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the act of setting someone free from imprisonment, slavery, or oppression.

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Chaim Hirszman was a metalworker that was imprisoned in the concentration camps. They said that there were transports that arrived everyday. Mainly from Poland, but also from other European countries—Germany, Austria, Czechoslovakia, and others. In one transport, Hirszman said, was a Ukranian woman. She was said to have possessed documents that clearly prove that she was a geniune Aryan woman. Yet, she was still sent to the gas chambers to be exterminated. This just shows that once you crossed the gate to the camp, there's no chance of getting out of there alive.

“Survivor Stories | New England Holocaust Memorial.” New England Holocaust Memorial | a Beacon of Memory and Hope, 11 Mar. 2013, www.nehm.org/learning/survivor-stories/.

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George Kaiser was a man who participated in the Liberation in 1945 Auschwitz. This man was stooping down to pick up a piece of something black near the crematorium but then he realized it was a bone. He was just about to throw it to the floor, but then he realized that the bone he was holding in his hands could possibly be all that was left of someone. Thinking about this, he wrapped up the bone and carried it out with him. A couple of days later, he dug the bone out of his pocket and buried it out of respect for the deceased person.

“Survivor Stories | New England Holocaust Memorial.” New England Holocaust Memorial | a Beacon of Memory and Hope, 11 Mar. 2013, www.nehm.org/learning/survivor-stories/.

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Category 7: Anti-Semitism in Europe today

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Category 7: Anti-Semitism in Europe today

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https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/05/17/europes-worrying-surge-antisemitism

https://www.statista.com/topics/5169/antisemitism-in-europe/#topicOverview

https://jcpa.org/mission-impossible-repairing-the-ties-between-europe-and-israel/anti-semitism-in-europe-today-comes-mostly-from-the-left/

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The 8th Infantry Division and 82nd Airborn Division encountered Wöbbelin. They conducted funerals for the deceased and helped the survivors.

“Wöbbelin.” Ushmm.org, 2020, encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/woebbelin.

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Category 4: Labor Camp v Extermination Camp

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Category 4: Labor Camp v Extermination Camp

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The purpose of a labor camp is to exploit the prisoners to profit the SS. The purpose of an extermination camp was to murder all races that were deemed inferior, primarily Jews.

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The Dachau camp was the first regular concentration camp established by the Nazi government. During the first year of the camp, the camp had a capacity of 5,000 prisoners. The internees were mostly German Communists, Social Democrats, trade unionists, and other political opponents of the Nazi regime. In the aftermath of Kristallnacht, 11,000 Jewish men were interned there. The purpose of this concentration camp was to gain forced labor for German armaments. The SS was in charge of this concentration camp too.

United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. “Dachau.” Ushmm.org, 17 Feb. 2023, encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/dachau.

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The Columbia-Haus Camp was a former military institution on the Tempelhof Field in Berlin. The SS was in control of this concentration camp as well. The purpose for it was to detain mostly functionaries of the German Communist Party (KPD), the Social Democratic Party (SPD), and the Socialist Workers’ Party (SAP). The total death count was not known, but the SS killed many inmates. More than 400 inmates were kept in the overcrowded prison cells at a time on average. The first commandant of Columbia-Haus on record is Walter Gerlach. He was with the Nazi Party.

“Columbia-Haus.” Encyclopedia.ushmm.org, encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/columbia-haus-1.

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Category 4: Buchenwald concentration camp

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Category 4: Buchenwald concentration camp

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The Buchenwald camp was located in a wooded area on the northern slopes of the Ettersberg, a hill north of the city of Weimar. This area was surrounded by an electrified barbed-wire fence, watchtowers, and a chain of sentries outfitted with automatic machine guns. SS authorities controlled the Buchenwald camp. There were medical experiments and torcher chambers as punishment for prisoners who misbehaved. Women were not part of the Buchenwald camp system until 6 years after the camp was established. During WW2, Buchenwald main camp administered at least 88 subcamps which were used for labor.

United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, DC. “Buchenwald.” Ushmm.org, 2009, encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/buchenwald.

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A ghetto is an area which is exclusively for the isolation of Jews.

