# data[].attributes.body
The Russian people rely on the river to provide for them, not only financially but for sustenance. Fishing, hunting, and fur trading along the river are commonplace among the Siberian people. Fish such as sturgeons and white fish are plentiful. People also hunt around the river, as animals flock to the river for water (Yenisey River - Largest in Russia with Subarctic Climate | Britannica, n.d.).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
About half of the Yenisey's water comes from snow, a little more than one-third from rainwater, and the remainder from groundwater. For the greater part of the system, the eastern Siberian hydrologic regime prevails: violent spring floods are followed first by a rapid fall of levels, then by a slower fall, with summer and autumn rain floods punctuating the sequence; in winter the runoff is reduced sharply, but levels remain high as ice jams are formed. In terms of runoff, the Yenisey is the largest river in Russia, with about 150 cubic miles (620 cubic kilometres) annually. It carries about 10.5 million tons of alluvium into the Kara Sea every year, in addition to nearly 30 million tons of dissolved mineral substances. In midsummer the water temperature varies from 57 °F (14 °C) to 66 °F (19 °C), but freezing begins on the lower Yenisey early in October and affects the entire river by mid-November; ice jams and underwater ice are characteristic. Thawing occurs toward the end of April on the upper reaches, in May on the middle, and from May to mid-June on the lower. The water of the middle Yenisey is highly turbid in spring and summer and contrasts sharply with the limpid water of the Angara; and in summer the two streams flow in the same bed without mingling for 9 miles (14 km) or so from their confluence.

Climate

The Yenisey basin has a subarctic climate in its northern part and markedly continental conditions in the middle and southern portions. The cold season prevails from late September to mid-June in the north and from mid-October to late April in the south. Even summer is cool in the northern basin, with average temperatures of 46 to 54 °F (8 to 12 °C) in July, when frosts may still occur; but summer is warm in the south, with July averages between 64 and 68 °F (18 and 20 °C). The average temperature for January in the north ranges from −25 to −18 °F (−32 to −28 °C) and in the south warms to about −4 °F (−20 °C). Annual precipitation averages 16 to 20 inches (400 to 500 mm) in the north; 20 to more than 30 inches (500 to more than 750 mm) in the central portion, and up to 47 inches (1,190 mm) in the mountains south of the basin. The closed depressions in the upper basin receive from less than 8 to about 12 inches (less than 200 to about 300 mm) annually. Most of the rain (80 to 90 percent) falls in the warmer months, chiefly in late summer and early autumn. Snow cover is light in most of the basin, averaging 16 inches (40 cm) in the south, 24 inches (60 cm) in the north, and 35 inches (90 cm) on the Yenisey Ridge. Because the light snow offers little insulation, the soil and subsoil are frozen to a considerable depth for long periods over most of the basin. Permafrost is prevalent north of the Lower Tunguska.

Plant and animal life

Most of the basin is covered with taiga (marshy, primarily coniferous forest), with Siberian spruce, fir, and cedar predominating in the south and larch farther north. In Mongolia, Transbaikalia, and Tyva there are also steppe grasslands, bordered in the extreme south of the Selenga River basin by semidesert. In the far north of the basin, taiga is superseded by tundra (marshy plain covered with moss and other low, cold-tolerant plants).

The Yenisey and its tributaries are rich in fish: the mountain streams of the headwaters support grayling, trout, lenok, roach, and dace; the middle course has sterlet, trout, goldilocks, several species of whitefish (genus Coregonus), and grayling; the lower course has Siberian lamprey, Siberian sturgeon, sterlet, Alpine char, trout, gold and silver carp, pike, and many others. The estuary has fewer species of fish but is rich in the economically valuable sturgeon. The lower reaches of the Yenisey are also much favoured in summer by migrant waterfowl from the south; the small lakes and islands support ducks, geese, and swans; and the muskrat has adapted to the channels of the delta.

People

The peoples of the Yenisey valley are diverse. Around the western headwaters (Great and Little Yenisey), Tyvans (Tuvans) predominate in the rural areas, but they are joined by significant numbers of Russians in Kyzyl, the capital of Tyva. To the north of Tyva the Krasnoyarsk kray (territory) of Russia extends down the entire valley northward to the Kara Sea; its population comprises Russians, Ukrainians, Tatars, and numerous other indigenous peoples. The Khakass people occupy Khakassia southwest of Krasnoyarsk. The vast Evenk autonomous okrug (district), extending from south of the Stony Tunguska to north of the Kureyka, is inhabited both by the Evenk people and by Russians from the west and Sakha (Yakut) from the east. In the far north, the Taymyr autonomous okrug has a majority of Russians and some Evenk but also the Sakha, Dolgan, Nenets, and Nganasan peoples.

Economy

Hunting, fishing, the breeding of reindeer, and fur farming are the traditional occupations of the more northerly peoples, and there is some mining of coal and nonferrous ores (copper, nickel) around Norilsk. Considerable industrial development has occurred in the south, with major centres at Krasnoyarsk, Irkutsk, and Bratsk. The hydroelectric potential of the Yenisey and its major tributary, the Angara-the greatest of any river system in Russia-is also among the most heavily exploited. Since the 1950s, power stations have been built on the Angara at Irkutsk, Bratsk, and Ust-Ilimsk and on the upper and middle Yenisey at Krasnoyarsk and Sayan, with a combined total generating capacity exceeding 25 million kilowatts. Another station on the Angara, at Boguchany, was completed in the late 1980s.

The Yenisey is regularly navigated between Oznachennoye and the sea. A great elevator capable of lifting ships along an inclined railroad between the upper and lower waters of the Krasnoyarsk Hydroelectric Station has been constructed to permit through traffic. The chief ports are Krasnoyarsk, Strelka (at the Angara confluence), Yeniseysk, Igarka, Dudinka, and Ust-Port; seagoing vessels sail up to Igarka. Lumber is the main cargo. Some of the cargo goes upstream to Krasnoyarsk, but the downstream traffic carries bread, coal, petroleum products, and machinery, as well as lumber.

Russians first settled on the Yenisey in 1607, when a winter station was established on the Turukhan River (a left-bank tributary joining the Yenisey just below the Lower Tunguska confluence). Novgorod merchants, however, may have been trading with peoples of the valley as early as the 11th century. In 1619 a fort was built at Yeniseysk. Nine years later Krasny Yar (now Krasnoyarsk) was founded, and Irkutsk was settled in 1652. From these places roads went eastward into the Buryat country and southward into the fertile Minusinsk Basin. The Russian hold on the line of the Yenisey was definitively secured early in the 18th century. Exploration of the rivers was then initiated, with a detachment of the Great Northern Expedition (1733-42) operating on the Yenisey. Later, the lower Yenisey was explored by an expedition of 1894-96; and from 1907 to 1912 a party made a more thorough investigation of the entire river. Studies for development plans or for scientific purposes continued throughout the 20th century.
Constantine Gennadiyevich Tikhotskiy Philip P. Micklin

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Yenisey River - Largest in Russia with Subarctic Climate

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
About half of the Yenisey's water comes from snow, a little more than one-third from rainwater, and the remainder from groundwater. For the greater part of the system, the eastern Siberian hydrologic regime prevails: violent spring floods are followed first by a rapid fall of levels, then by a slower fall, with summer and autumn rain floods punctuating the sequence; in winter the runoff is reduced sharply, but levels remain high as ice jams are formed.

