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Our reading this week was the chapter titled Global Economic Governance from Karns and Mignst's book. First of all, the authors discussed the 2008 global financial crisis and investigated the causes of this crisis. They cited irresponsible lending, central bank failures, global imbalances and financial innovation as the causes of the 2008 global financial crises. Regarding concerns about irresponsible lending practices, some have pointed to the prevalence of risky loans, such as subprime mortgages issued to borrowers with low creditworthiness, in the USA and European banking sectors. These practices, it is argued, contributed to unsustainable asset valuations that eventually corrected, leading to financial instability. Furthermore, critics argue that central banks, tasked with maintaining financial stability, inadvertently fueled excessive borrowing by keeping interest rates artificially low for extended periods. This, they claim, exacerbated the issue and ultimately contributed to the observed failures. These failures were accompanied by reactions to these failures. Countries such as the USA and the EU have tried to save their banks and improve their economies, but this also carries the risk of worsening existing global problems. Additionally, banks such as the US Federal Reserve and the European Central Bank have coordinated interest rate cuts to prevent global financial collapses. The international monetary fund has also sought a solution by providing emergency loans to countries experiencing financial difficulties and increasing their lending capacity. Realizing that the need for coordination was not sufficient, the G-20 emerged as a forum to discuss and implement these global reactions. Here, measures such as supporting incentive packages and reforming financial regulations were agreed upon. All of this has had long-term consequences. These are consequences such as increased regulation, geopolitical change, the rise of populism and the debt burden. The crisis has created awareness to prevent future crises. For this purpose, stricter regulations have been introduced within the scope of financial institutions and capital markets. The economic depression caused by the crisis and the accompanying social inequalities have also led to the emergence of anti-establishment and anti-populist movements in many countries. In addition, one of the negative effects is that governments accumulate debt against the crisis, and this has caused long-term economic difficulties. Another topic touched upon by the authors is the Globalization of Liberal Economic Norms. Based on Adam Smith's ideas of self-interest and market efficiency, the norms emphasize free trade, competition, and limited government intervention. Economic engagement guided by liberal norms is also a good tool for promoting economic growth. Liberal norms advocate economic growth, but they are also likely to widen large economic disparities among countries that adopt them. Considering this concern, various sanctions should be considered. Bretton Woods institutions, the IMF and the World Bank have adopted liberal principles and ensured that global economic governance is supported in accordance with these principles. So much so that the IMF provided short-term assistance for balance of payments problems and to ensure stability in the monetary system. The World Bank, on the other hand, focuses on long-term development capital for countries. Regional variation may be a major factor that varies in the application of liberal norms. Different regions such as East Asia and Latin America have tried to adapt to liberal economic norms by approaching them differently. Another topic mentioned is the Importance of Private International Financing. Private International Financing is large-scale and plays an undeniable role in the global economy, with transactions involving loans, investments and currency exchanges. At the same time, extensive networks and connections created by financial institutions such as banks, sovereign wealth funds and brokerage firms facilitate transactions. Private international finance provides a facility for global trade. But on the other hand, there are also risks of financial instability and inequality. Under the title of change in global economic and political power, the authors emphasize the importance of global power change and its consequences for international economic governance. The rise of China, changing power dynamics, difficulties and uncertainties, and historical change were mentioned. China's rapid economic growth has changed its power dynamics. It has shifted influence within global economic governance and spurred calls for institutions such as the BRICS' new development bank. In another title, the International Monetary Fund, they emphasized the complex role and impact of the IMF in the global financial system. The main purpose of the International Monetary Fund is to provide short-term loans to countries when they have problems with their balance of payments and to support their stability in the monetary field. The IMF played a key role in intervening with bailouts from debt crises to the 2008 global crisis. In addition, annual interviews, publications and training programs through surveillance and technical assistance are important tools in determining the risks and promoting solid economic policies. The intellectual property of all these vehicles, institutions and organizations is also mentioned. Intellectual property means creating international standards to protect rights such as patents, trademarks and copyrights. To summarize, a wide variety of institutions and organizations in global economic governance are intertwined. In the stability of this governance, many factors are effective from the geographical region to the economy.

