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Rate of retention:
- sensory memory: ~1 second
- STM: 15-25 seconds
- LTM: relatively permanent

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Implicit memory: not consciously aware but still influence bhv/performance

Explicit memory: intentional/conscious recollection

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Recall: retrieve info

retrieval cue - stimulus to recall easily

recognition - identify presented stimuli

Levels of Processing Theory
- greater intensity during initial processing, more likely to remember

Flashbulb Memory
- snapshot of very vivid specific/important events
- can be shared events/personal trauma (eg. 9/11)

Autobiographical Memory
- recollections of circumstances/episodes from own life

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- influenced by the meaning given to what is being recalled
- not as is, involves guesses and inferences

- remember by schemas: information stored in memory that bias the way it is interpreted/stored and recalled

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- rapid declines in the first 9 hours, then slows down and decline very little even after days

- Why we forget?

failure of encoding

decay - loss due to non-use

cue-dependent forgetting - insufficient retrieval cue

interference - other info disrupts recall

- proactive interference: past info interrupts present
- retroactive interference: present info interrupts past

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- manipulation of mental representation of info

Fundamental elements

1. Mental image - representations in the mind of an object/event

2. Concept - categorizations (shares common properties)

helps classify newly encountered objects from past experiences

influences bhv

Prototypes: typical, highly representative example of a concept

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- involves cognitive shortcuts:

Algorithm - rules that always provide a solution

Heuristic - shortcuts that may (not guaranteed) lead to a solution

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Obstacles in problem solving:
- mental set: tendency for old patterns of problem solving to persist

cth: functional fixedness: tendency to think of an object only in terms of its typical use

- inappropriate use of algorithm/heuristic

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- the communication of information through symbols arranged according to systematic rules

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Babble - meaningless speechlike sounds

Telegraphic speech - sentences sounding like a part of telegram - words not critical to the message are left out. (eg. I show book)

Overgeneralization - apply language rules generally resulting in error (eg. I ran -> I runned)

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Learning-Theory Approach

suggests language acquisition follows the principles of reinforcement and conditioning

cth: child say "Mama" -> gets praise (reinforcement)

Nativist-Theory Approach

humans are born with an innate linguistic capability - genetically determined

Noam Chomsky's theories:

all languages share a common underlying structure (universal grammar)

human brain has the language-acquisition device to understand language

Interactionist Approach

suggests language develops through a combination of genetics determined predispositions and environmental circumstances

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Linguistic-relativity hypothesis suggests that language produces thought

refuted by recent research -> thinking produces language

language influences thinking process - the way ppl store info and how well they can retrieve it

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Cognitive benefits:

more cognitive flexibility/creative in problem solving

more linguistic tools for thinking

brain organized differently