# data[].attributes.body
The Yenisey-Angara River holds hydroelectric and hydropower plants along the river. These plants provide electricity to dams and reservoirs. However, they also give power to the Siberian residents of Russia as well. Dams with hydroelectric power are the "Irkutsk Dam, Bratsk Dam, Ust-llimsk Dam and the Boguchany Dam, producing an average of 4.1 billion Kilowatt-Hours (kWh), 22.7 billion kWh, 21.7 billion kWh, and 17.6 billion kWh of electricity, respectively, on an annual basis (WorldAtlas, 2021).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The 1,779 km long Angara River is a river in southeast central Russia that serves as an outlet for Lake Baikal. The Angara also acts as a major tributary of the Yenisei River, which itself ultimately drains into the Arctic Ocean. Arising from Lake Baikal, the river flows across the southern parts of the Central Siberian Plateau until it joins the Yenisei at Yeniseysk, draining an area of around 1,040,000 square kilometers in the process. Irkut, Oka, Taseyeva, and Iya are some of the important tributaries of the Angara River, while Irkutsk and Bratsk are two of the largest major cities located along the river basin.

History

Prior to the arrival of the Neo-Siberians, the Angara River Basin was inhabited by hunter gatherers like the Buryats and Khori-Tumed peoples, evidence of whose presence has been detected as early as the 13th Century. The arrival of the Neo-Siberians led to the establishment of a fur trade route along the rivers, and mining activities also developed at a fast pace in the area. Gradually, settlements like Irtusk and Bratsk developed along the Angara River in the 17th Century, when Europeans arrived in the area to collect fur taxes from the indigenous Buryats. The river now served as a major source of transport for these new settlements. The development of commercial fisheries along the river has also long supported the local people's livelihoods.

Modern Significance Of The River

Currently, the huge hydro-electric power generating potential of the Angara River is being tapped by large hydroelectric power stations based along the river, the most notable ones being those located at four of its largest dams with hydroelectric capabilities. Namely, these are the Irkutsk Dam, Bratsk Dam, Ust-llimsk Dam and the Boguchany Dam, producing an average of 4.1 billion Kilowatt-Hours (kWh), 22.7 billion kWh, 21.7 billion kWh, and 17.6 billion kWh of electricity, respectively, on an annual basis. Though the Angara River does not provide a continuous waterway due to the presence of such artificial dams and natural rapids along the course of the river, short stretches of the river are still navigable by modern watercraft, and some amount of commercial fishing is also carried out in the Angara River.

The River Ecosystem

The climate around the Yenisey-Angara River Basin is a continental type, characterized by hot summers and bitterly cold winters. Annual precipitation ranges between 400 and 600 millimeters in the western part of the basin, and then gradually decreases towards the east. The Eastern Siberian taiga is the predominant existing ecosystem of this region. The vegetation of the Angara River basin is characterized by pine and pine-larch forests, grasses, and dwarf shrubs. Mammals like Siberian musk deer, moose, roe deer, and red deer, and birds like the Siberian blue robin, Pallas's rose-finch, Pacific swifts, and oriental turtle doves, are found in these eastern Siberian taiga forests. A large number of fish species, such as roach fishes, perches, sturgeons, and tenches, are found in the waters of the Angara River themselves.

Threats

The large-scale construction of dams and reservoirs, though highly beneficial to the local economies of the region, have degraded the natural ecosystems of the river basin to a large extent, as well as displaced large sections of the local rural populations. The constructions of impediments to the natural river flow has affected the migration and spawning habits of fish species along the river's watercourse as well, leading to a massive decline in native fish populations. Also, global warming is though to be leading to losses of water from the Lake Baikal, and has also lowered the water levels of the Angara River in recent years. This water loss is adversely affecting the human communities depending on the river for their livelihoods, as well as the native flora and fauna.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The 1,779 km long Angara River is a river in southeast central Russia that serves as an outlet for Lake Baikal. The Angara also acts as a major tributary of the Yenisei River, which itself ultimately drains into the Arctic Ocean.

# data[].attributes.headline
Lake Baikal: The Beginning of the Yenisey-Angara River System 

# data[].attributes.subject
Lake Baikal: The Beginning of the Yenisey-Angara River System 

# data[].attributes.body
This video highlights the physical aspects of the river. Furthermore, the documentary shares information from a scientist who studies Lake Baikal. Next, this video displays the various and rare aquatic life under Lake Baikal. There is a methane gas eruption that is discussed as well. Methane attracts bacteria other animals' prey on. The origin of the methane is deep underground (Lake Baikal - the Largest Lake, the Deepest Lake, the Clearest Lake!, 2020).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Lake Baikal - the largest lake, the deepest lake, the clearest lake!

# data[].attributes.headline
Lake Baikal: A Freshwater Lake that Empties into the Yenisey-Angara River

# data[].attributes.subject
Lake Baikal: A Freshwater Lake that Empties into the Yenisey-Angara River

# data[].attributes.body
Lake Baikal is the deepest lake on Earth with a one-mile depth, it is one of the oldest lakes in the world and contains one-fifth of all the freshwater on Earth. It is home to 2,500 species, 80% of which can only be found on Lake Baikal. However, overfishing has put the lake at risk (Uncover the Mysteries of the Deepest Lake on Earth | National Geographic, 2018).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Uncover the Mysteries of the Deepest Lake on Earth | National Geographic

# data[].attributes.headline
Social Parameters and Climate Change Challenges of the Yenisey-Angara River

# data[].attributes.subject
Social Parameters and Climate Change Challenges of the Yenisey-Angara River

# data[].attributes.body
The river is one of the longest rivers in the world. It provides food, water, and transportation for the millions who live there. The river has served as a major trading route for many years. The river faces challenges such as climate change, pollution, and the melting of permafrost (Kids MathTV, 2023).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Exploring the Yenisei River: A Fun Adventure for Kids! | The Yenisei River For Kids

# data[].attributes.headline
The Siberian People of Russia Along the Yenisey-Angara River

# data[].attributes.subject
The Siberian People of Russia Along the Yenisey-Angara River

# data[].attributes.body
This nine-minute video does not include any dialogue. It simply highlights the people of Siberia, Russia who live along the Yenisey-Angara River. Throughout the video, you can see the many homes, businesses, and industry which has an impact on pollution and climate change. There is a beautiful walking path along the river which is a wonderful cultural resource for tourists and residents (Yilmaz, 2017).

# data[].attributes.headline
Physical Parameters of the River, Water Availability, Aquatic Life, and People Reliant on the River

# data[].attributes.subject
Physical Parameters of the River, Water Availability, Aquatic Life, and People Reliant on the River

# data[].attributes.body
This short YouTube video briefly explains the river's physical parameters. The Yenisey-Angara River is home to many aquatic animals such as sturgeons and whitefish. Additionally, many communities have been built along the river. The Siberian people rely heavily on the river to sustain themselves (Wonderful World, 2023).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Mighty Yenisei River: A Lifeline of Siberia

# data[].attributes.body
Water discharge from the river is failing. Water supply systems are decaying, recycled water and reused water has decreased, and water consumption has increased. Water quality management has indicated that the water has chemical contaminants which adversely affect animals and humans. Due to the decline in water quality, freshwater intake has been reduced. Unfortunately, there has been no improvement in the water quality despite Federal government oversite and water quality management organizations (N. Ya. Shaparev & Andrianova, 2018).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

References

1. Water Strategy of the Russian Federation Into 2020. Appr. by Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of August 27, 2009, no. 1235-r. URL: docs.cntd.ru/document/902173350 (Accessed Sept. 5, 2016) [in Russian].

2. Indicators of Sustainable Development: Framework and Methodology, New York: United Nations, 1996.

3. The Volga Basin. Sustainable Development: Experience, Problems, Prospects, G.S. Rozenberg, Ed., Moscow: Inst. Ustoichivogo Razvitiya Obshchestvennoi Palaty Rossiiskoi Federatsii, 2011 [in Russian].