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Our readings this week were Thomas Weis and Karns-Mignst's on Human Rights. In both books, issues such as human rights and the place of human rights in international organizations are touched upon. It focuses primarily on the challenges facing human rights standards on the 65th anniversary of the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The main challenges here are terrorism and women's rights. Women's rights are the rights created and defended to defend women in geographical, domestic, status and business areas, despite the great inequality between men and women that has continued from past to present. But as noted in the article, women's rights are at risk all over the world, and women still face property treatment in some underdeveloped societies. This situation also includes the violation of women's human rights, as they are not only women but also human beings. Regarding terrorism, the article mentions that some governments violate human rights by citing the fight against terrorism as a justification. This situation may make the fight against terrorism more difficult. In the article, it is stated that these violations against women's rights and human rights through the use of terrorism can be resolved through international organizations. In particular, the United Nations has an undeniable role in human rights. The United Nations undertakes to be active in various roles such as the development of international human rights standards, the establishment of international human rights mechanisms, and support for the implementation of international human rights norms. The UN has pioneered the development of international human rights instruments such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and the International Covenant on Economic, Political and Cultural Rights. Additionally, it develops various programs and projects such as legal assistance, training and capacity building to prevent the violation of human rights. However, the article mentions the importance of understanding the concept of human rights. Although it is argued that the idea of human rights is a Western invention, this idea was later adopted by everyone as it became global. Therefore, the violation of human rights and the states that commit this violation act against international law. Human rights violations include violations such as violation of the right to life, violation of the right to freedom and security, violation of the right to freedom of thought, expression, religion and conscience, violation of social and economic rights. Violations in this context create problems such as murder, genocide, forced detention, religious discrimination, unemployment and poverty. The United Nations started to try to prevent these problems by adopting the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. This declaration is one of the most important documents regarding human rights in international law. In addition, in the following years, a commission was established by the United Nations to expand this declaration and this idea was approved by the general assembly. However, since it was not legally binding at the time of its adoption, this decision was divided into groups as "first generation, second generation and third generation". First generation negative rights are individual civil and political rights well known in the West. The second generation of positive rights are socioeconomic rights. Third generation solidarity rights are the rights emphasized by some contemporary actors. To sum up, human rights are universally accepted rights. It is of great importance in meeting people's basic needs, protecting people's dignity, promoting freedom, equality and justice, and promoting peace and prosperity. In this context, the United Nations has a central role. The United Nations ensures the protection of these rights and supports organizations and communities that will ensure their protection.

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This week, we read "Proliferation rings: new challenges to the nuclear nonproliferation regime" by Chain Braun and Christopher F. Chyba. The article discusses three main challenges: latent proliferation, first-class nuclear proliferation, and second-class nuclear proliferation. It explores the proliferation of second-class nuclear technology in weapon systems, drawing on recent data from countries like Iran, Libya, Pakistan, South Africa, and Turkey. The article also proposes policies addressing both the supply and demand aspects of proliferation. It analyzes the interplay among nuclear technologies, weapons, and missile programs in North Korea, Iran, Libya, and Pakistan. Another section of the article explores the history and potential capabilities of North Korea's nuclear program. North Korea resumed plutonium processing in 1989 using 5MW(e) reactors. The article mentions subsequent processes and their relations with the USA, highlighting the 1994 Agreed Framework, which froze DPRK's ability to further reprocess spent fuel from its 5 MW(e) reactor. In 2003, North Korea reactivated the 5MW(e) reactor, and unnamed US officials claimed preparations were underway to restart the radiochemical laboratory through the purchase of twenty tons of tributylphosphate organic solvent from a Chinese company. Additionally, Pakistan played a role in the development of North Korea's uranium enrichment program. In 2002, the US confirmed North Korea's uranium enrichment program, seeking aid from Pakistan, which already had such a program. The article also discusses Iran's nuclear program, a Nuclear Non-Proliferation Agreement signatory, and its pursuit of plutonium and uranium capabilities, as highlighted by John Deutch (1996). In June 2003, Iran tested the injection of gaseous uranium into the first centrifuge, followed by a small cascade of ten machines in August. France accused Iran of hiding a nuclear weapons program in 2003, which Iran denied. The article also discusses the