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Parliament's Humble Beginnings

The present-day Parliament is a bicameral ("two chambers") legislature with a House of Lords and a House of Commons. These two houses, however, weren't always joined, and had their earliest beginnings in the Anglo-Saxon council governments of the 8th century.

The Witan was a small council of clergymen, land-owning barons and other advisors chosen by the king to discuss matters of state, taxation and other political affairs. As it expanded to include more advisors, the Witan evolved into the magnum concilium or Great Council.

On a local level, "moots" were meetings of local bishops, lords, sheriffs and, importantly, commoners who were representatives of their counties or "shires."

These institutions functioned-with varying degrees of success-as law-making bodies and law enforcement agencies throughout England during the Middle Ages. The two bodies didn't regularly convene, but they paved the way to the bicameral legislature that exists today.

Magna Carta

The first English Parliament was convened in 1215, with the creation and signing of the Magna Carta, which established the rights of barons (wealthy landowners) to serve as consultants to the king on governmental matters in his Great Council.

As in the early Witans, these barons were not elected, but rather selected and appointed by the king. The Great Council was first referred to as "Parliament" in 1236.

By 1254, the sheriffs of the various counties in England were instructed to send elected representatives of their districts (knowns as "knights of the shire") to consult with the king on issues related to taxation. Four years later, at the English university town of Oxford, the noblemen who served in Parliament at the time drafted the "Provisions of Oxford," which called for regular meetings of the legislative body, composed of representatives from each of the counties.

In 1295, Parliament evolved to include nobles and bishops as well as two representatives from each of the counties and towns in England and, since 1282, Wales. This became the model for the composition of all future Parliaments.

Richard II Deposed

Over the course of the next century, the membership of Parliament was divided into the two houses it features today, with the noblemen and bishops encompassing the House of Lords and the knights of the shire and local representatives (known as "burgesses") making up the House of Commons.

During this time, too, Parliament began to take on more authority within the English government. In 1362, for example, it passed a statute decreeing that Parliament must approve all taxation.

Fourteen years later, the House of Commons tried and impeached a number of the king's advisors. And, in 1399, after years of internal struggle for power between the monarchy and Parliament, the legislative body voted to depose King Richard II, enabling Henry IV to assume the throne.

Parliament's Power Expands

During Henry IV's time on the throne, the role of Parliament expanded beyond the determination of taxation policy to include the "redress of grievances," which essentially enabled English citizens to petition the body to address complaints in their local towns and counties. By this time, citizens were given the power to vote to elect their representatives-the burgesses-to the House of Commons.

In 1414, Henry IV's son, Henry V, assumed the throne and became the first monarch to acknowledge that the approval and consultation of both houses of Parliament was required to make new laws. Still, all was not perfect in England's fledgling democracy.

More than 100 years later, in 1523, philosopher and writer Sir Thomas More, a Member of Parliament (M.P. for short), was the first to raise the issue of " freedom of speech" for lawmakers in both houses during deliberations. A half-century hence, during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I in 1576, Peter Wentworth, M.P., made an impassioned speech arguing for the same right; he was sentenced to imprisonment in the Tower of London.

Wentworth, a Puritan, later clashed with Elizabeth I over issues related to freedom of religion during his time as an M.P., and he was jailed for these acts as well. It was this persecution that led the Puritans to leave England for the New World in the 1600s, helping to settle the 13 colonies that eventually became the United States.

English Civil War

For much of the 17th century, the United Kingdom experienced a great deal of change and political turmoil. Arguably, the one constant was Parliament.

From 1603 to 1660, the country was mired in a drawn-out civil war and, for a time, military leader Oliver Cromwell assumed power under the title Lord Protector. The ruling monarch at the time, Charles I, was executed in 1649.

Cromwell is best known for conquering Scotland (1649) and Ireland (1651) and bringing them, unwillingly, under the dominion of the United Kingdom. Still, those two nations had their own Parliaments, made up of Cromwell supporters.

Parliament continued to retain some power during this period of change. However, M.P.s who were thought to be loyal to Charles I were excluded from the legislature in 1648, creating the so-called "Rump Parliament."

The Monarchy Abolished

In 1649, the House of Commons took the unprecedented step of abolishing the monarchy and declaring England a commonwealth.

Four years later, though, Cromwell disbanded the Rump Parliament and created the Nominated Assembly, a de facto legislature. Cromwell died in 1658 and was replaced by his son Richard. The son was deposed a year later, and Britain's government effectively collapsed.

Charles I's son, Charles II, was restored to the throne in 1660, reaffirming the monarchy's place in British history.

New Parliamentary elections were held. And the M.P.s elected effectively held their seats for the next 18 years, during which no general election was called.

The Stuart Kings

The so-called "Stuart Kings"-Charles II and his brother James II, who succeeded him in 1685-maintained a similar relationship with the legislature as their father had in the 1640s. However, religion was a major issue dividing English government and society.

When Parliament passed the "Test Act," which prevented Catholics from holding elected office, the legislature was at odds with King James II, himself a Catholic. After years of political in-fighting during the Glorious Revolution, Parliament deposed James II in 1689 and his eldest daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange ascended to the throne.

During their brief rule, Parliament was once again elevated to having law-making powers. In fact, when Mary and William died (in 1694 and in 1702, respectively), the legislature established new protocols for succession, and named George of Hanover king.

Parliament in Recent History

Over course of the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries, Parliament and its powers evolved-just as the United Kingdom itself did.

Scotland formally became a part of the United Kingdom in 1707, and thus sent representatives to the Parliament at Westminster. By the late 1700s, Ireland was also part of the United Kingdom (the six counties in the north of the island-known collectively as Ulster-remain part of the U.K. today), and land-owners there elected their own representatives to both houses of Parliament.

Through a series of legislative acts, known as the "Reform Acts," a number of changes were made to the composition and legislative process in Parliament. The Reform Act of 1918 gave women the right to vote, and the first woman was elected to the body that same year.

However, Countess Constance Markievicz of Ireland was a member of Sinn Fein, the political party seeking independence for the island nation, and thus refused to serve.

Meanwhile, the Parliament Acts of 1911 and 1949 established greater powers for the House of Commons, which has 650 elected members, compared to the House of Lords, which has 90 members appointed via peerage (a system of titles for noblemen).

House of Lords

Today, the two houses of Parliament-the House of Lords and the House of Commons-meet in the Palace of Westminster in London, and are the only body in the United Kingdom's constitutional monarchy government with the authority to create legislation and make laws.

The current monarch, King Charles III, still serves a ceremonial role as head of state, and the country's executive branch is headed by the Prime Minister.

While the House of Lords can debate all bills that don't deal directly with financial matters for the country, it is the House of Commons that holds the ultimate sway when it comes to whether legislation ultimately becomes law.

However, the House of Lords does play a role in government accountability, through its questioning of cabinet ministers and the formation of special committees to address important matters of state. Its members are now mostly appointees, not peers who inherit their seats in the House of Lords.