4. State Report "On the Environmental Status and Protection in Krasnoyarsk Krai for 2015", Krasnoyarsk: Ministerstvo Prirodnykh Resursov i Lesnogo Kompleksa Krasnoyarskogo Kraya, 2016 [in Russian].

5. State Report "On the Status and Use of Water Resources of the Russian Federation in 2009 ", Moscow: Ministerstvo Prirodnykh Resursov i Ekologii Rossiiskoi Federatsii, 2010 [in Russian].

6. Report on the Sanitary-Epidemiological Situation in Krasnoyarsk Krai in 2008, Krasnoyarsk, 2009 [in Russian].

7. Gladyshev, M.I. and Moskvicheva, A.V., Baikal Invaders Have Become Dominant in the Upper Yenisei Benthofauna, Dokl. Biol. Sci., 2002, vol. 383

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

1. Institute of Computational Modeling Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Krasnoyarsk, 664036, Russia

N. Ya. Shaparev & A. V. Andrianova

2. Siberian Federal University, Krasnoyarsk, 660041, Russia

N. Ya. Shaparev

3. Scientific Research Institute of Ecology of Fishery Reservoirs, Krasnoyarsk, 660097, Russia

A. V. Andrianova

Corresponding author

Correspondence to N. Ya. Shaparev.

Additional information

Original Russian Text © N.Ya. Shaparev, А.V. Andrianova, 2018, published in Geografiya i Prirodnye Resursy, 2018, Vol. 39, No. 4, pp. 47-56.

About this article

Cite this article

Shaparev, N.Y., Andrianova, A.V. The Yenisei River in Terms of Sustainable Water Management. Geogr. Nat. Resour. 39, 307-315 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1134/S1875372818040030
Download citation

Received:

Published:

Issue Date:

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1134/S1875372818040030

Get shareable link

Keywords

Yenisei

hydrography

socioeconomic state of water use

biological resources

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Yenisei River in Terms of Sustainable Water Management - Geography and Natural Resources

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
One of the world's largest rivers, Yenisei, is considered in terms of sustainable water management, in accordance with the Water Strategy of the Russian Federation into 2020.

# data[].attributes.headline
Forest Fires Cause Trouble on the Yenisey-Angara River

# data[].attributes.subject
Forest Fires Cause Trouble on the Yenisey-Angara River

# data[].attributes.body
Dry thunderstorms are commonplace in the Yenisey-Angara region. Unfortunately, the thunderstorms cause devastating forest fires. Moreover, these fires cause heavy smoke which prevents fire crews from responding to these catastrophes as they use the river for transport. Additionally, climate change has caused a decrease in water content and surface water which aids in the expansion of forest fires (Gorshkov et al., 2013).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
, , and . 1999. Izmenenie geologicheskoi sredy v zonahk vliyaniia angaro-eneseiskihk vodohkranilits [ Change of geological environment in the Angaro-Yenisei HPP's zone of influence]. Novosibirsk: Science, Siberian branch. Google Scholar

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Environment, economy and community of the upper Angara and middle Yenisei regions: impact of climate change and water reservoir cascades built on the Angara and Yenisei rivers | Polar Record | Cambridge Core

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Environment, economy and community of the upper Angara and middle Yenisei regions: impact of climate change and water reservoir cascades built on the Angara and Yenisei rivers - Volume 49 Issue 3

# data[].attributes.body
Global warming has affected the river causing ice-dam floods in the Springtime. Due to hydropower plants as well as climate change, there has been a decrease of the river's natural bottom erosion. Consequently, homes have been destroyed (Gorshkov et al., 2013).

The Yenisey-Angara River silt is polluted with nucleotides from the hydropower plants. The silt accumulates at the bottom of the lower floodplain. The silting and having an absence of natural cleansing floods has caused algae to invade the river.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
, , and . 1999. Izmenenie geologicheskoi sredy v zonahk vliyaniia angaro-eneseiskihk vodohkranilits [ Change of geological environment in the Angaro-Yenisei HPP's zone of influence]. Novosibirsk: Science, Siberian branch. Google Scholar

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Environment, economy and community of the upper Angara and middle Yenisei regions: impact of climate change and water reservoir cascades built on the Angara and Yenisei rivers | Polar Record | Cambridge Core

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Environment, economy and community of the upper Angara and middle Yenisei regions: impact of climate change and water reservoir cascades built on the Angara and Yenisei rivers - Volume 49 Issue 3

# data[].attributes.body
Industry such as gold and coal mining, along with mining industry operations have been a vital source for the Russian people. However, it has had detrimental effects on the river basin. Industry has infringed large territories along the river, changing its range and size. Reindeer habitats have also been disturbed. The hydro pattern of the rivers has been affected. High pollution has infiltrated the northern coast of Russia by rivers, which has largely affected the ecosystems of the northern seas. Furthermore, vegetation along the rivers has been disrupted due to industrial operations on the Yenisey-Angara which affects animal habitats, fish, and food for the people of the basin (Kirill Ya. Kondratyev et al., 2002).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The intensive industrial development of the northern Russian territories has led to significant environment changes in these regions (Morgan and Codispoti 1995). Oil and gas extraction on the Yamal and Taimir peninsulas in northwestern Siberia; coal and gold extraction in Yakutia and Chukotka, as well as mining industry operations on the Kola Peninsula, have led to strong anthropogenic intervention into the natural environment. Vegetation cover has been violated over large territories; the range, size, and productivity of reindeer pastures diminished; and the hydrologie regime of rivers disturbed. Major quantities of pollution substances are brought to the northern coast of Russia by rivers, thus violating the ecosystems of the northern seas. One such river system is the Angara-Yenisey river system (AYRS).

Keywords
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Pollutant Dynamics in the Angara-Yenisey River System

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The intensive industrial development of the northern Russian territories has led to significant environment changes in these regions (Morgan and Codispoti 1995). Oil and gas extraction on the Yamal and Taimir peninsulas in northwestern Siberia; coal and gold extraction in Yakutia and Chukotka, as well as mining industry operations on the Kola Peninsula, have led to strong anthropogenic intervention into the natural environment.

# data[].attributes.body
This is a causal loop for the Yenisey-Angara River. It is evident that many variables affect each other in this diagram. Specifically, pollution and land use are beginning to be problematic for the river basin. The permafrost and subarctic temperatures bring its own challenges to the region as well, but fish and other aquatic mammals have adapted well.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Wild nature of Russia. The beginning of the Great river Yenisei. Beautiful nature of Siberia

# data[].attributes.headline
Physical Parameters of the Yenisey-Angara River

# data[].attributes.subject
Physical Parameters of the Yenisey-Angara River

# data[].attributes.body
The Yenisey-Angara River spans 3,442 miles and is 996,000 square miles. It is the sixth largest river on Earth (Owen et al., 2023). The river originates from Lake Baikal, a freshwater lake and receives an inflow of water from the Arctic Ocean (WorldAtlas, 2021). The Russian River lies in a subarctic climate that is rich in plants, fish, and mammals (Owen et al., 2023). In the North, annual precipitation is 16-20 inches, in the South it is forty-seven inches, and the Central part of the basin is 30 inches (Yenisey River - Largest in Russia with Subarctic Climate | Britannica, n.d.).