connection between missile and uranium proliferation rings, highlighting Iran's missile program receiving support from China, North Korea, and Russia. Israeli sources claimed a technical exchange pact between North Korea and Iran involving missiles and centrifuges. North Korea provided Iran with Nodong missile engines and assistance in Shahab-3 production, while Iran aided North Korea in uranium enrichment. Notably, North Korea's global missile technology sales were highlighted, noted to be outside MTCR agreements. The article explores the unclear motivations behind nuclear weapons proliferation, involving factors like national security, prestige, and organizational politics. It questions whether specific proliferators should be seen as singular actors, citing variations in the authority of successive Pakistani governments over the military, intelligence, and nuclear bureaucracy. Furthermore, Pakistan may have shared centrifuge enrichment technology with the DPRK to enhance its nuclear capabilities for longer-range warhead delivery against Indian targets. The article also discusses strategies to strengthen the nuclear nonproliferation regime, highlighting the increasing potential for developing world states to acquire nuclear capabilities through mutual trade, reducing reliance on external suppliers. Suggested actions: dismantle existing networks, prevent theft and supply of nuclear materials, and be vigilant against emerging threats. Theft of entire warheads from government programs, while challenging, is a possibility. The IAEA additional protocol strengthens the non-proliferation regime, ensuring compliance by non-nuclear-weapon states. Efforts are also underway to enhance export control regimes, countering proliferation rings and preventing the spread of nuclear weapons. Proliferation rings benefited from various stages. Widespread adoption of the Additional Protocol can help curb these routes. Expanding export controls to second-tier exporters and reinforcing controls on first-tier suppliers is crucial. Despite the significance of approved measures, they offer incremental improvements to the current regime. Despite incremental improvements, more ambitious measures may be needed. NSG discussions center on enhancing control over nuclear weapons-related exports, comparing proposals from the George W. Bush administration and IAEA Director-General Mohammed ElBaradei. The Bush administration focuses on enforcing NPT Articles 2 and 3, closing loopholes, and using ad hoc coalitions for specific goals. Global nonproliferation measures are pursued through UN Security Council resolutions. The article explores seven proposals from Bush's 2004 speech to boost nuclear non-proliferation and evaluates efforts by the George W. Bush administration and IAEA Director-General Mohammed ElBaradei in preventing nuclear weapons proliferation. Bush and ElBaradei address latent proliferation with supply-side measures against first- and second-tier proliferation. ElBaradei favors "treaty-based" universalization of export controls, while the Bush administration leans towards Security Council resolutions or coalitions of willing states for PSI on export controls.

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The article “The Politics and Ethics of Military Intervention” by Stanley Hoffman is our reading choice  this week. This article by Hoffman focuses on the complex and controversial issue of military intervention in state affairs. Although sovereignty is a very important consideration, Hoffman believes that ethical considerations need to be taken into account when discussing national interests. The ethical aspects of military intervention are often constructed in the same way and there is no clear distinction between political engagement and ethical considerations. According to the author, civil unrest poses a threat to regional or national security and in cases of human rights violations, military intervention may be necessary. Hoffmann argued that the United Nations Security Council had a responsibility to authorize military intervention. But he also acknowledged that the  effectiveness of the Security Council is often compromised for political reasons. This is why he believes that reforms are needed to improve capacity to act. The post-Cold War international system is the subject of Hoffmann's book The Political Context. According to him, this system reflects the crisis of the State and the absence of a clear order of power among the great powers. In addition, Hoffmann discusses the impact of failed and problem states on other states as well as the dynamic differences between great powers. According to Hoffman, countries struggle in crises because they lack effective governance systems and face religious conflicts that hinder their progress. He also stated that the United States is no longer the economic leader it once was, while countries such as China, the European Union and Japan are now economically dominant in terms of power dynamics. However, this highlights that none of these countries is willing or able to take on the responsibility of global governance. Hoffmann identifies three criteria to determine the appropriateness of military intervention: risks to international peace and security, serious human rights violations, and dangerous states. Regarding threats to international peace and security, he argued that intervention could be justified if a country's activities posed a serious threat to the stability of the region. area, whether regional or global. As for open and systematic violations of human rights, he argues that intervention may be warranted if a country violates the human rights of its citizens on a large  and systematic scale. Regarding dangerous states, it specifies that intervention may be justified if a state possesses weapons of mass destruction or pursues policies likely to lead to their spread. He also argued that intervention should be a measure of last resort, used only after other crisis management measures have failed.