House of Commons

Today, all legislation must be approved by the House of Commons in order for it to become law. The House of Commons also controls taxation and the government's purse strings.

The public in the United Kingdom elects each of the 650 members of the House of Commons. And in a system somewhat different from that of the United States, government ministers (including the Prime Minister) must regularly answer questions in the House of Commons.

Sources

The Birth of English Parliament. Parliament.uk.
A brief history of the UK Parliament. BBC News.
The Civil War. HistoryofParliament.org.
Stuarts. HistoryofParliament.org.
Reform Era. HistoryofParliament.org.
Legislative Procedure in the House of Commons. University of Leeds.
Timeline: Constitutional crises in English and British history. Reuters.

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British Parliament - House of Lords & House of Commons

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British Parliament - the House of Lords and the House of Commons - is the legislative body of the United Kingdom and meets in the Palace of Westminster.

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During Elizabeth's reign however, became more assertive and influential. They were in conflict with Elizabeth over the following issues.

Marriage issue

Some MPs felt Elizabeth should name a suitor to marry and produce an heir in order to secure the line of . Elizabeth's response was that this was her private business and she would marry when and if it was convenient.

At present it is not convenient; nor never shall be without some peril unto you and certain danger unto me Elizabeth I asks Parliament to stop pressing her on the issue of her marriage, 1566

Religion issue

Elizabeth was a and re-instated the when she came to power, but wanting to avoid religious conflict she offered a 'middle-way' which did allow some worship and traditions. Some MPs disagreed with this compromise and challenged Elizabeth by threatening to not grant her taxes. Elizabeth said religion was a 'matter of state', not for Parliament, and forbade them to discuss religion.

Freedom of speech issue

In 1576 the Puritan MP, Peter Wentworth, complained that MPs were not free to discuss whatever they liked. Elizabeth sent him to the Tower of London for a month for speaking out.

Monopolies issue

Monopolies gave individual and merchants the sole right to manufacture or sell particular goods. Elizabeth intended for monopolies to promote business and boost the economy, but because one person now controlled the supply of a particular product it meant that prices rose. Elizabeth also made money from granting the licences.

Towards the end of Elizabeth's reign some MPs felt monopolies were unfair and were being abused. They protested against them in 1597-8 and 1601 and would not grant taxes until they had been withdrawn. At this stage Elizabeth compromised and withdrew some monopolies. She also made a long speech flattering Parliament, which became known as her 'Golden Speech' which again showed her to be a clever and shrewd ruler.

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Elizabeth's relationship with Parliament - The early rule of Queen Elizabeth I - AQA - GCSE History Revision - AQA - BBC Bitesize

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Learn about and revise early rule in the Elizabethan era with this BBC Bitesize History (AQA) study guide.

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After 44 years of rule, Queen Elizabeth I of England dies, and King James VI of Scotland ascends to the throne, uniting England and Scotland under a single British monarch.

The daughter of King Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, Elizabeth succeeded to the throne in 1558 upon the death of her half-sister Queen Mary. The two half-sisters, both daughters of Henry VIII, had a stormy relationship during Mary's five-year reign. Mary, who was brought up as a Catholic, enacted pro-Catholic legislation and made efforts to restore the pope to supremacy in England. A Protestant rebellion ensued, and Queen Mary imprisoned Elizabeth, a Protestant, in the Tower of London on suspicion of complicity. After Mary's death, Elizabeth survived several Catholic plots against her; although her ascension was greeted with approval by most of England's lords, who were largely Protestant and hoped for greater religious tolerance under a Protestant queen. Under the early guidance of Secretary of State Sir William Cecil, Elizabeth repealed Mary's pro-Catholic legislation, established a permanent Protestant Church of England, and encouraged the Calvinist reformers in Scotland.
READ MORE: The Wildly Different Childhoods of Elizabeth I and Mary Queen of Scots
In foreign affairs, Elizabeth practiced a policy of strengthening England's Protestant allies and dividing her foes. Elizabeth was opposed by the pope, who refused to recognize her legitimacy, and by Spain, a Catholic nation that was at the height of its power. In 1588, English-Spanish rivalry led to an abortive Spanish invasion of England in which the Spanish Armada, the greatest naval force in the world at the time, was destroyed by storms and a determined English navy.

With increasing English domination at sea, Elizabeth encouraged voyages of discovery, such as Sir Francis Drake's circumnavigation of the world and Sir Walter Raleigh's expeditions to the North American coast.

The long reign of Elizabeth, who became known as the "Virgin Queen" for her reluctance to endanger her authority through marriage, coincided with the flowering of the English Renaissance, associated with such renowned authors as William Shakespeare. By her death in 1603, England had become a major world power in every respect, and Queen Elizabeth I passed into history as one of England's greatest monarchs.

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After 44 years of rule, Queen Elizabeth I of England dies, and King James VI of Scotland ascends to the throne, uniting England and Scotland under a single British monarch. The daughter of King Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, Elizabeth succeeded to the throne in 1558 upon the death of her half-sister Queen Mary.

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England underwent huge changes during the reigns of three generations of Tudor monarchs. Henry VIII ushered in a new state religion, and the increasing confidence of the state coincided with the growth of a distinctively English culture.

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England underwent huge changes during the reigns of three generations of Tudor monarchs. Henry VIII ushered in a new state religion, and the increasing confidence of the state coincided with the growth of a distinctively English culture.

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The Stuart era began when James I, who was also James VI of Scotland, succeeded Elizabeth I. The last Tudor queen had died childless in 1603. James's ascension to the throne conjoined the two long-warring nations of England and Scotland.

The Stuart period witnessed intense religious and political conflicts, which shifted power from the monarchy to Parliament. Meanwhile, discoveries and innovations transformed science, architecture and everyday life.

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The Stuart era began when James I, who was also James VI of Scotland, succeeded Elizabeth I. The last Tudor queen had died childless in 1603. James's ascension to the throne conjoined the two long-warring nations of England and Scotland.

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The reign of King James VI and I: Key dates

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The reign of King James VI and I: Key dates

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Ascended the throne on 24 March 1603.

Coronation: Westminster Abbey, 25 July 1603 as King of Great Britain and Ireland.

Died: Theobalds Park, Hertfordshire, 27 March 1625. Buried Westminster Abbey.

King James is famous for three things: Popery, puritans and witches. Popular history will always associate him with the Gunpowder Plot of 1605 when he was the intended victim of one of the most audacious assassination plots to kill a royal. But there are more noteworthy facts about the Scottish King whose intention to converge two countries, England and Scotland in an act of unity, represents just one of many intriguing ambitions by a monarch who has gone down in history as the 'wisest fool in Christendom', as said by the King of France, Henry iV.