Permafrost covers 88% of the watershed and 33% of the watershed consists of permanent permafrost (Arctic Great Rivers Observatory, n.d.).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Yenisey River, also spelled Yenisei or Enisei, Evenk Ioanesi (“Great River”), river of central Russia, one of the longest rivers in Asia. The world’s sixth largest river in terms of discharge, the Yenisey runs from south to north across the great expanse of central Siberia. It traverses a vast regi…

# data[].attributes.headline
More Climate Challenges for the Yenisey-Angara River

# data[].attributes.subject
More Climate Challenges for the Yenisey-Angara River

# data[].attributes.body
Climate change has not only impacted algae overgrowth and ice-dam floods but has also altered vegetation. Due to an increase in summer droughts, the yield of mushrooms, nuts, berries, bog bilberries, and Siberian pine nuts have decreased. This directly affects animals and humans alike (Gorshkov et al., 2013).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
, , and . 1999. Izmenenie geologicheskoi sredy v zonahk vliyaniia angaro-eneseiskihk vodohkranilits [ Change of geological environment in the Angaro-Yenisei HPP's zone of influence]. Novosibirsk: Science, Siberian branch. Google Scholar

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Environment, economy and community of the upper Angara and middle Yenisei regions: impact of climate change and water reservoir cascades built on the Angara and Yenisei rivers | Polar Record | Cambridge Core

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Environment, economy and community of the upper Angara and middle Yenisei regions: impact of climate change and water reservoir cascades built on the Angara and Yenisei rivers - Volume 49 Issue 3

# data[].attributes.body
The water quality of this Russian river is good compared to other rivers on our planet. The river struggles with high sediment due to permafrost and the placement of dams and reservoirs (Varotsos et al., 2021). However, officials have a water management policy in place where water is sampled, spectral images are taken, studies of heavy metals are performed, and water quality is sampled in neighboring countries (Varotsos et al., 2021). Water sampling is also performed in the town of Dudinka, Russia, by a company, "ArcticGRO" (Arctic Great Rivers Observatory, n.d.).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Department of Environmental Physics and Meteorology, University of Athens, 15784 Athens, Greece

School of Environment Science and Geoinformatics, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China

Kotelnikov Institute of Radioengineering and Electronics, Fryazino Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Fryazino, 141190 Moscow, Russia

College of Science and Engineering, University of Derby, Derby DD22 3AW, UK

Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.

1. Introduction

The Angara River is a major tributary of the Yenisei River. It flows rapidly north of Lake Baikal for about two-thirds of its 1779 km, before turning west at its confluence with the Yenisei River, which flows north to the Kara Sea, draining an area of about 2.58 million km ² along a 4102 km journey. The Yenisei's flow rate in the Kara Sea fluctuates widely, averaging 19,800 m ³/s, and up to 130,000 m ³/s during the spring run-off [ 1]. The share of the Angara-Yenisei river system (AYRS) in the total inflow of rivers into the Kara Sea varies from 22.1% to 26.4%, which requires an assessment of the role of the Angara-Yenisei River system in Arctic water pollution [ 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10].

The growing interest in Siberia's environmental problems is mainly due to the potential global consequences of Siberian rivers' pollution, given a variety of possible sources of pollution and their pathways of spread, including atmospheric and river transport. As the main tributary of the Yenisei River, the Angara River flowing into an industrial area has a negative cumulative effect on water quality and contributes to the negative changes of the Angara/Yenisei hydrological and hydrochemical system. The Angara River is the only run-off of Lake Baikal [ 4, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15]. Very negative environmental effects on the Angara/Yenisei river system come from biogenic substances, including nitrogen and phosphate compounds [ 13]. Existing AYRS experimental water quality measurements reflect pollutant content mainly at local sites. Savichev and Matveenko [ 16] characterized the mineralization of the surface waters of the Angara River in the Boguchan reservoir zone as 20-40 mg/L. Sorokovikova [ 17] showed that many contaminants have an irregular distribution along the Yenisey. Concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus, and organic compounds were found to increase, and their dynamics in space and time changed. Seasonal concentrations of mineral nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfates were estimated in [ 18, 19].

This article examines the pollution of the Angara/Yenisei River as a whole, using spectral optical monitoring tools. Optical measurements were obtained at a set of points and converted to concentrations and fluxes using the AYRS Hydrologic Simulation Model (AYRSSM). Due to the lack of access and lack of gaging, AYRSSM has been used in previous studies to link point samples to the river as a whole [ 1, 6, 20, 21]. This provides an adequate description of the pollution of the Angara/Yenisei River flow, taking into account for the first time the role of the riverbeds' forms, improving the accuracy of the AYRS pollutant concentrations in the Kara Sea [ 20, 21, 22]. Many authors note that the coastal waters of the Kara Sea are characterized as moderately polluted, especially near the settlements of Amderma and Dikson [ 23]. AYRSSM provides consistent modeling results for these concentrations compared to their episodic measurements [ 1, 24]. The difference between data from different authors can be greater than tens of percent; AYRSSM provides stability of modeling results, which is one percent.

The main regulation of pollutant flows-discharged into the Kara Sea from the discharge of the Angara/Yenisei River system-is the five hydroelectric dams at Krasnoyarsk and the Sayano-Shushenskoe at Yenisei and Irkutsk, the Bratsk and Ust-Ilimsk at Angara. These dams are responsible for fluctuations in the flow regime and water balance of the Angara River [ 27]. The Angara river has an area of about 1.1106 km ², and the discharge at its outflow from Lake Baikal is estimated at 1855-1910 m ³/s, while towards the Yenisei River it is 4350-4530 m ³/s at the expense of its tributaries. A special feature of the Angara River is the uniformity of its runoff during the year in contrast to the Yenisei River, where the ratio of maximum to minimum runoff is equal to 80 in the Krasnoyarsk zone [ 19]. The Irkutsk reservoir receives water from Lake Baikal with annual fluctuations of 15.5%. The consequent long-term dynamics of contaminant concentrations in water and sediments is determined by the location of the dams and the bottom relief [ 29, 30, 31, 32].

The impact of industrial development in the area under consideration can be assessed taking into account all the cities with their dams, reservoirs and industrial structures. The main component of all pollutants discharged into the Angara River is sewage water (85%), which is mainly distributed between the Bratsk Reservoir (45.2%) and the Ust-Ilimsk Reservoir (39.8%). Every year, the Angara River receives 0.66 km ³/year of sewage water, about 2% of which is treated at normal water quality levels [ 29].

2. Material and Methods

(1)

In the summer of 1995, the US-Russian environmental and hydrophysical campaign took place on the Angara and Yenisei rivers in Siberia. The following organizations participated in this mission: US Naval Research Laboratory (Washington, DC, USA), US Naval Academy (Annapolis, MD, USA), Global Technologies Inc. (Idaho Falls, ID, USA), Institute of Ecoinformatics of the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences (Moscow, Russia), Kotelnikov Institute of Radioengineering and Electronics of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Moscow, Russia), and Irkutsk State University (Irkutsk, Russia). The 44 main results of this mission have been published in [ 21, 44].

(2)

In the summer of 2019, a hydrochemical expedition was organized by the Institute of Ecoinformatic Problems, Russian Academy of Natural Sciences (Moscow, Russia). This study was based on spectral optical field measurements and water sampling. During this mission, three optical multi-spectral devices were used to measure water quality directly in situ and by water sampling. Water samples were delivered to the laboratory where optical spectral and chemical analyses were performed. Maps of in situ measurements and sample locations are shown in Figure 2.

In this study, three spectral optical devices and a cluster of computer components with suitable software were used, including data processing algorithms and AYRSSM. The characteristics of optical devices are shown in Table 1. For example, Figure 3 shows the main structure of the universal 8-channel spectrophotometer (US-8).