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This week's reading was about International Organizations and the Fundamentals of Global Governance. From past to present, political communities have interacted with their neighbors and tried to establish norms and rules within themselves. The establishment of the modern state system in the 17th century, notably in the aftermath of the Treaty of Westphalia, represented a watershed moment in international relations, placing emphasis on fundamental tenets such as state sovereignty and territorial integrity. This groundbreaking accord extended beyond the mere allocation of war spoils to encompass critical matters such as territorial sovereignty, religious freedom, and the curtailment of supranational authority. However, the concept of state sovereignty has become a subject of intense debate within international relations, primarily due to the transformative impact of globalization and the surge of international organizations. In addition to the aforementioned topics, the lecture also delved into the concept of "Early Governance Innovations". The pioneering management innovations of the nineteenth century played a pivotal role in shaping the international organizing process. These advancements fostered cooperation and facilitated the resolution of global challenges. The establishment of international public associations served as a catalyst for collaboration, enabling nations with shared objectives to unite under a common banner. These unions actively addressed issues pertaining to agricultural development, postal services, trade, maritime law, and international law. Notable examples of these unions include the International Telegraph Union (ITU), the Universal Postal Union (UPU), the International Labor Organization (ILO), the World Health Organization (WHO), and the World Trade Organization (WTO). Conferences emerged as a novel governance innovation in the nineteenth century, serving as platforms for resolving disputes between states. The Hague Conferences, in particular, played a pivotal role in shaping international law and promoting peaceful resolutions to international conflicts. These conferences, therefore, can be credited with fostering positive impacts on international relations and enhancing cooperation among nations. The concept of "Concert of Europe" embodies the notion of cooperation among major powers, aligned with their shared interests. It helped maintain peace and security in Europe and formed the basis of later international organizations such as the League of Nations and the United Nations. Another issue mentioned after this point is the League of Nations. The League of Nations is a defunct international organization that was replaced by the United Nations. The Society's mission was to promote human rights protection and to ensure world peace and security. It essentially recognized ideas such as sovereign equality of states, territorial integrity and political independence of states, peaceful settlement of international problems, and collective security. The League of Nations is comprised of three bodies: the council, the parliament, and the secretariat. Despite the fact that the Society was an initiative that demonstrated the need of international cooperation and organizations, it was discontinued owing to a number of setbacks. Regardless, the League of Nations was a significant step forward in global government. The United Nations is a post-World War II organization founded in 1945 with the same goals as the League of Nations. The United Nations' primary organs are the Security Council, the General Assembly, the Economic and Social Council, the International Court of Justice, and the Secretariat. Another concern raised is the existence of functional and specialized intergovernmental institutions. These are international organizations that were formed to handle specific issues such as agriculture, health, trade issues, and environmental risks. The International Air Transport Association (ATA), the International Labor Organization (ILO), and the World Health Organization (WHO) are examples of these organizations. Another subheading suggested is Bretton Woods institutions. These are two international organizations that were founded after World War II to manage the international economy. The international monetary fund (IMF) and the World Bank are two of them. The goal of these institutions in the postwar period is to foster economic cooperation and increase global wealth. Another point raised is the UNHCR and the International Refugee Regime. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) was the first international body established to protect and assist refugees. The UNHCR's responsibilities include safeguarding and aiding refugees, locating refugee homes, and increasing awareness of their concerns. Following that, he discusses the role of the United Nations in global governance, the basic principles of the United Nations (sovereign equality, non-use of force, peaceful settlement of international disputes, the Obligations of the United Nations), the importance and functions of the General Assembly in the Major Organs of the United Nations (international making recommendations to maintain peace and security, electing other organs of the United Nations, approving other organs of the United Nations, etc.).