Ad hominem attacks from his enemies aside, such as Sir Anthony Weldon, who referred to James as a swearing 'slobbering idiot with a tongue too large for his mouth, 'forever fiddling with his codpiece', such criticisms detract from the story of one of the most fascinating and colourful monarchs Britain has produced. The son of the tragic Mary Queen of Scots, his legacy includes the world's first English Bible, the creation of the Union Jack, the first colonisation of America and the introduction of tobacco to England despite hating the addictive plant himself.

James's reign began during a turbulent period of religious intolerance and change. Since the beginning of the 16th century, no Scottish monarch had ascended to the throne as an adult, they were all aged two or under. James VI was just 13 months old when he became King, his mother, Mary Queen of Scots was born a week before her father King James V died. This succession of infant monarchs created a minority rule between a series of power-hungry regents who ran the show.

It was a period of political and religious turmoil as the country underwent a Protestant reformation inspired by Calvinism (hardline Protestantism) that led to a series of big changes. There was widespread Iconoclasm, which involved the smashing of religious images and saw the power of the bishops reduced.

James's family situation was complicated. He was born in Edinburgh Castle on 19 June 1566, the only son of Mary Queen of Scots and her second husband Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley. The marriage was falling apart and Mary's position as Queen was very insecure. Two months before James was born his father Lord Darnley sided with the rebels against his wife and became involved in the brutal and murder of Queen Mary's Catholic private secretary David Rizzio, who was stabbed to death in front of the terrified and pregnant queen. Darnley himself was later murdered in an explosion at Kirk o' Field in Edinburgh in February 1567 prompting Mary to move on to her second lover who was a suspect in her previous husband's murder. Her new marriage wasn't popular with the Protestant rebels who then imprisoned Mary at Loch Leven Castle near Perth in Scotland which resulted in her never seeing her son James again.

Into this turbulent world the infant James, at just one year of age, was made a 'puppet king' officially looked after by a series of Regents who were out for themselves. Many of these men were murdered in time, including James's paternal grandfather. By the 1580s, James attained a degree of short-lived power but by the age of 12, he was captured and imprisoned for a year by two earls in what is known as the 'Raid of Ruthven', a political conspiracy in Scotland which took place on 22 August 1582.

A young scholar who enjoyed studying and not naturally inclined towards sport the teenage James revelled in reading and learning languages from Greek to Latin and French as well as composing poetry and translating the bible. Not known to be a social creature James nevertheless cultivated a close friendship with the married 37-year-old Esme Stuart, 1st Earl of Lennox, to who he also dedicated a poem. What was more likely a crush for the then 14-year-old James than a friendship is the first indication of the Scottish king's latent homosexuality which Protestant nobles disdained given James's enjoyment of demonstrating public displays of affection with the earl.

Accused of seducing the young king, drawing him into a 'carnal lust', the nobles forced Esme to leave Scotland and imprisoned James to bring the relationship to an end. This was devastating for James who had romantic feelings for the earl, the kind which inspired love poetry by a young king who appeared unaware of how his displays of affection for men was potentially scandalous. Despite the enforced separation, James would later develop relationships with several male lovers. For James, still, a gangly, awkward youth, his interest in the handsome men at court found an outlet in poetry as one way to express his secret, and for the time, forbidden feelings. Despite James I having relations with men, he adopted a severe stance against 'sodomy' using English law. He even listed the act of sodomy in one of his books as being among 'horrible crimes which ye are bound in conscience never to forgive' and ordered judges never to issue pardons to those found guilty of it.

One way James tried to assert his political authority is by passing through the Black Acts in 1584 which were new laws imposed on the Scottish church and unsurprisingly were not welcomed by the religious institutions in Scotland. This arrogant move reflected James's belief that he was king and answerable only to God. While these events unfolded James's mother Mary Queen of Scots was still alive but imprisoned in England until Queen Elizabeth I ordered her execution for treason and plotting against her. The irony of such events where James's mother was executed by the Queen of England put him in pole position to be her heir as the godchild of the unmarried and childless Elizabeth. But Elizabeth refused to name James as her heir. One reason may have been to stop her detractors and enemies looking to Scotland and James, thus undermining her authority in England. On her deathbed, Queen Elizabeth finally relented and named James as her heir.

Although King James seemingly preferred men's company sexually and romantically, he understood that his role as king meant he would be expected to have children and future heirs. In 1589 he decided to marry 14-year-old Anne of Denmark to stop gossip that he was a secret Catholic. James was 23 years of age when he got engaged to the Danish princess. They were to produce seven children, including the future Charles I, who would be the first king in Europe to be beheaded. To marry Anne he decided to sail to Denmark and collect her. The journey was beset by dangerous storms, which James suspected at the time were the result of a 'curse' by 'witches' to drown him and his new bride. This was the catalyst to what was to become an obsession for King James to hunt down 'witches' throughout the country, inspired by what he believed was an attempt through sorcery to kill him.

James believed that witches in a coven had conjured up the spell by tying a cat to a dead man's body with a kitchen hook and throwing it into the sea. This act of demonic witchcraft was believed to be the cause of the storm that nearly killed the King and Princess Anne of Denmark on their return to Scotland. Before long witch trials began taking place throughout the country.

'The North Berwick Witch Trials' saw James taking it upon himself to appear in person to interrogate a group of people accused of witchcraft. James played the role of prosecuting barrister, interviewing women such as Agnes Sampson, a 'healer' known as the 'Wise Wife of Keith' which kicked off a witch craze of prosecutions between 1590 - 1662. It is estimated that about 1500 people were executed in Scotland under charges of witchcraft, most of whom were women who had become victims of gossip and hearsay. Sampson was found guilty and burned at the stake but James spared the lives of others believing that after listening to evidence they were innocent. Such a contradictory attitude showed that this was a king who despite his superstitious beliefs in a time of religious fanaticism also possessed the capacity to be rational. The fact that James didn't condemn accused prisoners randomly showed he was a man who insisted on evidence being good enough or reliable enough to justify a guilty verdict.

As both a philosopher, thinker and writer James wrote a treatise on magic and witchcraft called Daemonologie, published in 1597. This study on the methods of so-called 'demons' allegedly used to influence ordinary people to carry out nefarious acts also touched on subjects such as werewolves and vampires.

It was written as an informative journal to educate the populace about the history and practices of sorcery that could bring about harm and justified the reasons for persecuting witches and necromancers in a Christian society. Later James penned two books on the theory and art of being a king. His Basilikon Doron, written in the form of a private letter to James's eldest son, Henry, Duke of Rothesay was an instruction manual in how to be a good king and not a tyrant. It illustrated James's personal beliefs and values and was to become a best seller in both England and abroad. Part of its popularity was because King James's new English subjects had a thirst to know what their new king was like.

A Scottish king becoming a ruler of England was a big deal to the people and James embarked on a grand and ostentation strategy to win hearts and minds. When his procession travelled down from Scotland to England crowds turned out to see what he looked like as well as his courtiers, who he dragged down from the north. When he took his procession through Newcastle he fired off canons and freed all the prisoners in the city apart from the murderers and the Catholics. Like a 16th Century Santa Claus, he showered the streets with gold coins while in fancy dress as 'Robin Hood', aping a mythical character from a medieval folktale.

