.

Soap

A model of soap leads to Sankeys, an influential nightclub that was an important part of Manchester’s music scene and a haven for music fanatics, located at Beehive Mill.

The model of soap was tribute to the building’s former use.

Beehive Mill was first created as a cotton mill in 1824 until it was turned into a soap works.

Ancoats was hit hard after the industrial decline of Manchester and by the 1960s, the cotton-spinning industry was practically gone and communities were separated.

Conservations efforts are currently being made to preserve the legacy of Ancoats.

https://blog.scienceandindustrymuseum.org.uk/ancoats-from-cotton-to-cool/

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This is a barrel of Bonddingtons beer that was used in the brewery to put into cans and bottles. 100,000 of these were produced every year by the brewery. https://www.scienceandindustrymuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/boddingtons-breweries

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Henry Boddington started off as worker in the company but was soon able to become of partner of it, and ultimately the owner

Founded in 1778 by Thomas Caister and Thomas Fray

Brewed for 227 years

1870s - 1880s was a time of expansion for the company

Brewed over 100,000 barrels per year

The brewery was the first company In Manchester to install a telephone link between two of its sites

During 1940, brewing was forced to stop for seven months due to an air raid

https://www.scienceandindustrymuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/boddingtons-breweries

Outside source:

The beer was everyone’s choice of drink unless they had clean water in their house which was very rare

Even children were aloud to drink the beer since it was the easiest liquid to attain and it was clean unlike the water. The beer was also less powerful than the versions we have today

In the 1900s over 6000 people were poisoned, and 700 were killed due to a sugar used to make the beer. This sugar was poisonous but it was used to out compete other breweries

https://www.manchestersfinest.com/long-reads/the-rise-fall-of-boddingtons-the-cream-of-manchester/

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Founded in 1778 in Manchester by Thomas Caister and Thomas Fray.

Brewed for 227 years.

The most common customers for this beer were the cotton workers of Manchester.

The beer was used as a substitute for water which was highly contaminated and unsafe to drink at the time.

By 1877, Boddingtons was the largest beer company in Manchester.

They brewed more than a 100 thousand barrels a year, which was a very rare feat at the time.

In the 1900s, an arsenic entered the beer in many of their breweries, causing over 6000 people to become poisoned, and over 70 people to lose their lives.

The brewery started to fall in the 1990s due to a shift in people’s preferences of beer .

https://www.manchestersfinest.com/long-reads/the-rise-fall-of-boddingtons-the-cream-of-manchester/

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Textile Machinery in Industrial Manchester (Shruthi Byrapu)

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Textile Machinery in Industrial Manchester (Shruthi Byrapu)

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The Spinning Jenny: (Invented by James Hargreaves in 1764) Allowed one worker to spin many threads at once. This made it much faster and easier to make yarn, helping factories produce more cotton.

The Power Loom: (Invented by Edmund Cartwright in 1785) It made weaving fabric faster and more efficient. Before the loom, weaving was done by hand, but with the power loom, it became much quicker to make cloth.

The Spinning Mule: (Invented by Samuel Crompton in 1779) Combination of the best features of the Spinning Jenny and the water frame. It made stronger and finer cotton threads, and it was used in many Manchester’s factories.

Steam Engines: These were introduced to power textile machines. Before steam engines, factories relied on water power, but steam engines allowed factories to be built anywhere and run longer hours, greatly increasing production.

Factory Growth: As new machines were invented, more and more factories were built in Manchester. These factories, powered by steam engines and filled with machines like the Spinning Jenny and Power Loom, produced large amounts of cotton goods.

Increased Production: With these machines, factories could make more cloth, faster and cheaper than before. This helped make textiles one of the most important industries in Manchester and made a lot of money for factory owners.

Working Conditions: Even though the machines made production easier, they also led to long working hours for factory workers, including children. Workers had to deal with dangerous and unhealthy conditions while operating these machines.

Sources:

https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/articles/zys7xbk

https://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/object/nmah_1070132

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How did the Industrial Revolution change the textile industry? - BBC Bitesize

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The invention of new technologies during the Industrial Revolution allowed the textile industry to expand and make new cloth products. Find out more in this 3rd level Bitesize guide.