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The need for cooperation has become a widespread need in the contemporary world, and there are some factors such as wealth, prosperity, development that make it desirable. The ability to realize and maintain these factors is generally based on the abundance of scientific and technological knowledge. Contemporary international economic relations, unlike the previous ones, are at the forefront with the high number of participants. In international relations, state institutions are more active than ever before in line with their own interests. This shows that the number and diversity of international communication channels is increasing. The increase and diversity of these channels has reduced the use of violence in economic relations. This international communication that has become available creates complex interdependence arising from the need for cooperation. Complex dependency means that we cannot explain state behavior in terms of a specified structure. Because this dependence causes states to compare their old and new goals and also themselves with other states. Organizations established for the interests of states or to facilitate their work and to stay in contact with other states are one of the ways of communication between states. We can say that these actually represent a regime. Regimes are a way of talking about political economy. There are also ways of addiction, such as negotiation and conflict. If the negotiation provides the interests of the parties, it is problem-free. Conflicts can occur, for example, when there is a conflict of interest in a negotiation. In addition to these, topics and subject areas are mentioned in the article. As examples of this, negotiations on the Law of the Sea Convention and international monetary cooperation issues are cited. Although maritime and money management are two separate issues, they can be brought together to form a certain regime. This shows the impact of the subjects on each other and the ways in which they are interconnected. In addition, creating a subject area by combining these two separate subjects also sheds light on the solutions to the problems related to these subjects. The determinants of the goals and the strategies required to implement these goals pay attention to factors such as defining the goals, creating different strategies, and reducing incompatibility in negotiations. They emphasize complex interdependence and how this affects political decision-making and processes. In this context, different decision-making models such as rational mode, eclectic mode, skeptical mode, pragmatic mode have been examined. To briefly summarize, the rational mode is a model in which experts and politicians work more closely together and can compromise. In the selective model, on the contrary, experts or politicians each focus on their own field and work on it. In the skeptical model, hierarchical compromises have a short lifespan and the priority order of goals is unclear. In the pragmatic model, experts' increasing knowledge units and politicians' expanding range of social goals are seen. So in this case, it is not possible to achieve a final result because everything is a progressive process.

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Although interdependence is not only an analytical concept, it also describes world politics and the behavior of states, and the economic, military, etc. It expresses the dependency in the sense. When we look at today's world politics, it is undeniable that interdependence is inevitable. Interdependence in the military field has continued from past to present and is still an important point in world politics. Traditionally, classical theories of world politics have argued that the danger of a military conflict prevails, regardless of what states do and why. This understanding was seen as political reality during the Cold War period. International regimes, on the other hand, mean that states establish laws, rules and institutions that will enforce the rules for certain issues and regulate and control transnational relations. Another important point emphasized in the book is National Security. National security is something of a symbol for internationalists who aim to make America more prominent in the world. For example, the key foreign policy coordination unit in the White House is called the National Security Council. For another example, the Kennedy administration used the security argument to promote the Trade Expansion act of 1962. However, the continuation of military concerns has also reduced the symbolic power of the concept of national security. Therefore, while National Security is the main symbol in the lexicon of internationalists, it shares this with interdependence. Political leaders do not think that interdependence is created by policy, but that policy must adapt to it. According to them, conflicts of interest are reduced thanks to interdependence. Those who support the interdependence view argue that people are not only at risk from military threats, but also environmental hazards can be a threat to people. Therefore, they argue that there is less risk of a conflict of interest between states and societies. However, balance of power theories are inadequate to resolve issues of economic or environmental interdependence. Traditionally, security is unlikely to be a factor that will constantly create conflict for states. Therefore, the traditional concept of power cannot be precise during the period when the effect of military power is uncertain.