In 1602 James VI of Scotland became James I of England, who despite having distractors in many areas was promising a degree of certainty after years where people feared civil war. Here now was a male monarch with a family offering a future that looked more secure. The fly in the ointment (to quote a phrase from the King James Bible) was the fact he was Scottish and more importantly that he had a big plan for change, one that wasn't greeted with the same enthusiasm as when he entered England in a flurry of pomp and spectacle.

In 1603 James, promising the kind of security people yearned for after a childless queen, was to face his first major political obstacle. The big issue was that he was Scottish and to boot foreign yet more alarmingly seemed armed with a plan to unite England and Scotland to formally create Great Britain. Not everyone was happy with this idea from both sides of the political divide. The Scottish didn't want to play second fiddle to the English and the English weren't keen on becoming known as Britons. They wished to remain English. Despite many pamphlets being published on the matter and Parliament going into overdrive discussing the debate, King James went ahead and proclaimed himself King of Great Britain together with the creating of a new union flag. The Union Jack, combining the St Andrews and St George's crosses is one of the most iconic flags in the world. But the reality of a united Great Britain fell short of James's lofty ambition and he retained the title in name only.

Despite promising the Scottish people that he would be returning to Edinburgh regularly James remained in England and only returned to Edinburgh once. As he needed important letters and messages sent back and forth between London and the Scottish capital, this urgency precipitated the beginning of the postal service as horses shuttled back between the two cities.

Before James became king he made promises to people from different political and religious factions. The Catholics wanted to move the church in a decisive direction and rid the country of Protestantism, while the Protestants wanted to get rid of the vestiges of Catholicism and go mainstream Protestant.

In 1604 a three-day conference was arranged at Hampton Court in Surrey which was set up as an attempt to try and hear both sides with James as mediator. James, who was born a Catholic but raised a Protestant rejected most of the ideas put forward by both sides.

The one solid idea that came out of the conference was a new translation of the English Bible. It was created by forty-eight translators and became the authorised King James Bible and one of the biggest selling books in the English language. This was a huge achievement for King James; his influential text remains with us to this day and copies of the bible can often be found in the bedside drawers of hotels throughout England and Scotland. Everyday phrases used today originate from this bible such as sayings 'To see eye to eye', 'A fly in the ointment', 'The blind leading the blind' and 'To give up the ghost', as well as hundreds of other phrases.

James had a talent for agitating both the Catholics and Protestants, which saw a flurry of plots aimed against him such as the 'Bye Plot' in 1603, a conspiracy by Roman Catholic priests and Puritans designed to arrest the king, get rid of him and replace him with his cousin. But this murderous scheme foreshadowed the most famous plot in 1605, which today is still celebrated every November 5 with fireworks. Masterminded by a Catholic conspirator, Guy Fawkes who took the name Guido, was one of thirteen conspirators of a plot to blow up the king while residing in Westminster palace. James was to be present in the building with his wife, Queen Anne and son Henry and the most important people in the country. The plan was to kill the king and replace him with his daughter Elizabeth as a puppet Catholic queen. The conspiracy was led by Robert Catesby who along with Fawkes were eventually rounded up by the authorities after the plot was discovered. The unearthing of the plot resulted in the most extreme punishment against the conspirators for treason; the barbaric execution of being hung, drawn and quartered to baying crowds.

The Gunpowder Plot against King James also initiated the most stringent laws against the Catholic population as James turned the screw preventing Catholics from taking up positions in public life. The Popish Recusants Act of 1605 was passed and an oath of allegiance was instated which forbade Catholics from practising law, medicine, joining the military and demanded Catholic clergy deny the authority of the Pope. Catholics also had to receive the sacrament in an Anglican service or face fines.

James's controversial reign over two countries saw him in constant struggles with Parliament particularly when it came to spending treasury money. Parliament on the other hand was determined to control taxation. But James believed that he was only answerable to God alone and should be able to do as he liked. As James ignored Parliament for most of the decade, his personal relationships with favourites - offering them expensive gifts and high ranking titles - also irked the authorities. But few at the time were aware of the intimate nature of some of these relationships.

Although James through his marriage to Anne of Denmark produced seven children, four of whom died young, he was still sexually attracted to men. The Earl of Lennox was one of his first crushes as a youth and in 1607 a now older King James turned his affections to one Robert Carr, a young glamorous married courtier. As King James and Carr became very close, often displaying shows of affection, Carr became rapidly promoted through the ranks. He was also given a place on the privy council and granted the Earldom of Somerset, developments of which alarmed the authorities at court. To make matters worse for James in 1615 his lover Carr, now appointed Lord Chamberlain, was linked with his wife Frances to the murder of an English poet called Sir Thomas Overbury. The incident became a huge scandal and the trial was written up in papers every day as people throughout the country poured over the developing news. The guilty verdict saw Carr and his wife sentenced to death although King James stepped in and granted a pardon.

The next passionate love of King James's life after Robert Carr was the handsome but ambitious 21-year-old George Villiers who James promoted to the title of Duke of Buckingham, accelerating the young man's rise through the top ranks of nobility. James was obsessed by Villiers as evidenced by the many letters sent to the Duke from the king affectionately calling him 'Steenie' as a reference to Saint Stephen who allegedly had the face of an angel. James also wore Buckingham's picture on a blue ribbon next to his heart when they were apart.

The relationship between King James and the Duke was mutually passionate and possibly more based on love as well as infatuation on the part of James. But the romance, possibly exploited by an ambitious Villiers, also angered nobles at court concerned at the level of power and influence granted to Buckingham. Interestingly James's wife Queen Anne appeared happy doing her own thing, living at Somerset House with her court and household and rarely seeing her husband. Somewhat ironically George Villiers was to develop a close platonic relationship with James's son Charles, particularly when the latter became the ill-fated King Charles 1 in 1625. The Duke's consistent rise to power, gaining new ground with Charles I came to an end three years later when he was killed by an assassin's knife.

One legacy that is overlooked about King James is his association with maritime exploits through which was founded Jamestown, one of the first of the new colonies in America named after him. The beginnings of this new colony were terrible, involving starvation and death but turned into an important part of the new British empire. While his predecessor Queen Elizabeth I was given the plaudits for colonizing the New World it was Jamestown which was the first permanent English colony in North America. The settlement was founded by one Captain John Smith in 1607 giving the English a bit of territory in America and attracting investment from England to fund it. The big important crop contributing to that funding was tobacco.

The discovery by the English of this plant was the saving of the colony due to it being so lucrative as a new hobby for Europeans smoking pipes. Ironically King James himself found the product so disagreeable that he wrote a book about tobacco called A Counterblast to Tobacco where he described it as 'loathsome to the eye, hateful to the nose, harmful to the brains and dangerous to the lungs' proving a somewhat prophetic analysis four hundred years ahead of its time.