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This was the first ghetto established and it was located in Poland. Many Jews smuggled food and heating materials into the ghetto. There was 16,500 to up to 28,000 Jews kept inside of this ghetto. It was established in 1939. It remained "open", not fenced nor guarded. The ghetto’s perimeters were marked by signs bearing the word “ghetto”, along with a human skull, but Jews were allowed to leave the ghetto without a license, although only during certain hours, and only to a certain part of the city.

“The Ghetto in Piotrków Trybunalski | Piotrków Trybunalski | the Valley of the Communities.” Yadvashem.org, 2019, www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/exhibitions/valley/piotrkow/ghetto.asp.

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The Auschwitz I concentration camp was located in Poland. It was the main camp. SS authorities continuously used prisoners for forced labor to expand the camp. This camp was used to incarcerate enemies of the Nazi regime and to supply the SS with forced labor. The SS were in charge of these concentration camps. There were medical experiments carried out on infants, twins, and dwarfs, and forced sterilizations of adults.

United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. “Auschwitz.” Ushmm.org, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 16 Mar. 2015, encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/auschwitz.

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The largest ghetto in occupied Poland was the Warsaw ghetto. More than 400,000 Jews crowded into an area of 1.3 square miles. The ghetto was enclosed at first with barbed wire but later with a brick wall 10 feet high and 11 miles long. Most people did not have any housing. The people who had no housing were cramped into rooms of 9 people. Starvation and disease killed thousands each month.

Berenbaum, Michael. “Warsaw Ghetto Uprising | Polish History.” Encyclopædia Britannica, 11 Dec. 2018, www.britannica.com/event/Warsaw-Ghetto-Uprising.

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The Third Reich was used to describe the Nazi regime in Germany from January 30, 1933, to May 8, 1945.

Third Reich. encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/third-reich.

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Germans had concentrated Jews of Krakow and thousands of Jews from other towns in the ghetto. Between 15,000-20,000 Jews lived within the Krakow ghetto boundaries. They were surrounded by barbed wire and stone walls. The Germans established several factories inside the Krakow ghetto. Within these factories, they forced Jews into doing labor. Krakow SS and Police Leader Scherner authorized the establishment of two forced-labor camps for Jews, one for men and one for women.

United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. “Krakow (Cracow).” Ushmm.org, 2019, encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/krakow-cracow.

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Category 2: Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service

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Category 2: Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service

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This document excluded Jews and the "politically unreliable" from civil service. The new law implemented by German authorities was known as the Aryan Paragraph. Its purpose was to exclude Jews and other "non-Aryans" from various aspects of public life, such as organizations and professions. This law marked the initial formulation of this regulation. It later served as the basis for the Nuremberg Race Laws of 1935. These laws redefined Jews based on their ancestral lineage rather than religious belief and institutionalized their separation from the so-called Aryan population.

United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. “Antisemitic Legislation 1933–1939.” Ushmm.org, encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/antisemitic-legislation-1933-1939.

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The Germans established the Lodz ghetto in 1940. About 160,000 Jews were forced into a small area. The Germans isolated the ghetto from the rest of Lodz with barbed-wire fencing. There were German policemen along the perimeter of the ghetto guarding it. Most of the ghetto had neither running water nor a sewer system. Hard labor, overcrowding, and starvation commonly seen and the overwhelming majority of ghetto residents worked in German factories and received only meager food rations. More than 20% of the ghetto's population died as a result of the living conditions.

United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. “Lodz.” Ushmm.org, 2004, encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/lodz.

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Nazi leaders used badges to be able to identify a Jewish person. These badges were not isolated measures but part of a broader strategy aimed at segregating Jews and reinforcing their inferior position in society. The badge served as a precursor to the deportation of Jews to ghettos and killing centers in German-occupied Eastern Europe. In concentration camps, the SS introduced a system of marking prisoners.  These color-coded badges indicated the reason for an individual's imprisonment. The Germans used inverted triangles in various colors to denote prisoner categories.

United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. “Jewish Badge: During the Nazi Era.” Ushmm.org, 2019, encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/jewish-badge-during-the-nazi-era.