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In 1837 Joule took his fathers path and became a manager of a brewery while still loving science

He carried out experiments at home to find out wheather a electric battery was better than the at the time more popular steam engine and in 1841 made what is to be called Joules first law

This first law was about the relationship between amounts of heat produced and current flowing through a conductor and because of this law got into London Electrical Society

Discovered that heat can be produced from electric currents but this went against the caloric theory at the time and no one believed in his work

The caloric theory states that heat is tangible while James Joule suggested it was molecular motion

Joule used his background as a brewer and John Benjamin Dancer who could make custom tools to get indisputable evidence for his theory

Another reason this theory was not liked because it contradicted the caloric theory and they existence of atoms was widely not accepted

James Joule was born in Sanford, Manchester in 1818 and lived till 1889

The international name of energy the Joule is named after him

Him and his brother were taught chemistry, physics, and maths from John Dalton who made the atomic theory

https://ageofrevolution.org/200-object/james-joule/

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This image shows the Jacquard loom and all the components.    https://coimages.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/21/552/large_1867_0047__0007_.jpg

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Programming Patterns: The story of Jacquard Loom (Charmi Patel)

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Programming Patterns: The story of Jacquard Loom (Charmi Patel)

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In 1804, Joseph-Marie Jacquard, who was a French weaver and merchant, invented the Jacquard Loom to helped quicken the process of mass production of various fabrics.

The machine sufficiently used wool, nylon, polyester, and other textile fibres to produce a variety of different fabrics that were patterned and designed in a special way.

This invention affected the growth of the textile manufacturing and computing industries.

It changed the patterned cloth production and advanced in human-machine interaction while using binary code.

The components of this invention include a weft or thread, warp or a set of threads, and interchangeable cards.

The use of interchangeable cards in his system played an important role in achieving the main goal of the invention by holding guiding details for a weaving pattern.

During the 1820s, this invention had started to spread around and reached Manchester, which allowed towns to produce the woven patterned textiles.

One location where this invention was in use is Lancashire's burgeoning textiles industry.

Jacquard’s invention was a expanded idea of Jacques de Vaucanson’s original invention with some modifications and improvements.

The interchangeable or punch cards later on developed by an American statistician, Herman Hollerith, to feed data to his census machine.

Sources:

https://coimages.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/21/552/large_1867_0047__0007_.jpg

https://www.britannica.com/technology/Jacquard-loom

https://www.scienceandindustrymuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/jacquard-loom

~Charmi Patel

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Manchester during the Industrial Revolution

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Manchester, Cotton and Slavery (Pranav Veeravalli)

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Manchester, Cotton and Slavery (Pranav Veeravalli)

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During the Industrial Revolution, Manchester became a global center for cotton textile production, earning the nickname “Cottonopolis.”

The city’s prosperity heavily depended on raw cotton sourced from the Americas, where enslaved people were forced to cultivate and harvest it.

Manchester’s industrial success was built on the exploitation of enslaved laborers, highlighting the darker side of its economic growth.

Despite its ties to slavery, Manchester became a hub for anti-slavery activism, with workers and citizens supporting abolitionist campaigns.

The American Civil War disrupted cotton imports, causing a severe economic crisis in Manchester and exposing its reliance on slave-produced materials.

The city’s history is a mix of industrial achievement and complicity in slavery, showing the moral complexities of its past.

The museum examines these historical connections, encouraging critical reflection on Manchester’s industrial heritage and its links to slavery.

Extra Information:

The first Industrial Revolution in England took place in a small region marked by key innovations like coal-smelted iron and the first factory.

Key cities, including Coalbrookdale, Derby, Preston, and Birmingham, contributed to this industrial development through major inventions.

Manchester became the heart of the revolution, with its cotton industry driving the nation’s industrial success and gaining worldwide recognition.

Source: http://grimshaworigin.org/grimshaw-involvement-in-the-industrial-revolution/manchester-the-first-industrial-city/

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Ancoats: From Cotton to Cool            Sparsh Pal

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Ancoats: From Cotton to Cool            Sparsh Pal

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Manchester was the very first industrial city, Ancoats was its center

Ancoats is ranked as the UK’s top 20 coolest places to live

People believed that shoes concealed within buildings would bring protection and good luck

Ancoats was transformed by huge cotton-spinning complexes

Ancoats had a large network of canals, which drew manufacturers to it for transportation

Densely packed streets of cottages sat alongside huge cotton mills

Had overcrowded, badly built housing with no plumbing

Riddled with diseases such as cholera

Ancoats was a hub of cotton mills, factories, and working-class communities

Contributed to Manchester’s title of “Cottonopolis”

Despite poor living conditions, workers thrived, bringing the area’s unique culture

Outside Source:https://www.northerngroup.co.uk/blog-news/the-history-of-ancoats-from-industrial-powerhouse-to-vibrant-community/#:~:text=Once%20the%20beating%20heart%20of,Manchester's%20reputation%20as%20%22Cottonopolis.%22

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Ancoat, the beating heart of Manchester 

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Ancoat, the beating heart of Manchester 

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Ancoat was a place in Manchester that had a network of canals and steam-giving cotton mill, Ancoat was the beating heart of Manchester.