King James died in 1625 from dysentery at the age of 58 after suffering poor health exacerbated by a reliance on alcohol which brought about fainting fits due to excessive drinking. The 'wisest fool in Christendom' as said by the King of France and whose reign was dismissed by early historians as one of insignificance is now applauded for his vision of Anglo-Scottish Union and respected for seeking peace during a troubled period of religious strife in Europe. As well as succeeding in establishing a permanent settlement in America he also saw England engaging with trade on a scale beyond Europe to the likes of Asia and America. James I's reign is more than just an association with witches and the Gunpowder Plot but was, in fact, global in its ambition with trade across the world and significant through both its political failures as well as successes, which like the King James Bible is still with us today. James VI of Scotland and I of England is buried in Westminster Abbey.

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Popery, puritans and witches: The reign of King James I and VI

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Though maligned as 'the wisest fool in Christendom', there's a lot more to King James I than you might think

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How people power fuelled England's century of chaos

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How people power fuelled England's century of chaos

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This assault marked the nadir of a particularly fraught period for the unfortunate Duck - and also reflected rising tensions that defined the 17th century. Born in the Devon countryside, Duck had by 1640 reached the venerable age of 60. A church lawyer, he had held legal posts in several of England's great bishoprics. Indeed, he'd made an ally of the prickly archbishop of Canterbury, William Laud, who found Duck's expertise useful in a litigious age.

By the later months of that year, though, Duck was in the service of another prelate: William Juxon, bishop of London. It was on Juxon's orders that Duck embarked on a "visitation": touring the diocese to assess the state of things. Were parishioners behaving themselves? Were the church laws being obeyed? What Duck found was very worrisome.

Anger at religious reforms

Far from complying with the laws, people were angry about recent religious reforms. Supported by King Charles I, Archbishop Laud had pushed a policy of "beautifying" churches, enforcing strictly hierarchical forms of worship, and exalting the clergy. These Laudian reforms had some support, but plenty of people - especially in the more religiously radical areas near London - saw them as authoritarian, and too close to Catholicism.

Passing through villages around London and in the rolling cornfields of rural Essex, Duck was accosted by jeering crowds. Parishioners, youngsters and "amazons" (angry women) jostled his entourage and chanted against him and Bishop Juxon. When some of the rioters that assailed Duck in London were prosecuted in Convocation House next to St Paul's Cathedral, the trial was interrupted by another huge protest.

A crowd crammed into the building, shouting and throwing cushions. In the melee, Duck was chased out of a window by Londoners who once again quacked loudly at him, and hooted "as birds at an owl". A man like Arthur Duck was not accustomed to such treatment.

The dominant ideology of the time was one of order: the king and his officers could not be questioned, let alone resisted. The people had no role in the affairs of state. Indeed, the common folk were considered little more than a "many-headed monster", "giddy" and "fickle", without "brains for government".

Challenges faced by monarchy and state

In the 17th century, though, the fragile government of England collapsed into revolution - not once, but several times. It was a uniquely tumultuous era for monarchy and state. Though it's tempting to explain this by invoking a clash of personalities - bad kings, ambitious soldiers, incompetent officials and arrogant churchmen - the reality was that there were deeper problems at play.

There were the challenges facing a single monarchy ruling the three distinctive kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland. There was the fact that the cost of wars and armies was rising faster than a traditionalist state could cope with. And there were the aftershocks of the previous century's Reformation, when Protestantism threatened (and, in England and Scotland at least, overcame) the hegemony of the Catholic church.

But there was something else, too: society was changing. To a much greater degree than in previous centuries, the people were finding a political voice. It was their desire to make this voice heard that drove much of the turbulence buffeting the three kingdoms throughout the 17th century.

Even within a chaotic century, the atmosphere in 1640 was particularly electric - and much of that energy was generated by the masses. Everywhere, those in charge complained about a decline in proper deference. The common people were sick, declared one news writer: they "are struck in the head" so that they "rave and utter" against the king and his government.

They had plenty to "rave and utter" about. As the cold winter weather began to bite, the price of coal - the main domestic fuel in London - was sky-high. Everyone knew why this was, too. Scottish Presbyterians had rebelled against the king and raised a dissident army, which then occupied Newcastle - the source of most of London's coal.

Failings of Charles I

The previous decade had seen Charles I try to rule without parliament. Now all that lay in ruins. Charles's desire to force his anti-Puritan religious policies on Scotland had stirred serious resistance there. His attempt to stamp out that rebellion by force had ended in fiasco. In the late summer of 1640, a large Scottish army had trailed its pikes across the border into northern England. The only way Charles could pay off that army was to climb down and call parliament again.

This parliament, unlike one that had sat briefly in the spring, was here to stay. It came to be known as the "Long Parliament", to contrast with its "Short" predecessor - and it changed everything. Just two years later, in 1642, members of the Long Parliament raised their own army against Charles. Having fought him once, they raised a new army in 1645, fought him again in 1648 and, in the revolutionary year of 1649, put him on trial and cut off the king's head.

Bishop William Juxon himself accompanied Charles as he mounted a scaffold out side Whitehall Palace. The cleric watched his master beheaded as another London crowd watched on - this time silent, in shock. For all the horror, though, the regicide was an act undertaken in the people's name. The king, his enemies charged, had undertaken a "wicked design" to "overthrow the rights and liberties of the people".

When the monarchy itself was abolished soon afterwards, it was because the "office of a king", was "unnecessary, burdensome, and dangerous to the liberty, safety, and public interest of the people". Now, argued one republican in 1650, government was "in the people, from the people, and for the people".

Relationship between ruler and ruled

Whatever the grubby realities of how the country had reached this point, this was a remarkable thing to say. Both the regicide and the religious and social dissent of this period arose out of the same burning question that underlay the whole Stuart age: what was the relationship between those in power and those they ruled? This was not simply a matter of authoritarianism versus democracy, but something much more tangled and subtle.

The sheer complexity of that relationship is illustrated by a famous incident during Charles I's trial in January 1649. As the king faced his accusers, a masked lady interrupted proceedings, haranguing the court with the accusation that "Not half - not a quarter of the people of England" supported it. It was a palpable hit. Not only had parliament recently been thoroughly purged by the army but, even in its full glory, it was nothing close to a democratic body in the sense that we would understand it today.

The vast majority of people could not vote: women were excluded, as were most men in the towns, plus anyone in the countryside who didn't own land worth £2 a year. In any case, most "elections" were not even contested. Instead, the great and the good of the community got together and picked the right man for the job; he was duly presented to the "electorate", who happily cheered their approval.

Contested elections did become more common as the century wore on, and the electorate did expand slightly, but change was glacial. Major reform movements - which might have given the vote to "the poorest he", as one parliamentarian soldier put it - were defeated. Voting, though, is not the only form of politics. Rioting and demonstrations are as old as the hills.