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On November 9-10, 1938, Nazi leaders unleashed series of pogroms against the Jewish population in Germany. There were many Jews killed, arrested, and taken to concentration camps. Synagogues were burned down, shops were vandalized, and there were many businesses that were destroyed. It became known as the Night of Broken Glass because of all the shattered glass that littered the streets. The Germans justified it by saying it was retaliation for the assassinated German embassy official, Ernst vom Rath. Afterwards, the Nazi regime ordered the Jewish community to pay a 1 billion Reichsmark “atonement tax”.

United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. “Kristallnacht.” Holocaust Encyclopedia, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 18 Oct. 2019, encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/kristallnacht.

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Category 2: The Nuremberg Race Laws of 1935

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Category 2: The Nuremberg Race Laws of 1935

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The Nazis enacted the Nuremberg Laws to legally enforce their racial ideology. They propagated the idea of distinct races with varying strengths and worth, considering Germans to be part of the superior "Aryan" race. In contrast, they classified Jews as a separate and inferior race, perceiving their presence as a threat to Germany. To strengthen the country, the Nazis aimed to segregate Jews from other Germans. The Nuremberg Laws played a significant role in advancing this objective, providing a legal framework for the exclusion and persecution of Jews. It changed the everyday lives of Jews in Germany by making them legally different than their non-Jewish neighbors.

United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. “The Nuremberg Race Laws.” United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 2 July 2021, encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/the-nuremberg-race-laws.

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The Nazi camp system began as a system of repression towards political opponents of Nazi Germany. These opponents were Socialists and Communists. Over time, they started imprisoning who they designated as racially or biologically inferior. Primarily Jews were the ones imprisoned. The camps slowly became less for imprisonment and more for labor and mass killing. The Germans deported Jews from all over Europe to the extermination camps in Poland, where they were systematically killed, and also to concentration camps, where they were drafted for forced labor.

“Nazi Camp System.” Encyclopedia.ushmm.org, encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/nazi-camp-system?parent=en%2F11187.

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German authorities and collaborators relied on paper records and local knowledge to identify Jews for roundup or execution during the Holocaust. These records included those kept by Jewish communities, parish records of converted Jews, government tax records, and police registries. Jews were forced to self-identify as Jewish, and neighbors sometimes informed authorities of their Jewish neighbors' location. Jews in hiding lived in constant fear of being identified and denounced to Nazi officials by individuals in exchange for rewards. Technology in Nazi Germany that was used for processing census data, was not common in economically less developed areas of German-occupied eastern Europe, where the majority of Jews lived. In concentration camps, Hollerith machines were used for managing and tracking data on living prisoners, particularly for assessing their skills and supporting German war production efforts.

“Locating the Victims.” Ushmm.org, 2019, encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/locating-the-victims.

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The Budapest ghetto is located in Hungary. In Budapest, Hungarian authorities required Jews to confine themselves to marked houses. About 63,000 Jews lived in this 0.1 square mile area. The Arrow Cross took as many as 20,000 Jews from the ghetto and shot them along the banks of the Danube. They then threw their bodies into the river. In January 1945, Soviet forces liberated that part of Budapest in which the two ghettos were located and liberated the nearly 90,000 Jewish residents.

United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. “Ghettos.” Ushmm.org, 4 Dec. 2019, encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/ghettos.

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Antisemitism is the prejudice and hatred towards Jews. (Google)

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Category 1: Antisemitism in the era of Nationalism 1800-1918

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Category 1: Antisemitism in the era of Nationalism 1800-1918

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Jews were finally provided the opportunity to own land, enter civil service, and serve in the national armed forces. However, some felt marginalized or unable to achieve their own expectations in the face of rapid economic growth. Jews started to replace non-Jews in jobs that were usually reserved for people of Christianity, and this made people feel that Jews were over-represented. There were still many stereotypes that had the idea that Jews, despite enjoying citizenship benefits, were secretly disloyal and only converted for material gain. There was also the belief that Jews were displacing non-Jews in noble professions while blocking their entry into sectors that represented future prosperity. Jews were also accused of controlling the media to manipulate the nation's interests as well as trying to destroy the middle class.