Field measurements were performed using an 8-channel universal pre-training spectrophotometer (US-8) to identify spectral images from 380 to 700 nm. US-8 software has algorithms for identifying and recognizing spectral images of the aquatic environment almost in real time. The main structure of the US-8 is shown in Figure 3. The US-8 can use two light sources including sunlight or artificial light (a halogen bulb, a tiny xenon pulse lamp, etc.). The use of sunlight requires a calibration process performed automatically for a period of 1 s. The in situ measurement procedure using the US-8 consists of immersing the sky-light adapter (1 m long) in the water environment. The measurements were made by vessels in areas of interest and are shown in Figure 2. The incoming light reaches the adapter and the analog-to-digital converter provides the relaxation coefficient as an indicator of water quality. The 35-channel spectrophotometer was used to analyze a water sample under laboratory conditions. In this case, US-8 software was used. For more accurate spectral monitoring results, the 128-channel spectroellipsometer was used for spectral analysis of water sampling. In all cases, the average measurement time was 0.5-1.0 s. The US-8 universality consists in its adaptation to the following three measurement modes:

direct measurement of the water relaxation coefficient by immersing part of the sky-adapter into the water environment;

formation of a spectral image of the water sample located in the special reservoir; and

formation of a spectral image of the water surface when the sky-adapter is directed towards it.

Water quality is assessed through spectrophotometry/spectroellipsometry with inverse task solution or/and spectral images recognition. US-8 and SP-35 provide an S(λ) spectrum that reflects the relaxation coefficient depending on the wavelength λ. The recognition of such a spectrum is performed using cluster analysis and calculation of the distance between the spectra based on the spectral etalons database. The most effective algorithm for spectral image recognition is the transformation of spectral space into vector space when the optical spectrum is changed by the vector that reflects the shape of the spectrum. An example of a database item is given in Figure 4.

Spectrum processing and optical inverse task solution are applied for the universal case of spectroellipsometric measurements. According to the basic equation:

where and are complex amplitude reflection coefficients. SS-128 provides spectra for polarizations p and s for the water sample η:

S Ψ(λ,η)-spectral distribution of the tangent of the spectroellipsometric angle Ψ.

S Δ(λ,η)-spectral distribution of the cosine of the spectroellipsometric angle Δ.

The transformation of the optical spectral space into the vector space is achieved by direct evaluation of the specific characteristics of the spectrum. In this case, the spectra S Ψ(λ,η) and S Δ(λ,η) are converted into two vectors: Ξ Ψ(η) = (C ₁ Ψ,..., Ψ) and Ξ Δ(η) = (C ₁ Δ,..., Δ), where the values Ψ ( Δ) reflect the physical parameters of the spectra:

The AYRSSM block diagram is shown in Figure 5, where its blocks are selected from the model functions. A description of the AYRSSM blocks is given in Table 2. The operational capabilities of the AYRSSM are more general than those required when considering the AYRS water quality assessment.

In addition, it is important to estimate the concentrations of chemicals in the water of the Yenisei estuary. These evaluations were performed using the AYRSSM described in detail by Krapivin et al. [ 21] and Krapivin and Varotsos [ 42, 44]. The AYRSSM was improved by further examination of the AYRS structure, including four dams located along the Angara River and the bottom profile [ 38]. The AYRS watershed has an area Ω separated from the uniform geographic grids Ω (k = 1,..., N) located along the AYRS and other adjacent areas Ω as sources of pollutant fluxes to AYRS. Cells Ω are located along the AYRS starting with Ω ₁ at the source of the Angara River to Ω at the mouth of the Yenisei River. Balance equations are used to parameterize the dynamics of water quality and pollutant concentration [ 21, 22, 26, 45].

The AYRSSM versions were calibrated as follows:

The AYRSSM calibration procedure in this study is mainly based on the estimation of model sensitivity and the stability of the modeling results with variations in the number and location of sampling sites shown in Figure 2. Shifting and subtracting 25% of the sampling sites give the deviation of modeling results not more than 3%.

The AYRSSM verification process involves the comparison of modeling results with in situ measurements. The range of modeling results at sampling sites ( Figure 2) was 2.2% to 3.4%.

3. Results and Discussion

Figure 2 illustrates the sites for optical spectral measurements and water sampling. Table 1 shows optical decision-making systems used for in situ spectral measurements and analyses of water samples in laboratory conditions.

The combined process of water quality monitoring, algorithms, and AYRSSM allow the results to characterize the spatial distribution of contaminants along the Angara River and the Yenisei River after its intersection with Angara starting from the Strelka Village. The content of radionuclides in the river bottom sediments and their transport to the Kara Sea was studied earlier [ 21, 45, 46, 47]. The analysis of the existing data on the radioactive pollution of Angara and Yenisei waters shows that continuous self-removal of radionuclides is observed. For example, the self-removal of ¹³⁷C is estimated at 0.19 1/year, which corresponds to a half-purification time of 3.6 years for a 600 km section of the Angara/Yenisei riverbed [ 43, 46]. Therefore, radioactive pollutants are not taken into account in this study.

The original source of pollution in Angara is Lake Baikal, whose water is affected by industrial activities located on the shores of the lake, according to Russian Federal Law defining the protection zone of the lake [ 47, 48, 49, 50]. Industrial systems and cities along the Angara River add pollutants to the water. Downstream of the tributary junction, the water quality of Yenisei and Angara is determined by the average water properties. Further quantitative assessment of the pollutant budget in the Angara/Yenisei river system is assessed using a mass balance model [ 2, 51]. The results of optical monitoring and model calculations are given in Table 3, Table 4, Table 5 and Table 6 and Figure 6 and Figure 7.

An analysis of the monitoring results presented in Table 4 shows the reduction of the Angara pollution level almost all the way from Lake Baikal to the junction with the Yenisei River as part of the comparative expedition of Strelka Village in 1995 [ 44]. This result is explained by the reduction of industrial activity and the use of new technologies in the commercial sector.

The model was used for the Yenisei River at a distance from the Angara junction to the Kara Sea. The modeling results are shown in Table 6. The sedimentation and self-decomposition processes cause the chemical concentration to decrease slowly as Yenisei water moves toward its estuary.

It should be noted that the accuracy of the spectral optical systems used in this study was evaluated by Krapivin et al. [ 22] (see Figure 9.22 in [ 22]), where it was shown that the accuracy of the evaluation of the contaminant concentration did not exceed 2.7% for concentrations below 10%. The accuracy of optical decision-making systems changed by up to 5.6% when the aqueous solution of chemical elements was increased by up to 12.7%.

This paper demonstrates the possibility of spectral optical monitoring in the evaluation of water quality for the Angara/Yenisei River system taking into account hydrological, hydrochemical, and anthropogenic processes. Overall, this paper covers the results of the 2019 hydrochemical expedition study on water quality in the Angara/Yenisei River system, considering the location of existing man-made objects located along the Angara Cascade. Knowledge of the movement of pollution and its concentration at different distances from Lake Baikal allows the assessment of the concentration of contaminants in Lake Baikal and the Kara Sea. Monitoring of water quality from the Angara source provides important data for assessing the current anthropogenic impacts on Lake Baikal. According to the data in Table 3 and Table 4, the water quality at site 1 can be considered to correspond to chemical requirements for drinking water quality, which is in line with the conclusion of Suslova and Grebenshchikova [ 50] based on field measurements in September, 2019.

The use of spectral optical devices for the analysis of Angara water quality allows the functional distinction of the hydrochemical characteristics and the formation of their long-term indicators to control the instability characteristics in their distribution along the Angara Cascade [ 28]. During the 2019 mission, limited series of measurements were performed at different times of the day, and it was found that the concentration of heavy metals in the water during the day could change by ±2.8% in reservoirs, regardless of the distance from the Lake Baikal. This result is mainly explained by the irregular outflow of domestic and industrial wastewater in Angara and proposes the synthesis of such a monitoring system, which will use tools and means of information modeling, providing a complex examination of the possible natural and man-made effects on the water quality of the Angara River [ 22, 49].