The Tudor age had seen several major uprisings for faith and farmland, and disturbances of the old type continued under the Stuarts. Back in 1607, when James VI & I was on the throne, a rising in the Midlands, led by a tinker calling himself "Captain Pouch", had torn down enclosures in the region. (When the charismatic ringleader was captured, his satchel was emptied - and found to contain nothing more than old cheese.)

Peasant uprisings and public debate

In the 1620s and 30s, the royal forests of Wiltshire and Dorset were convulsed by peasant disturbances led by men dressed in women's clothing, symbolising the way the enclosures had turned their lives upside down. There were food riots across the century, too, and none more dramatic than those in Maldon, Essex in 1629, led by "Captain" Ann Carter. Charles I's government responded by hanging her - even then, an unusual punishment for a poor protester with an empty belly.

There was also something new, however, and it became obvious - at least, by the 1620s: public debate. This was a decade of food shortages, inflation, religious controversies and foreign-policy disasters. There was, therefore, plenty for people to discuss - and discuss they did. Fierce arguments raged in alehouses across England. Rumours pulsed through the countryside, following in the wake of travelling traders and pedlars.

Public sermons electrified the debate about Stuart foreign policy, and popular demonstrations rocked London. Then there was printed news. When people met, the key question (once the weather had been discussed) would be raised: "What news?"

The root of all this lay in deep, gradual social change, creating a nation that was more politically engaged and difficult to rule. Most obvious was a growth in literacy. By the second half of the 17th century, the majority of men in the capital could read, as well as plenty of women. Literacy brought access to a world of religious, political and legal writings: everything from histories to plays to sermons could be mined for ideas and things to have opinions about.

Another critical development was the expansion of London. A city home to about 50,000 people during the reign of Henry VIII swelled by the 1640s to become a metropolis of some 400,000. That burgeoning population crammed into an urban sprawl largely to the west of the City, with streets and lanes spreading north of the Strand and creeping ever nearer to the royal palaces of Whitehall, St James's and Westminster.

In 1640, 1641 and 1642, those London streets boiled over. Riots in Lambeth in May 1640 provoked savage reprisals from Charles I's government, with one protester tortured on the rack and another - probably a teenaged lad - hanged, drawn and quartered. Street demonstrations and chanting provided a menacing backdrop to the political breakdown taking place in parliament.

Outbreak of the Civil War

Then, over Christmas 1641-42, popular anger erupted once again. There was fighting in the streets, and people started dividing into camps. The terms "roundhead" and "cavalier" began to be used, and things became so hot for the king that, fearing for the safety of his family, he left London altogether. Within months, the country was at war with itself - a war that saw a mass mobilisation of the English people fighting to settle questions of religion and the constitution.

There was one group that was especially important in the political awakening that propelled the country towards the Civil War. It comprised - as the famous astrologer William Lilly put it - neither the rich nor the very poor, but people "of a middle quality". Members of society's middle were also prominent in the New Model Army - the military juggernaut created by parliament in 1645, which promptly smashed the royalists at the battle of Naseby.

The New Model Army was explicitly led by men from outside the traditional aristocracy. The titled and the rich were out; middling men were in. Some were country gentry like Thomas Fairfax. More typical, though, were minor gentry such as Oliver Cromwell (who became the most powerful man in the three kingdoms) and officers from outside the gentry altogether - including Thomas Pride, who led the purge of parliament in 1648.

As politics raged, the thinker William Petty published a piece of "advice" for his friend and correspondent Samuel Hartlib. In it, Petty argued for the transformative power of education, which he hoped would leave no one "now holding the plough which might have been made fit to steer the state".

"Rise of the middling sort"

The Civil War helped to open the door to men of talent from outside the social elite. Cracks at the political centre allowed those traditionally outside politics to push their way in. Thanks to the rise of the middling sort, the extension of literacy and the growth of London, there was a reservoir of politically engaged people who now saw their moment. Farmers would occupy the highest reaches of the government. One dramatic consequence of the democratisation of education and power was an effervescence of popular religion.

New ideas sprung up from the bottom: from alehouses and street pulpits, from the press, and from spontaneously gathered congregations in marketplaces and farmyards. In London, a religious radical ascended one pulpit and uttered an hour-long stream of profanities. In Oxford, a freethinking woman walked through the streets in her underwear. In the Wiltshire Cotswolds, a minister with wild, frizzled hair took a male parishioner as his "man-wife".

The Quakers: religious radicalism

Most impressive of all was a new group that first appeared in the Midlands, calling themselves "Children of the Light". Their enemies noticed the way that adherents' bodies shook with religious enthusiasm, and came to call them "Quakers". The Quakers, whose influence took hold rapidly in the north, represented perhaps the greatest peasant radical movement in English history.

Their beliefs left no formal need for an organised church, and allowed women an equal role to men. And their public performances could be shocking. In 1656, a Quaker Yorkshireman named James Nayler rode into Bristol on an ass, imitating Jesus's entry into Jerusalem. It was a dramatic enactment of the idea that Christ works through every person, not just through a formal church. Nayler was arrested, tried before parliament, and sentenced to savage physical mutilation for what MPs decided to call "horrid blasphemy".

With the restoration of the monarchy under Charles II in 1660, the Quakers and other sects endured, now joined on the outside of the establishment by the old Puritans. Puritanism had thrived under Oliver Cromwell; after the Restoration, though, its followers found themselves pushed beyond the Anglican communion. To do so was a conscious and dangerous choice by the monarchical regime.

In fact, managing a society with so much religious diversity proved too much for the later Stuarts. Charles II just about held things together when the Catholicism of his brother, James, led to calls for the latter to be excluded from the throne. The crisis passed but, when Charles died in 1685, his brother, ruling as James VII & II, faced the same need to balance the different forms of faith that had emerged among the realm's restive population.

His laudable goal was to protect his fellow Catholics, but to do so he pursued an unlikely alliance with Protestant Dissenters, which angered the monarchy's supporters among the conservative Anglican majority. In 1688-89, James fell victim to an intervention from abroad in the shape of his son-in-law (and nephew) William of Orange.

The Glorious Revolution of 1688

A vast amphibious expedition sailed along the Channel, made landfall in Devon, and thrust its way towards London as James's army and government collapsed. William's invading army may have hailed from the Netherlands, but the seeds of this revolution were sown among the people of England. Like so many of the crises that preceded it, the Glorious Revolution had roots in the deep popularisation of politics across the 17th century.

By the time James II & VII came to rule, English politics had become divided into something completely new: political parties. The Whigs - who advocated greater parliamentary restrictions on the power of the monarchy and who allied with the old Dissenters - faced off against the Tories, who leaned towards absolutism and enjoyed support from conservative Anglicans.