People in the 18th century believed that shoes bring good luck and protect occupiers. Many people in Ancoat deliberately put the shoes in places like attics for this reason.

Other than cotton spinning Ancoat attracted engineers who specialize in the textile industry, because they needed the expertise to power hit machinery in Ancoat.

Ancoat also made glassware that was made for everything from decorative glass pieces to bottles for local drinks. Another reason was the need of industrial glassware, especially in chemical firms.

People in Ancoat didn’t have the internet back then so the workers used dominoes to keep themselves entertained during their off time, if they had any.

The plane Avro 504K, which was used in World War 1, has some roots in the industrial periods. The design and development for flying aircraft was in Ancoats streets and this plane was developed their factory.

Many of the factories in Ancoat are used as clubs or other things than what they were originally used for. Take the Beehive mill for example, it was a cotton mill that turned into a soap mill which turned into a club.

Outside Source

Ancoat was home to the firm of McConnell and Kennedy which were the largest employer of cotton workers, the about 1,500 people working for them

The buildings on the Great Ancoat Street represent the development of cotton mill architecture from the 1800’s to the 1920’s

On the other hand there are buildings in Ancoat that represent a Victorian era, with some buildings being a five-story block of flats dating from around 1889.

Works Cited

https://www.manchester.gov.uk/info/511/conservation_areas/1216/ancoats_conservation_area/3

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First built in the 1880s and was the heart of the successful Liverpool Roads Goods Station

Helped moving cranes which led to moving heavy goods on and off railroad wagons

There is a pair of smaller gantries which is powered by a small steam engine on wheels with a central lifting hook below to carry goods on and off

This structure supported two 10-ton traveling cranes across two bridges, up to 16 railway wagons were unloaded at a time

The gantry was the biggest and most advanced piece of technology

Constructed of wood with some metal fittings and finished in realistic colors

Cross-section of the dry dock symbolizes a series of steps down to the dock base with a series of wooden keel blocks

Had down sides like potential injuries from burning cinders falling down on workers

By: Kristina Nieves

Sources: https://blog.scienceandindustrymuseum.org.uk/the-gantry/?_gl=1*ig41ev*_gcl_au*MjAyNDY0MDEyMC4xNzM0MDQ4MTA1

https://www.rmg.co.uk/collections/objects/rmgc-object-68109

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Sluice gate installed at Crowden Brook, which is part of the first phase of the Longdendale reservoir

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Increase in pollution, rapid urbanization are key issues, including the rise of demand for clean sources of water

The population of Manchester skyrocketed, causing thousands to have to drink water from shallow wells or streams, often polluted due to waste being dumped into rivers and streams

Many of the industrial waste went directly into the river, including large solid waste going down the rivers

The buildup of waste caused Manchesters rivers to grow,  making the chances of flooding to happen higher. The River Irwell grew over 3 inches a year

Due to the terrible sanitation, diseases like typhoid, cholera and dysentery spread rapidly throughout Manchester.

The city started a project supply the city with water by installing water pipes and reservoirs.

A massive engineering project began 1885 to bring water from Thirlmere reached Manchester. The project was finished in 1891

By Dylan Chung

Sources:

https://cassowaryproject.org/understanding-modern-manchester-through-baths-and-wash-houses/

https://www.hslc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/133-3-Hassan.pdf

https://www.thoughtco.com/public-health-in-the-industrial-revolution-1221641#:~:text=In%20this%20overcrowding%2C%20disease%20spread%20easily.&text=There%20was%20also%20inadequate%20drainage,privies%20which%20emptied%20into%20cesspits.

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Manchester’s Smoke Nuisance: Air Pollution in the Industrial City By Aaditya Bhagat

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Manchester’s Smoke Nuisance: Air Pollution in the Industrial City By Aaditya Bhagat

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Coal, a type of fossil fuel, was a primary source of air pollution in Manchester.

Coughs, stinging eyes, and perpetual gloom were effects of the smoke, dirt, and stench produced by Manchester’s chimneys.

The urban pollution was known at the time as “the smoke nuisance”.

Despite causing dreadful living conditions for Manchester’s residents and workers, coal smoke was associated with thriving industry.

Steam engines name it possible to use heat energy from coal.

By the 19th century there were almost 2000 chimneys polluting the air of Manchester.

Anti-pollution activists argued to reduce Manchester’s thickening smoke cloud

Manchester’s choke abatement campaigners tried to persuade factory owners to adopt gas-powered engines which would reduce the amount of smoke produced.