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International relations theories provide a significant part of the theoretical underpinnings of the concept of global government. Liberal ideology is one which contends that international systems can be cooperative in bringing about peace, as it relates to global governance. Cooperation and friendliness between governments lower the likelihood of conflict and violence, according to liberalism. Liberals contend that worldwide comfort will come from a free market economy, that democratization will guarantee world peace, and that a global order will be established by the value placed on human rights. Conversely, neoliberalism promotes a less role for the government in the economy and the delegation of authority to free market forces. Furthermore, neoliberalism holds that international organizations collaborate with governments to make decisions on a global scale. It highlights how international institutions and organizations operate within the framework of international relations by looking at functionalism as a theory. This viewpoint holds that these institutions should be able to be successfully used by the global community to address issues and carry out these tasks. Since these commodities have international ramifications and issues, public goods theory is essential to comprehending global governance. Global concerns include global environmental issues, international security, and epidemics highlight the global applications of public goods theory. To properly safeguard these resources, manage them sustainably, and address global issues, global governance is necessary. Public goods theory serves as a crucial cornerstone for just and durable global governance in this regard. Realists, on the other hand, stress that states are the main actors in international affairs. States act to safeguard their sovereignty and national interests abroad. States ought to be at the forefront of global administration, according to realism. The neorealism approach, on the other hand, highlights the significant part that states play in global governance. This viewpoint holds that national relationships drive international interactions, and that national interests are served by means of international collaboration. A crucial approach to explaining the decisions and deeds of international relations players is the strategic or rational choice theory, one of the major theories of global governance. Hegemonic stability theories emphasize stability in a system in which a hegemonic power plays a key role; great power concerts, on the other hand, focus on ensuring cooperation and balance among great powers. Furthermore, in order to highlight the significance of social elements in international relations, social constructivism evolved as a competitor to conventional theories of international relations. "Marxist" and "neo-Marxist" refer to a set of theoretical positions in connection to global governance that are used to understand the dynamics of social, political, and economic power as well as to explain international relations.

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The term "global governance" refers to the idea of controlling international relations globally and resolving any issues. "The sum of the ways in which individuals and institutions manage their collective affairs in the public and private sectors" is the definition of governance provided by the Global Governance Commission. Global governance, however, is not the same as global government. The scope of governance surpasses that of the state. Along with covering multiple international organizations, it also discusses potential issues between them, their remedies, non-governmental groups, and the private sector. Global governance includes institutions like the World Bank, the United Nations, and the World Trade Organization, for instance. The demand for global governance has grown as a result of numerous issues, including the global economy, migration, technology advancements, epidemics, and terrorism. Regulations and international collaboration are needed to address these issues. In order to preserve stability and adjust to changes in the globalization process, global governance is crucial. The major players in global governance are multinational corporations, international media outlets, regional and international organizations like the European Union and the African Union, non-governmental organizations, large multinational states, and international organizations like the United Nations, World Trade Organization, and International Monetary Fund. These parties collaborate to address significant worldwide issues. These include intergovernmental organizations, which are founded by multiple nations and primarily focus on a range of concerns like human rights, economic support, and policy management. Examples of these organizations are the United Nations, NATO, and the European Union. A significant player in global governance processes, non-governmental organizations also contribute unique perspectives to these processes by reflecting social diversity globally and advocating for the interests of diverse groups. They actively participate in several potential changes at the same time because they have the power to sway political decision-makers. Within itself, global governance has taken many forms. Multilateral governance involves the involvement of numerous nations and organizations. By coming to an agreement, two nations can contribute to global issues through bilateral agreements. Public and private partnerships are another way that governments and the private sector can work together to solve global issues. Counting among the forms of global governance are both technology and finance. Moreover, international regimes, which indicate nations' collaboration on a global issue, could be considered a part of global governance as well. The government, laws, institutions, and policies of a nation are all part of private governance, as opposed to global governance. Regulation of the state's internal operations and citizens' involvement in those operations is the goal of private governance.