In both cases, party loyalty was drawn from deep engagement with the wider political nation. Mass public demonstrations - bonfires, street parties, even riots - were backed by vibrant and virulent printed propaganda aimed at coffee-house readers in London and across the country.

Active monarchy or politicised people?

Charles II had been able to face down calls to exclude his brother James from the succession only by allying himself closely with the Tories. But there was a cost: by 1685, when the old king died, the Stuart monarchy had become party political. In a world in which the people had grown to have complex views on politics, the monarchy had been forced to pick a side. And in a period in which the ideological fissures had become so deep, the crown couldn't help but fall in.

If the story of 17th-century England teaches us anything, it's that you can either have an active monarchy or a politicised people, but not both. It is a lesson that the first king Charles and his son James learned the hard way. After the Glorious Revolution, the monarchy was able to survive by shrinking back from politics, and leaving government to parliament.

The philosopher Thomas Hobbes recognised the new reality as early as the 1660s. Perhaps with a tinge of regret, he saw how "the power of the mighty hath no foundation but in the opinion and belief of the people". This was the great revolution that underpins the 17th century - and its consequences are still with us in our modern world of petitioning, protest, new technologies of communication, and political engagement by the people.
This article was first published in the February 2023 issue of BBC History Magazine

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How people power fuelled England's century of chaos

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King Charles I's clashes with parliament, the decades of bloody civil war, and the spell of republican government followed by the restoration of the monarchy - these are the major events that dominate the chapters about the 17th century in the history books.

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Between 1642 and 1651, armies loyal to King Charles I and Parliament faced off in three civil wars over longstanding disputes about religious freedom and how the "three kingdoms" of England, Scotland and Ireland should be governed. Notable outcomes of the wars included the execution of King Charles I in 1649, 11 years of republican rule in England and the establishment of Britain's first standing national army.

Background: The Rise of the Stuarts and King Charles I

England's last Tudor monarch, Elizabeth I, died in 1603, and was succeeded by her cousin, James Stuart. Already King James VI of Scotland, he became King James I of England and Ireland as well, uniting the three kingdoms under a single ruler for the first time. Though at first the Catholic minority in England welcomed James' ascension to the throne, they later turned against his regime, even attempting to blow up the king and Parliament in the Gunpowder Plot.

James' son, Charles I, succeeded him on the throne in 1625. His marriage to a Catholic princess, Henrietta Maria of France fueled suspicions (especially among more radical Protestants, known as Puritans) that the king would introduce Catholic traditions back into the Church of England. Charles also believed strongly in his divine right to rule, and in 1629 he dismissed Parliament altogether; he would not recall it for the next 11 years.

War in Scotland

Beginning in the late 1630s, Charles made efforts to establish a more English-like religious practice in Scotland, generating fierce resistance among that country's Presbyterian majority. A Scottish army defeated Charles' forces and invaded England, forcing Charles to recall Parliament in 1640 to generate the money to pay his own troops and settle the conflict. Instead, Parliament acted quickly to restrict the king's powers, even ordering the trial and execution of one of his chief ministers, Lord Strafford.

Amid the political upheaval in London, the Catholic majority in Ireland rebelled, massacring hundreds of Protestants there in October 1641. Tales of the violence inflamed tensions in England, as Charles and Parliament disagreed on how to respond. In January 1642, the king tried and failed to arrest five members of Parliament who opposed him. Fearing for his own safety, Charles fled London for northern England, where he called on his supporters to prepare for war.

Did you know? In May 1660, nearly 20 years after the start of the English Civil Wars, Charles II finally returned to England as king, ushering in a period known as the Restoration.

First English Civil War (1642-46)

When civil war broke out in earnest in August 1642, Royalist forces (known as Cavaliers) controlled northern and western England, while Parliamentarians (or Roundheads) dominated in the southern and eastern regions of the country. The king's forces appeared to be gaining the upper hand by early 1643, especially after concluding an alliance with Irish Catholics to end the Irish Rebellion. But a key alliance between the Parliamentarians and Scotland that year led to a large Scottish army joining the fray on Parliament's side in January 1644.

On July 2, 1644, Royalist and Parliamentarian forces met at Marston Moor, west of York, in the largest battle of the First English Civil War. A Parliamentarian force of 28,000 routed the smaller Royalist army of 18,000, ending the king's control of northern England. In 1645, Parliament created a permanent, professional, trained army of 22,000 men. This New Model Army, commanded by Sir Thomas Fairfax and Oliver Cromwell, scored a decisive victory in June 1645 in the Battle of Naseby, effectively dooming the Royalist cause.

Second English Civil War (1648-49) and execution of King Charles I

Even in defeat, Charles refused to give in, but sought to capitalize on the religious and political divisions among his enemies. While on the Isle of Wight in 1647-48, the king managed to conclude a peace treaty with the Scots and marshal Royalist sentiment and discontent with Parliament into a series of armed uprisings across England in the spring and summer of 1648.

After Fairfax, Cromwell and the New Model Army easily crushed the Royalist uprisings, hard-line opponents of the king took charge of a smaller Parliament. Concluding that peace could not be reached while Charles was still alive, they set up a high court and put the king on trial for treason. Charles was found guilty and executed by beheading on January 30, 1649 at Whitehall.

Third English Civil War (1649-51)

With Charles dead, a republican regime was established in England, backed by the military might of the New Model Army. Beginning late in 1649, Cromwell led his army in a successful reconquest of Ireland, including the notorious massacre of thousands of Irish and Royalist troops and civilians at Drogheda. Meanwhile, Scotland came to an agreement with the executed king's eldest son, also named Charles, who was crowned King Charles II of Scotland in early 1651.

Even before he was officially crowned, Charles II had formed an army of English and Scottish Royalists, prompting Cromwell to invade Scotland in 1650. After losing the Battle of Dunbar to Cromwell's forces in September 1650, Charles led an invasion of England the following year, only to suffer another defeat against a huge Parliamentarian army at Worcester. The young king narrowly escaped capture, but the decisive victory ended the Third English Civil War, along with the larger War of the Three Kingdoms (England, Scotland and Ireland).

Impact of the Civil Wars

An estimated 200,000 English soldiers and civilians were killed during the three civil wars, by fighting and the disease spread by armies; the loss was proportionate, population-wise, to that of World War I.

In 1653, Oliver Cromwell was installed as Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland, and tried (largely unsuccessfully) to consolidate broad support behind the new republican regime amid the continued growth of radical religious sects and widespread uneasiness about the new standing army.

After Cromwell's death in 1658, he was succeeded as protector by his son Richard, who abdicated just eight months later. With the continued disintegration of the republic, the larger Parliament was reassembled, and began negotiations with Charles II to resume the throne. The triumphant king arrived in London in May 1660, beginning the English Restoration.

Sources

British Civil Wars. National Army Museum.

Mark Stoyle. Overview: Civil War and Revolution, 1603-1714. BBC.

The English Civil Wars: Origins, events and legacy. English Heritage.