The problem of functional water quality control in the Angara/Yenisei River system can be simplified by using AYRSSM, taking into account its 3D bed model [ 50, 51]. Digitization of bed relief is possible on the basis of pilot maps. The combination of such models and in situ measurements in individual areas can optimize a process for assessing water quality. According to Krapivin et al. [ 22], the hybrid geoinformation system can be set up on the basis of information-modeling instrumental technology with the decision-making function to minimize economic factors for progress in assessing the anthropogenic impact on water quality in Lake Baikal, the Angara/Yenisei River system, and the Kara Sea. Moreover, the US-8 spectrophotometer can be mounted on a fixed platform and could provide hydrochemical characteristics at a frequency of several seconds [ 45].

In situ measurements at 14 selected sites have shown the existence of spatial and temporal variability of the concentrations of chemical elements. Water samples collected in the Irkutsk reservoir in July and August at the same site show that and concentrations are 66.51 ± 1.3 mg/L and 4.53 ± 0.47 mg/L, respectively. Computer experiments show that the entry of heavy metals into the Kara Sea from AYRS has a constant value with a depression of ±26%. The impact of the AYRS ecosystem on the heavy metal conversion process does not exceed 2.8%. Heavy metals concentrations in samples taken up the Angara River upstream of the Angara-Yenisei junction are estimated to vary ±1.4 mg/L. Table 5 shows that comparative concentrations of heavy metals and oil hydrocarbons in 1995 and 2019 are decreasing and increasing on average 9.7% and 5.6%, respectively.

4. Conclusions

The results presented in this paper illustrate the features of the combined use of optical spectral instruments for in situ measurements and water sampling analysis to assess the water quality of such a large-scale water system as the Angara-Yenisei River. An advantage of the method developed in this study is the ability to form a database of spectral images of AYRS elements recorded during the year, which allows the estimation of trends in changing AYRS water quality. Comparing spectral images that are made at the same times of different years can help us decide on possible in-situ measurements.

Finally, according to this study and many literature data, the main difficulty in assessing water quality in the Angara/Yenisei River system is the significant variations in hydrochemical characteristics, both during the year and during the day, explained by the irregular water flow and its structure of the bottom relief. The special feature of the AYRS function is determined by the Siberian climate, when the lowest temperatures from October to March are below zero and the AYRS drainage area (3.479 × 10 ⁶ km ²) is covered by snow that accumulates air pollutants. It should be noted that this should be taken into account when developing AYRSSM. Therefore, the composition of the information modeling system, based on the suitable hydrochemical model and the fixed position of the US-8 at selected sites, can optimize the solution of the operational control problem and detect dangerous water quality disturbances in the AYRS.

In general, the water quality of the Angara River depends on the feeders from the drainage basin, with an area of 1.039 × 10 ⁶ km ². In particular, the AYRS model takes into account this situation of what is possible with the use of remote sensing tools to assess the structure of land cover and soil moisture content. Remote sensing tools have been developed to diagnose water surface and vegetation and are widely used to solve many tasks [ 6]. Effective diagnosis of vegetation and soil cover is made using microwave instrumental tools based on wavelengths of centimeters [ 6, 52]. Microwave remote sensing tools help to collect data on the spottiness of oil products on the water surface. The detection of pollutant spills can be performed simultaneously with optical and microwave instruments, which improves the precision of AYRSSM input data. The future modernization of the AYRSSM can be achieved with additional blocks, some of which are intended to parameterize the functional dependencies of hydrochemical processes on nonlinear climatic parameters and socio-economic decisions [ 49, 53, 54, 55].

The results of this study show the adaptability of the developed information-modeling instrumental technology to monitoring the water quality of every river system, which can improve and increase the productivity of monitoring systems dedicated to water quality. The actual application of AYRSSM to control the water quality of other river systems requires a review of big data clouds, the spatial pixel structure, and the vegetation coverage. The fixed position of the US-8 optical spectral sensor at sites for the formation of spectral images of local water sampling provides an automatic monitoring regime. The implementation of this monitoring regime is the subject of the relevant scientific project.

Author Contributions

C.A.V. and V.F.K. conceived the study design, developed the models, and drafted the manuscript; F.A.M. and Y.X. were involved in data acquisition and analysis and worked on aspects of the experiment. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was partially supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research, Project No. 19-07-00443-a.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

1. Varotsos, C.A.; Krapivin, V.F. Microwave Remote Sensing Tools in Environmental Science; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2020; p. 457. [Google Scholar]

2. Kondratyev, K.Y.; Krapivin, V.F.; Phillips, G.W. Global Environmental Change; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2002; p. 316. [Google Scholar]

3. Krapivin, V.F.; Varotsos, C.A.; Soldatov, V.Y. New Ecoinformatics Tools in Environmental Science: Applications and Decision-Making; Springer: London, UK, 2015; p. 903. [Google Scholar]

4. Flint, M.V. (Ed.) Ecosystem of Kara Sea: New data of expedition investigations. In Proceedings of the Scientific Conference, Oceanology Institute, Moscow, Russia, 27-29 May 2015; p. 320. [Google Scholar]

5. Savenko, A.; Pokrovsky, O.; Strelerskaya, I. Distribution of Dissolved Chemical Elements in the Yenisei River Estuary and Adjacent Water Area of the Kara Sea; Russian State Hydrometeorological University: Saint-Petersburg, Russia, 2016; p. 210. [Google Scholar]

6. Kondratyev, K.Y.; Krapivin, V.F.; Phillips, G.W. High Latitude Environmental Pollution Problems; Nansen International Environmental and Remote Sensing Center: Saint-Petersburg, Russia, 2002; p. 279. [Google Scholar]

7. Kohler, H.; Meon, B.; Gordeev, V.V.; Spitzy, A.; Amon, R.M.W. Dissolved Organic Matter (DOM) in the estuaries of Ob and Yenisei and the adjacent Kara Sea, Russia. In Siberian River Run-off in the Kara Sea: Characterisation, Quantification; Stein, R., Fahl, K., Futterer, D.K., Galimov, E.M., Stepanets, O.V., Eds.; Elsevier Science: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2003; pp. 281-308. [Google Scholar]

8. FLR. The Federal Law of Russia No. 94-FZ Dated 01.05.1999 "Concerning the Protection of Lake Baikal" (with Amendments as of 28 June 2014). Available online: http://pravo.gov.ru/proxy/ips/?docbody=&nd=102059482 (accessed on 8 August 2018).

9. Krapivin, V.F.; Varotsos, C.A. Biogeochemical Cycles in Globalization and Sustainable Development; Springer/Praxis: Chichester, UK, 2008; p. 562. [Google Scholar]

10. Babicheva, V.A.; Rzetala, M.A. The main types of banks of Angara water reservoirs: Overview of the problem. In Proceedings of the 13th International Multidisciplinary Scientific Geoconference, Bulgaria, SGEM 2013, Albena, Bulgaria, 16-22 June 2013; Volume I, pp. 195-202. [Google Scholar]

11. Bychkov, I.; Gachenko, A.; Rugnikov, G.; Hmelnov, A. 3-D modeling of Angara Riverbed. In Proceedings of the MIT-16: Mathematical and Information Technologies, Vrnjacka Banja, Serbia, 28-31 August 2016; pp. 26-32. [Google Scholar]

12. Krapivin, V.F.; Nitu, C.; Varotsos, C.A. Microwave Remote Sensing Tools and Ecoinformatics; Matrix Rom: Bucharest, Romania, 2019; p. 332. [Google Scholar]

Varotsos CA, Krapivin VF, Mkrtchyan FA, Xue Y. Optical Spectral Tools for Diagnosing Water Media Quality: A Case Study on the Angara/Yenisey River System in the Siberian Region. Land. 2021; 10(4):342. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10040342

Chicago/Turabian Style

Varotsos, Costas A., Vladimir F. Krapivin, Ferdenant A. Mkrtchyan, and Yong Xue. 2021. "Optical Spectral Tools for Diagnosing Water Media Quality: A Case Study on the Angara/Yenisey River System in the Siberian Region" Land 10, no. 4: 342. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10040342

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Optical Spectral Tools for Diagnosing Water Media Quality: A Case Study on the Angara/Yenisey River System in the Siberian Region

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
This paper presents the results of spectral optical measurements of hydrochemical characteristics in the Angara/Yenisei river system (AYRS) extending from Lake Baikal to the estuary of the Yenisei River. For the first time, such large-scale observations were made as part of a joint American-Russian expedition in July and August of 1995, when concentrations of radionuclides, heavy metals, and oil hydrocarbons were assessed.