Although gas engines would reduce the amount of smoke population, gas is a lot more expensive compared to the cheap coal

Source: https://earth.org/data_visualization/the-history-and-future-of-air-pollution-in-manchester/

The use of coal during greatly decreased as time went on with substitutions some of which being electricity, gas, and oil.

Manchester was known as one of the most polluted cities in the United Kingdom due to the high amount of coal found in the area which overall increased the use of coal causing a lot of smoke pollution.

Sulfur pollution was found in Manchester which led to rain turning into acid rain which had negative effects on vegetation.

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This is the image of a can of bear from Boddington Brewers. It was very popular during the Industrial Revolution, and people used to drink this in the day since the water was contaminated.

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Boddington Brewers in Manchester: Vedant Bangad

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Boddington Brewers in Manchester: Vedant Bangad

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Boddington beer was brewed in Manchester for 227 years.

It was believed to be founded in 1778.

The brewery was established on the eve of the Industrial Revolution, so the population boom and growth of industry created an optimal market for beer.

Henry Boddington was made a partner in the business at 34 years old.

It became a family business. Henry’s sons also joined in the business.

Boddingtons became the biggest brewery in Manchester by 1877.

It was one of the only 30 companies in the country to brew more than 100,000 barrels a year.

https://ilovemanchester.com/history-boddingtons-strangeways-brewery

By the age of 39, he became the sole proprietor of the company.

The Boddingtons expanded between the 1870s and 1880s.

In 1877, Boddingtons made headlines as the #1 business in Manchester because they installed a telephone link between two of their locations.

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Clogs were the main shoes that everyone would wear to work in Manchester, this was because they were cheap to make, fit comfortably, and were durable.

These shoes were loaned to a child who worked in a cotton factory by the Charter Street Ragged School

Ragged schools were for poor people because they loaned clothes, and provided food and shelter for children

These shoes had a stamp on the side that said “CSRS loaned, not to be pawned” because people kept on selling them for money

Child labor was present everywhere in factories in Manchester, and they received less pay than adults

Many kids lost limbs and succumbed to injuries because they were forced to go into small spaces, such as under machinery to clean up or retrieve items

Many children obtained diseases for the rest of their lives from inhaling cotton fibers and other dangerous chemicals

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The image above represents the “thinking cap” Dalton used in order to brainstorm new ideas. Believe it or not, this simple piece of headgear led to some of the greatest scientific discoveries of all time.

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The Scientific Revelations of John Dalton

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The Scientific Revelations of John Dalton

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By: Natasha Ramakrishnan

John Dalton was an infamous scientist based in the booming city of Manchester. His work greatly contributed to various fields of scientific discovery.

Dalton began his career at a young age, moving to Manchester to tutor science at the Manchester Academy. His duties failed to leave him time for his own scientific interests and research.

He soon joined the Literary & Philosophical Society, which gave him room for teaching and his own research. He was able to attain access to a well equipped laboratory and more equipment.

In his time at the Society, he eventually was promoted to president after exemplifying his avid ambition towards investigating his own topics of interest.

By far, his most interesting accomplishment was the atomic theory. He formulated the Law of Partial Pressures. The Law states that the pressure of a mixed gas is the sum of the pressures that each of its components would exert if occupying the same space.

He went on to set out the first table of atomic weights. He developed his scientific theories further in lectures to the Royal Society.

He used five wooden balls made by Peter Edward of Manchester to demonstrate his atomic theory.

Overall, Dalton’s discoveries led him to become a world renowned scientist in the eyes of the Industrial Revolution.

Britannica - John Dalton: https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Dalton

Dalton was born September 6th, 1766 in Cumberland, England. He died July 27th, 1844 in Manchester.

He was born into a Quaker family of tradesmen. His grandfather was a shoemaker while his father was a weaver.

The first publication on color blindness was made by him, after he discovered a defect in both his and his brother’s vision.

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-John Dalton was a teacher, a meteorologist, and an expert on color blindness, but he is best known for his pioneering theory of atomism.

-His research on meteorology is what lead to him making a theory on atomism

-He said that pressure exerted by each gas in a mixture is independent and the total pressure is all of the pressures of each gas added up.

-He then learned how to calculate atomic weights to figure out the atomic structure of each compound

-He also created the law of the thermal expansion of gases

-These ideas have been kept the same mostly and is now the basis of modern chemistry and physics

-He made a theory to explain color blindness, he said the color of the fluid in his eyes were like a filter to certain colors in the spectrum.  His theory was proven wrong a few days later but 150 years later it was shown that Dalton had red-green color blindness, now called Daltonism.

-Dalton was loved by the people of Manchester so much they made a life size statue to be erected of him in Town Hall

Source: https://www.sciencehistory.org/education/scientific-biographies/john-dalton/

By: Darsh Patel