Simon Jenkins. A Short History of England: The Glorious Story of a Rowdy Nation. (PublicAffairs, 2011)

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English Civil Wars - Causes, Timeline & Results

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The English Civil Wars (1642-1651) stemmed from conflict between King Charles I and Parliament over an Irish insurrection. The wars ended with the Parliamentarian victory at the Battle of Worcester.

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Knowing that Charles was in desperate need of money to fight Scotland, Parliament placed heavy demands on him in return for their support. Parliament demanded the arrival of two of Charles' most trusted advisors, Archbishop Laud and the Earl of Strafford.

Strafford had been in Ireland, and the new Parliament attempted to him on a range of different charges relating to his time there. Strafford was accused, for example, of offering to bring an Irish army over to England to fight the king's opponents. Charles had to agree to meet with Parliament at least every 3 years.

In December 1641, Parliament narrowly voted in favour of the Grand Remonstrance . This was a list of demands for Charles to make further reforms. Even some MPs felt this went too far. Charles refused to agree to the Grand Remonstrance.

In January 1642, Charles went into the Houses of Parliament to try and arrest 5 MPs, but they had been warned of his arrival and escaped on the River Thames.

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Find out about the English Civil Wars with BBC Bitesize History. For students between the ages of 11 and 14.

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English Civil War: Crash Course European History 

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English Civil War: Crash Course European History 

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English Civil War: Crash Course European History #14

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Charles I & The English Civil War Documentary

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Charles I & The English Civil War Documentary

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Charles I & The English Civil War Documentary

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청교도 혁명과 명예 혁명 한번에 다보기 (5분순삭ver.) l 유럽의 역사 16부 영국 혁명

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청교도 혁명과 명예 혁명 한번에 다보기 (5분순삭ver.) l 유럽의 역사 16부 영국 혁명

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청교도 혁명과 명예 혁명 한번에 다보기 (5분순삭ver.)

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영국 귀족들, 찰스 1세의 목을 치다! | 청교도 혁명 혹은 영국내전?

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영국 귀족들, 찰스 1세의 목을 치다! | 청교도 혁명 혹은 영국내전?

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영국 귀족들, 찰스 1세의 목을 치다! | 청교도 혁명 혹은 영국내전?

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King James II

King James II took the throne in England in 1685, during a time when relations between Catholics and Protestants were tense. There was also considerable friction between the monarchy and the British Parliament.

James, who was Catholic, supported the freedom of worship for Catholics and appointed Catholic officers to the army. He also had close ties with France-a relationship that concerned many of the English people.

In 1687, King James II issued a Declaration of Indulgence, which suspended penal laws against Catholics and granted acceptance of some Protestant dissenters. Later that year, the king formally dissolved his Parliament and attempted to create a new Parliament that would support him unconditionally.

James's daughter Mary, a Protestant, was the rightful heir to the throne until 1688 when James had a son, James Francis Edward Stuart, whom he announced would be raised Catholic.

The birth of James's son changed the line of succession, and many feared a Catholic dynasty in England was imminent. The Whigs, the main group that opposed Catholic succession, were especially outraged.

The king's elevation of Catholicism, his close relationship with France, his conflict with Parliament and uncertainty over who would succeed James on the English throne led to whispers of a revolt-and ultimately the fall of James II.

William of Orange

In 1688, seven of King James's peers wrote to the Dutch leader, William of Orange, pledging their allegiance to the prince if he invaded England.

William was already in the process of taking military action against England, and the letter served as an additional propaganda motive.

William of Orange assembled an impressive armada for the invasion and landed in Torbay, Devon, in November 1688.

King James, however, had prepared for military attacks and left London to bring his forces to meet the invading army. But several of James's own men, including his family members, deserted him and defected to William's side. In addition to this setback, James's health was deteriorating.

James decided to retreat back to London on November 23. He soon announced that he was willing to agree to a "free" Parliament but was making plans to flee the country due to concerns for his own safety.

In December 1688, King James made an attempt to escape but was captured. Later that month, he made another attempt and successfully fled to France, where his Catholic cousin Louis XIV held the throne and where James eventually died in exile in 1701.

Bill of Rights

In January 1689, the now-famous Convention Parliament met. After significant pressure from William, Parliament agreed to a joint monarchy, with William as king and James's daughter, Mary, as queen.

The two new rulers accepted more restrictions from Parliament than any previous monarchs, causing an unprecedented shift in the distribution of power throughout the British realm.

The king and queen both signed the Declaration of Rights, which became known as the Bill of Rights. This document acknowledged several constitutional principles, including the right for regular Parliaments, free elections and freedom of speech in Parliament. Additionally, it forbade the monarchy from being Catholic.

Many historians believe the Bill of Rights was the first step toward a constitutional monarchy.

Bloodless Revolution

The Glorious Revolution is sometimes dubbed the Bloodless Revolution, although this description isn't entirely accurate.

While there was little bloodshed and violence in England, the revolution led to significant loss of life in Ireland and Scotland.

Catholic historians typically refer to the Glorious Revolution as the "Revolution of 1688," while Whig historians prefer the phrase "Bloodless Revolution." The term "Glorious Revolution" was first coined by John Hampden in 1689.

Legacy of the Glorious Revolution

Many historians believe the Glorious Revolution was one of the most important events leading to Britain's transformation from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy. After this event, the monarchy in England would never hold absolute power again.

With the Bill of Rights, the regent's power was defined, written down and limited for the first time. Parliament's function and influence changed dramatically in the years following the revolution.

The event also had an impact on the 13 colonies in North America. The colonists were temporarily freed of strict, anti- Puritan laws after King James was overthrown.

When news of the revolution reached the Americans, several uprisings followed, including the Boston Revolt, Leisler's Rebellion in New York and the Protestant Revolution in Maryland.

Since the Glorious Revolution, Parliament's power in Britain has continued to increase, while the monarchy's influence has waned. There's no doubt this important event helped set the stage for the United Kingdom's present-day political system and government.

Sources

The Glorious Revolution, BBC.
The Glorious Revolution of 1688, Economic History Association.
The Glorious Revolution, Parliament.uk.
The 1688 Revolution, The History Learning Site.
How did the Glorious Revolution in England Affect the Colonies? History of Massachusetts Blog.

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Glorious Revolution of 1688 - Definition & Summary

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The Glorious Revolution of 1688 overthrew English Catholic king James II, who was replaced by his Protestant daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange.

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The Revolution of 1688 that deposed King James II and put William III and Mary II on the throne of England, sometimes called the Glorious, or Bloodless, Revolution.

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【世界史】　イギリス市民革命１　国王と議会の対立　（１６分

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【世界史】　イギリス市民革命１　国王と議会の対立　（１６分

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映像授業 Try IT（トライイット）

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【世界史】　イギリス市民革命１　国王と議会の対立　（１６分）

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世界史の窓　appendix 用語とヒント