# data[].attributes.body
Approximately 8 million people live on the Yenisey-Angara River (Arctic Great Rivers Observatory, n.d.). In the lower parts of the river system, it is utilized for transporting lumber, petroleum, bread, coal, and machinery. The Krasnoyarsk Hydroelectric Station is a large elevator that lifts ships so they can pass through the lower area of the river (Arctic Great Rivers Observatory, n.d.). The water quality is affected by industry on the river, but thankfully the quality is "good" and is consistently managed

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Watershed Characteristics
Holmes, R. M., M. T. Coe, G.J. Fiske, T. Gurtovaya, J. W. McClelland, A. I. Shiklomanov, R. G. M. Spencer, S. E. Tank, A. V. Zhulidov. 2013. Climate change impacts on the hydrology and biogeochemistry of Arctic Rivers, in Global Impacts of Climate Change on Inland Waters, edited by C. R. Goldman, M. Kumagai, and R. D. Robarts, Wiley. [Table 1.1]

Holmes, R. M., J. W. McClelland, B. J. Peterson, S. E. Tank, E. Bulygina, T. I. Eglinton, V. V. Gordeev, T. Y. Gurtovaya, P. A. Raymond, D. J. Repeta, R. Staples, R. G. Striegl, A. V. Zhulidov, and S. A. Zimov. 2012. Seasonal and annual fluxes of nutrients and organic matter from large rivers to the Arctic Ocean and surrounding seas. Estuaries and Coasts 35:369-382, doi: 10.1007/s12237-011-9386-6. [Table 1]

McClelland, J. W., R. M. Holmes, B. J. Peterson, and M. Stieglitz. 2004. Drivers of increasing river discharge in the Eurasian Arctic: considerations of dams, permafrost thaw, and fires as potential agents of change. Journal of Geophysical Research 109:D18102, doi: 10.1029/2004JD004583. [Table 1]

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Arctic Great Rivers Yenisey The Yenisey River has a mean annual discharge of 673 km3/year. It is the largest Arctic river by annual discharge and the 5th largest globally. There are multiple dams on the main-stem of the Yenisey River and its tributaries. The Yenisey's watershed is 2.5 million km2.

# data[].attributes.headline
Political Conflicts and Current Management of Water System

# data[].attributes.subject
Political Conflicts and Current Management of Water System

# data[].attributes.body
Lake Baikal is a freshwater lake that empties into the Yenisey-Angara River. The political borders split the watershed between Russia and Mongolia. However, Lake Baikal itself is in Russia. These boundary issues have caused critical issues with water quality management. However, in 1999, the "Baikal Law" passed which was created to mandate border countries to oversee economic and environmental activities of the watershed. The law was abolished in 2000, and the Federal Environmental Protection Agency is now responsible for the watershed's resource management (Brunello et al., n.d.).

# data[].attributes.body
The whitefish are plentiful in the Yenisey-Angara River, for now. However, with the rise in marine traffic, development, and climate change, they are susceptible to forced migration, illness, death, and a decreased population.

# data[].attributes.body
Russia utilizes the Yenisey-Angara River for various uses. Gold and oil extraction along with coal mining are critical to the economy. Additionally, commercial fishing is vital to the river basin's economy. Lastly, the lumber industry along the river is a fruitful business which the people of Russia rely (Kirill Ya. Kondratyev et al., 2002).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The intensive industrial development of the northern Russian territories has led to significant environment changes in these regions (Morgan and Codispoti 1995). Oil and gas extraction on the Yamal and Taimir peninsulas in northwestern Siberia; coal and gold extraction in Yakutia and Chukotka, as well as mining industry operations on the Kola Peninsula, have led to strong anthropogenic intervention into the natural environment. Vegetation cover has been violated over large territories; the range, size, and productivity of reindeer pastures diminished; and the hydrologie regime of rivers disturbed. Major quantities of pollution substances are brought to the northern coast of Russia by rivers, thus violating the ecosystems of the northern seas. One such river system is the Angara-Yenisey river system (AYRS).

Keywords
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Pollutant Dynamics in the Angara-Yenisey River System

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The intensive industrial development of the northern Russian territories has led to significant environment changes in these regions (Morgan and Codispoti 1995). Oil and gas extraction on the Yamal and Taimir peninsulas in northwestern Siberia; coal and gold extraction in Yakutia and Chukotka, as well as mining industry operations on the Kola Peninsula, have led to strong anthropogenic intervention into the natural environment.

# data[].attributes.headline
Causal Loop for the Yenisey-Angara River 

# data[].attributes.subject
Causal Loop for the Yenisey-Angara River 

# data[].attributes.body
This causal loop shows the relation to different variables within the system that affect the river adversely, yet that are beneficial as well. Many internal variables such as pollution, high marine traffic, and industry have impacted the river basin. Despite the federal government attempting to mitigate worsening climate change, the river has already begun to experience negative effects. While there are many more variables that could be explained, these are some of the most critical.

# data[].attributes.headline
Environment Justice for the Yenisey-Angara River

# data[].attributes.subject
Environment Justice for the Yenisey-Angara River

# data[].attributes.body
The river is an important cultural and spiritual resource for the indigenous people of the region. The tribes of the Buryat not only rely on the river for food, but they see the Yenisey-Angara River as a sacred place. Sadly, industry has encroached upon their homes. The Baikal Environmental Wave advocacy group led protests, collected 20,000 signatures, and created flash mobs to promote the impact industry has had on its people. They were successful at blocking the expansion of a state-run uranium enrichment facility. Additionally, the group was able to close the Baikal Pulp and Paper Mill which had been polluting the river for over fifty years (EJOLT, n.d.).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Baikal, the world's largest freshwater lake (over 30,000 sq km) situated in mountainous Russian region of Siberia, north of the Mongolian border [2] [3]. The lake holds 23% of the world's unfrozen freshwater resources and 2,500 aquatic species, more than half of them endemic [3].

Baikal basin is divided between Mongolia and Russia, and 80% of the watershed of its main tributary the Selenge River lies in Mongolia. Mongols as well as local Russian communities revere the Lake as the "Sacred Sea" [3]. More than 300 rivers and streams drain into Lake Baikal, the most prominent ones of these being the Selenga River, the Snezhnaya River, and the Barguzin River. Lake Baikal itself, however, only has one outlet and drains out only into the Angara River. This river, in turn, flows into the Yenisei River and eventually joins the Arctic Ocean [3].

Irkutsk Hydro Power Plant on the outflowing Angara river built in 1960, has had a most profound negative effect on the Lake. The integrity of the lake ecosystem was severely damaged by raising and artificial regulation of water levels that ruin natural cycles. This has led to increase in erosion, losses in endemic fish, degradation of unique coastal ecosystems and historic relics, damage to coastal property of local people, also rising conflicts between the Buryatia Republic that receives most of the negative impacts and Irkutsk Region where the dam is located [3].