Antisemitism in History: The Era of Nationalism, 1800–1918. encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/antisemitism-in-history-the-era-of-nationalism-1800-1918?series=30.

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Category 1: Antisemitism in Early Modern Era 1300-1800

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Category 1: Antisemitism in Early Modern Era 1300-1800

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After the Enlightenment era, Jews were forbidden from owning land, serving as officers in the military, and holding positions in state unless they converted to Christianity. Jews would not become associated with the "noble" professions of early modern central and Eastern Europe. Central and East European guilds increasingly denied membership to Jewish handicraftsmen(unless they converted). Jews were also increasingly forced out of small-scale manufacturing. People believed Jews did not work hard or produce goods with their hands, Jews were cowards in a fair fight or avoided military service, and Jews preferred meaningless studies and entertainment to hard work. The idea was that Jews could not have material benefits and could not work hard unless they converted to Christianity.

United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/antisemitism-in-history-the-early-modern-era-1300-1800. Accessed 16 May 2023.

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Many losses in WW1 were blamed on the betrayal of minorities, like the Jews. The presence of Jewish individuals in the Soviet Union caused people to think that Jews were to blame for communism. There was this widespread belief that Jews had purposefully created WW1 so that they could cause destruction and gain control and that they exploited the war's misery for their own enrichment. That their inherent cowardice and disloyalty caused military defeat and revolution.  Antisemitic people also claimed that foreign Jews dominated peace negotiations, dividing nations through artificial borders, while domestic Jews misled the nation and profited from the complex reparations system. Lastly, there was also a belief that Jews used constitutional democracy to weaken the nation's political will.

Antisemitism in History: World War I. encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/antisemitism-in-history-world-war-i?series=30.

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Category 1: Antisemitism in the Early Church - 1400

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Category 1: Antisemitism in the Early Church - 1400

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In the first millennium of the Christian era, leaders in the European Christian hierarchy believed that Jews were responsible for the crucifixion of Christ. They saw the destruction of the Temple and the Jewish separation as punishment for their refusal to convert to Christianity. Jewish people sought to preserve their beliefs in a predominantly Christian Europe, but their religion became a minority religion. They encountered violence and isolation because of their refusal to convert to Christianity. People also believed that Jews used blood from Christian children to perform rituals. This worsened their image and the aggression shown towards them.

United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. “Antisemitism in History: From the Early Church to 1400.” Ushmm.org, 2015, encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/antisemitism-in-history-from-the-early-church-to-1400.

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Category 4: Bergen-Belsen concentration camp

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Category 4: Bergen-Belsen concentration camp

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Bergen-Belsen began as a camp for Allied prisoners of war. After the SS took over, it became a Nazi concentration camp. German military leaders controlled the camp from then. There was little food and sanitation, along with no shelter. The life expectancy was nine months in the Bergen-Belsen camp. Many people died from disease, living conditions or medical experiments, as there were no gas chambers at Bergen-Belsen.

United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. “Bergen-Belsen.” Ushmm.org, 2006, encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/bergen-belsen.

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There was a camp in Wetserbork which was a Dutch camp with Jewish people that the Nazis took over. When the Allied troops grew closer, the Germans fled, and when the 2nd Canadian Division reached the camp, they found between 876 and 909 inmates there, of whom the majority were Dutch Jews.

“2nd Canadian Division.” Encyclopedia.ushmm.org, encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/2nd-canadian-division.

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Rivka Yosselevscka was an internee within one of the concentration camps. She also had to witness her entire family be murdered before her eyes. The story she told was about her sister and her friend. She said that her younger sister and her friend walked up to a Nazi soldier, standing naked, embracing each other. They asked to be spared. The Nazi soldier looked her in the eye and shot her and her friend. Yosselevscka said that her sister and her friend fell together in an embrace still.

“Survivor Stories | New England Holocaust Memorial.” New England Holocaust Memorial | a Beacon of Memory and Hope, 11 Mar. 2013, www.nehm.org/learning/survivor-stories/.

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