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Biology

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The digestive system of an adult, from beginning to end, is up to 30 feet in length. The small intestines can reach up to 20 feet in length and have a diameter of about an inch. The large intestines can reach up to 5 feet in length and have a diameter of about three inches.

The organs that make up your digestive system, in the order that they are connected, include your mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and anus. The gallbladder, pancreas, and liver assist the gastrointestinal organs along the way.

The digestive system gets nutrients from food and hands it over to the blood and circulatory system, which carries those nutrients where they need to go.

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The main functions of the Circulatory System are:
Carry oxygen from lungs to tissues
Carry carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs thereby aiding in the exchange of gases
• Helps carry nutrients to cells
• Helps to fight against infections (White Blood Cells)
• Helps blood clot or stop bleeding (Platelets)

Abnormalities or injuries to any or all parts of the cardiovascular system can result in serious health complications. Common conditions that can affect the cardiovascular system include coronary artery disease, heart attack, high blood pressure, and stroke.

The circulatory system helps deliver nutrients and oxygen from the lungs to tissues and organs throughout the body. It also helps remove carbon dioxide and waste products. Other body systems that work with the respiratory system include the nervous system, lymphatic system, and immune system.

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Human respiratory system is made up of nose, larynx, bronchi, pharynx, trachea and lungs. 300 million alveoli may be found in a pair of human lungs.  It is the system responsible for taking in oxygen and giving off carbon dioxide accomplished by breathing.

The diaphragm is a muscle that helps pull in air and push it out and the ribs protect the lungs and heart. When you breathe out, your blood carries carbon dioxide and other waste out of the body.

The nervous system works with the respiratory system to control the rate and depth of breathing, and to process sensory information from the nose and mouth.

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Works with nervous system and uses nerve impulses and neurotransmitters for communication, the endocrine system uses chemical messengers called hormones.

The endocrine system is responsible for regulating a range of bodily functions through the release of hormones. Some things it controls:

metabolism

growth and development

sexual function and reproduction

heart rate

blood pressure

appetite

sleeping and waking cycles

body temperature

The endocrine system works with 2 glands
endocrine glands, which release hormones directly into the bloodstream and exocrine glands, like lymph nodes and sweat glands, which are not part of the endocrine system.

Organs in the endocrine system are: hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid, parathyroid gland, thymus gland, adrenal glands, pancreas,

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The body’s bones (the skeletal system), muscles (muscular system), cartilage, tendons, ligaments, joints, and other connective tissue that supports and binds tissues and organs together comprise the musculoskeletal system. Most importantly, the system provides the form, support, stability, and movement to the body.

The muscular system consists of skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles:

1. Skeletal muscles: These create movement in the body. There are nearly 700 skeletal muscles and make up about 40% of a person’s body weight.

2. Smooth muscles: These are involuntary muscles that line the walls of the blood vessels and viscera (organs in the abdominal cavity).

3. Cardiac muscles: These cause the heart to contract and expand properly.

The calcified bones of the skeleton work together with the circulatory system. Marrow is created inside bones and aids the production of red and white blood cells. The circulatory system that circulates the red and white blood cells through the body. Red and white blood cells are necessary for the body to function properly, and these cells couldn’t be circulated through the body unless the bones of the skeletal system first created marrow.

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Your nervous system uses specialized cells called neurons to send out messages, all over your body. These electrical signals travel between your brain, skin, organs, glands and muscles.

The messages then help you move all of your body and feel sensations, such as pain. Then nerves carry that data to and from your brain.

Different kinds of neurons send different signals. Motor neurons tell your muscles to move. Sensory neurons take information from your senses and send signals to your brain. Other types of neurons control the things your body does automatically, like breathing, shivering, having a regular heartbeat and digesting food.

The nervous system has two main parts. Each part contains billions of cells called neurons, or nerve cells:

Central nervous system (CNS): Your brain and spinal cord make up your CNS. Your brain uses your nerves to send messages to the rest of your body. Each nerve has a protective outer layer called myelin. Myelin insulates the nerve and helps the messages get through.

Peripheral nervous system: Your peripheral nervous system consists of many nerves that branch out from your CNS all over your body. This system relays information from your brain and spinal cord to your organs, arms, legs, fingers and toes. Your peripheral nervous system contains your:

Somatic nervous system, which guides your voluntary movements.

Autonomic nervous system, which controls the activities you do without thinking

It works with other systems, which regulate involuntary functions such as heartbeat and breathing.

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The immune system protects your body from outside invaders. These include germs such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi, and toxins.

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There are 2 main parts of the immune system:

The innate immune system. You are born with this.

The adaptive immune system. You develop this when your body is exposed to microbes or chemicals released by microbes.

The cells of both parts of the immune system are made in different organs of the body, including:

Adenoids. Two glands located at the back of the nasal passage.

Bone marrow. The soft, spongy tissue found in bone cavities.

Lymph nodes. Small organs shaped like beans, which are located all over the body and connect via the lymphatic vessels.

Lymphatic vessels. A network of channels all over the body that carries lymphocytes to the lymphoid organs and bloodstream.

Peyer patches. Lymphoid tissue in the small intestine.

Spleen. A fist-sized organ located in the belly (abdominal) cavity.

Thymus. Two lobes that join in front of the windpipe (trachea) behind the breastbone.

Tonsils. Two oval masses in the back of the throat.

There are two main types of leukocytes, or white blood cells:
Phagocytes-These cells surround and absorb pathogens and break them down, effectively eating them.
2. Lymphocytes- help the body remember previous invaders and recognize them if they return to attack again.

The respiratory, nervous and endocrine systems are highly involved with immune function. The lungs are integrally involved with exposure of the immune system to pathogens and, like the digestive system, have large amounts of immune tissues. The nervous and endocrine systems share many of the same signaling chemicals as the immune system and along with the immune system are essential to the body's balance and homeostasis.

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The main jobs of the reproductive system are:
Producing egg and sperm cells

Transporting and sustaining these cells

Nurturing the developing offspring

Producing hormones, the main organs are ovaries and testes

it is vital for survival of species.

The male and female reproductive cycles are controlled by hormones released from the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary and hormones from reproductive tissues and organs.

The reproductive system is involved with sexual development and the production of offspring. Endocrine glands in the reproductive system produce sex hormones that are responsible for secondary sex characteristics in men and women. It also controls female secondary sex characteristics, such as breast development.

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Fowler S. Roush R. Wise J. (2017) Concepts of Biology  Openstax

https://www.training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/body/

Zimmerman K. (August 17,2022) Reproductive System: Facts, Functions and Diseases | Live Science