Furthermore, in 1996 impacts from air pollution from coal power plants and industry were located upwind and west of the lake. Coal production in west Siberia gave rise to acid rain, which then affects the lake and its flora and fauna. Moreover, dioxin is thought to have caused the deaths of many seals near the Baikalsk coal plant in 1997 in particular [4].

In addition, Lake Baikal's water level has been dropping dramatically, likely as a result of global warming and the extensive use of its tributary rivers by hydroelectric power plants in the area [2].

During 1998-2015 Lake Baikal has been influenced by prolonged drought in Mongolia, where average air temperatures increased 2 centigrade over the last 60 years - twice the global average. In 2014 the main water source - the Selenge River - brought only half the water volume it normally supplied to the lake and water levels were gradually declining. At the same time climate change results in rising water temperatures of this normally freezing-cold lake, creating welcoming environment for invasive species and problems for endemics. Runoff from territories affected by forest fires and sewage from the growing number of on-shore tourist camps has contributed to severe eutrophication of near-shore waters. Climatic fluctuations led to full-fledged ecological and a socio-economic crisis on the Baikal Lake shore with massive invasive algae blooms, die-off of endemic sponge communities that filter lake water, decline in fisheries and increase in severe peat fires in the Selenge River delta, which is a Ramsar wetland of international importance [2].

Industrial development and resource exploitation are encroaching on indigenous communities' territories and cultures related to the lake [2]. The tribes of the Buryat, an ethnic Mongol group who call the region home, have long considered Lake Baikal as important environmental and cultural value [4]. The name "Baikal" comes from the Buryat word for "big reservoir, like a sea" and "Baigal" in the Mongolian language means "natural." The Buryat tribes are traditionally nomadic and embrace their heritage [4]. Olkhon Island, the largest island in Lake Baikal, is inhabited mostly by indigenous populations and is still considered an especially sacred place in the region. For millennia, the Lake Baikal region has been inhabited by various indigenous populations - particularly in the taiga, a subarctic coniferous zone - where they lived primarily by hunting and fishing. In 1643, Russian explorers first made contact with indigenous populations, but the area did not experience much Russian influence until the end of the 19th century, when the Trans-Siberian Railroad was built. Today, the Buryats make up nearly 30 percent of the population [4].

As an Indigenous Buryat woman, and the executive president of the of Cultural Survival's NGO -- Galina Angarova explained (2019): " I come from the Buryat Peoples who have lived in Siberia for millennia, on both sides of Lake Baikal. I was born and raised in a community of about 400 people. I grew up eating wild berries, mushrooms, pine nuts, wild garlic, deer, and rabbit that members of my family would gather and preserve for harsh winters. My grandmother would tell me stories which encapsulated the wisdom of our ancestors and have been passed down for generations. I participated in our traditional ceremonies. I still vividly remember a time when I was five years old, when my grandmother took me to a ceremony on a wooden horse cart miles away from our village. I still recall the fire, the chants, and the prayers of the women in my clan. I grew up with a deep sense of understanding of our lifeways and belongingness to the land, to my people, and a deep love for my culture and for Mother Earth. It was not until I was 24 when I first encountered the term "Indigenous Peoples." Growing up in Russia, it was hard to really understand my own situation and the situation of my own people. It took leaving and living far away to understand the degree of both external and internalized oppression, colonization, and paralysis that my people and other Indigenous Peoples in Russia currently face" [7].

Moreover, in 2004, the Russian government considered building an oil pipeline along Lake Baikal's shoreline (The Eastern Siberia-Pacific Ocean oil pipeline (ESPO pipeline), but local activists and NGO called for environmental justice (EJ) and lead a public campaign against the pipeline. Together with collaborators at Sosnovka Coalition of Environmental and Indigenous Groups of Siberia, the Baikal Environmental Wave and other activists, the EJ movement thwarted the effort to build the pipeline [4]. Rerouting the pipeline and closing the paper mill did not put an end to existential threats for Baikal, though [2].

Baikal Environmental Wave advocacy group led thousands of people into the streets of nearby Irkutsk; collected over 20,000 petition signatures; and summoned "flash mobs," which used tactics such as handing bottles of murky "Baikal water" to warn about the impact of the project. After two months of protests, the government pointedly asked the chief of state-owned oil company on TV whether an alternative route was possible. "If you are hesitating, then there is such an opportunity," he stated. The pipeline was subsequently rerouted [5] [6].

Then in 2008 the Baikal Environmental Wave organized and blocked the expansion of a state-run uranium enrichment facility at Angarsk, just 50 miles from Lake Baikal, where the Russian government was planning to import nuclear waste from around the world for reprocessing. "It is extremely dangerous for people who live in Irkutsk and along the Angara River, because underground waters move in their direction," Rikhvanova (from BEW), stated. "I don't think the government has considered the danger to the region and to Lake Baikal. They do not provide information to the public about their plans, or the possible damage" [6]

Furthermore, in November 2012, Russia passed a law requiring all NGOs to register as foreign agents if they engage in political activity and receive financial support from foreign donors. The term "foreign agent" raises concern for activist groups because of its negative Cold War connotations. Moreover, the law is seen by many in the international community as a way for the Russian government, to further repress civil society groups. A member of the Baikal Environmental Wave (BEW) NGO came under investigation when it refused to register as a foreign agent after receiving an explicit order to do so from government officials. BEW filed a complaint against the order with the prosecutor's office. When they received a response demanding that the organization register as a foreign agent, they filed a legal suit. A district court in Siberia's Irkutsk region ruled in favor of the prosecutor, ordering BEW's member to register as a foreign agent. Faced with increased government scrutiny, the BEW team are still taking steps to protect the organization's institutional assets and working hard to ensure the continuation of their important environmental work [1].

In 2013, the EJ activists celebrated another major victory when the Baikal Pulp and Paper Mill shut down after nearly half a century of polluting the lake's clear waters [2].

Today, the tourism industry is growing exponentially-the number of visitors tripled during the last decade. But tourism without adequate infrastructure for waste management, recreational facilities, and only limited environmental protection measures is not sustainable either [2].

In recent years, Mongolia has sought to expand its construction of hydroelectric dams in the northern provinces, where large watersheds connect Mongolia to the Buryat' Republic in Siberia. Since the introduction of Mongolia's Action Plan for Implementation of the Green Development Policy for the period of 2016-2030, the country has identified the river-systems in the northern provinces of Khövsgöl, Bulgan, Orkhon, and the Selenge as potential sources of hydroelectricity. These plans would have direct effects on the larger Baikal basin within Russia [8].

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Baikal, the world's largest freshwater lake (over 30,000 sq km) situated in mountainous Russian region of Siberia, north of the Mongolian border [2] [3]. The lake holds 23% of the world's unfrozen freshwater resources and 2,500 aquatic species, more than half of them endemic [3].

# data[].attributes.body
This picture shows a Buryat tribe member of the Yenisey-Angara River practicing a spiritual ritual. The Buryat have viewed the river as a sacred place for hundreds of years. Thankfully, environmental activists have succeeded at closing paper mills and other industries. Part of the Yenisey-Angara River, Lake Baikal, is the oldest lake in the world (EJOLT, n.d.).

# data[].attributes.headline
Three Solutions to Address the Yenisey-Angara River's Challenges 

# data[].attributes.subject
Three Solutions to Address the Yenisey-Angara River's Challenges 

# data[].attributes.body
This document is part of our Padlet assignment. I have expressed three ideas to help reduce climate change on the river. While there are more ideas and ways we can save this river, these are just a few.