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LED bulbs can have a range of colours for different applications.

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LEDS are now the standard for most lighting situations. Their benefits include longevity, durability, don't produce much heat, contain no mercury and can be used in remote areas with a portable generator.

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Mercury free-
more efficient
Cost effective
Light for remote areas

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LEDs used to be very expensive to produce but now silicon wafers have replaced the sapphire-based technology making the production of LEDs more cost effective.

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LED lights are directional whereas incandescent lights are spherical. This is a good feature for recessed lighting but not for table lamps.

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LEDs used to be single bulb applications however they are clustered into groups with as many as 180 bulbs per cluster and this has expanded the applications they are used for, e.g. home lighting.

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Alkali fuel
Molten carbonate
Phosphoric acid
Solid oxide

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Switching to LEDs in the US would prevent the build of 40 power plants and save hundreds of millions of tonnes of greenhouse gases being released into the atmosphere.

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Incandescent light bulbs were banned in the EU from 2009 because LEDs are far more efficient.

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LEDs were initially more expensive than CFLs (compact fluorescent lights) but last longer so better value.

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LEDs are small and very energy efficient solid bulbs.

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Long-lasting
Durable
Mercury free
Cool
Cost effective

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LED’s use

LED’s are used for bulbs and compact fluorescent lights (CFL). CFL’s are miniature versions of full sized fluorescents that screw into lamp sockets

LED’s are small, efficient, solid light bulbs that can be used around the home. There are now different lenses to allow LED’s to be used for different functions

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(light Emitting Diodes) LED’s

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One appeal is that it generates electricity with very little pollution, as much of the hydrogen and oxygen used in generating electricity ultimately combine to make a harmless byproduct (water)

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Generates electricity through a chemical reaction, contains two electrons called the anode and cathode

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Uses very little amount of plastics in the turbine worldwide

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The most popular material for solar cells is silicon. Multi crystalline silicon are less expensive to prude and it’s the most common.

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Solar cells are found in satellites/calculator. These cells covert light energy into electrical energy and comes in different sizes and shape.

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Silicon is used to manufacture the solar cells and is the most popular material the molecular structure is similar throughout all of the silicon molecules

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The point of solar cells is to ensure the most amount of sunlight can be absorbed as possible, if only a small amount of sunlight was to be able to be absorbed then there would be no point in the solar cells.

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Multi crystalline sillicon

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the most popular material that is used for solar cells is silicon.The properties of Amorphous silicon is that it is able to absorb 40 times more compared to solar radiation than a single-crystal silicon. As well as this, it can also be coated on low cost substrates such as gloves as well as plastics. Therefore this makes amorphous silicon ideal when it comes to building- integrated photovoltaic products.One limitation would be that if you want an effective photovoltaic cell the material silicon should be doped with other elements.

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Aluminium

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Semi conductors material used

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Wide range of materials are used such as rotor, blades, gearbox and generator. The materials need to be strong and endure fatigue stress cycles.

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New materials to be able to absorb more light or reduce costs for materials are in the early stages of development, when these are developed they may make it more cost effective to create the solar cells but also make them fully effective in absorbing as much light as possible.

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Turbine material is dominated by the usage of steel but opportunities exist for introducing aluminium or other light weight composites.

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Properties
- high strength, fatigue resistance materials.
- low cost materials
- AC-DC-AC cycloconvertions

Pros:

- low cost

"The cost of large wind power plants has declined to less then $0.05 kwh at good wind sites"

- accerlateing surge in the production if wind turbines.

"Wind capacity of 13 gigawatts (GW) by 2000 which has increased since 2022 to 180 GW"

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CIS (copper indium diselenide) has a high absorptivity. This means that 99% of light illuminated on the CIS will be consumed into the material.

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Thin films of polycrystalline are used to reduce materials required for the solar cells. Overall, this will help to reduce the cost of materials used in the solar cells, however it may reduce efficiency of energy conversion

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Solar cells are found in applications such as calculators and satellites. Solar cells and devices convert light energy into electrical energy. Photovoltaic cells also known as Solar cells are available in lots of different shapes and sizes. Photovoltaic modules are formed when individual photovoltaic cells are joined together.
Materials cells:
Unique materials are used for the construction of these cells, materials called semiconductors . The most commonly used material for the construction of photovoltaic cells is silicon.
The several forms of silicon used are single-crystalline, amorphous and multi- crystalline Besides this, polycrystalline thin films such as copper indium diselenide, gallium arsenide and cadmium telluride
Cadmium Telluride

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Brief overview.
Found in applications such as calculator and satellites.
Solar cells and devices convert light energy into  electrical every.
Available in different shapes and sizes.
When individual solar cells are joined, they form phtotovoltaic modules.

Materials used.
Special materials are used for the construction of photovoltaic cells.
Called semiconductors.
Commonly used semiconductor for the construction of solar cells is silicon.

Silicon- the most popular material for solar cells.
Several of the earliest photovoltaic devices have been manufactured by the use of silicon and is the most popular material for solar cells as of today.
The molecular structure of a silicon structure is uniform which is ideal to transfer of electrons efficiently through the material.

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Photovoltaic cells which are known as solar cells are found in applications such as calculators and satellites. Photovoltaic cells  and devices convert light energy into electrical energy. They are available in may shapes and sizes.
Silicon - Most popular material for solar cells.
A number of the earliest photovoltaic device have been manufactured using silicon as the solar cell material and it is still the most popular material for solar cells today. Multi crystalline silicon is normally considered less efficient than single crystal silicon. Multi crystalline silicon devices are less expensive to produce. Amorphous silicon can absorb 40 times more solar radiation than single crystal silicon.

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Photovoltaic cells
Found in calculator and satellites. It was first used only in space and now it is more common it converts light energy and electrical energy. They come in different shapes and sizes and when they are joined they form photovoltaic modules.
Silicon is the most popular material for solar cells
The molecular structure is uniform

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Can absorb 40 times more solar radiation and can reduce the cost of photovoltaics

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Silicon would need to be doped with another element, therefore can’t work by itself

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Semiconductors are materials that are used for constructing photovoltaic cells. Silicon is the most commonly used semiconductor for constructing photovoltaic cells.the forms of silicone used are single-crystalline, multi-crystalline and amorphous.
Silicon is used because the molecular structure of single-crystal silicon is uniform which is ideal for electrons to transfer efficiently through material. Silicon needs to be doped with other elements.

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Wind turbines consists of a rotor that has wing shaped blades attached to a hub; a nacelle that houses a drivetrain consisting of a geerbox, connecting shafts, support bearings, the generator, other machinery, a tower and ground mounted electrical equipment. Wind turbines come in many sizes and configuration.

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Many parts are die cast aluminium in small turbines while in large machines steel castings or forgings are needed to meet strength and structural fatigue requirements.

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Wind turbines need the materials to be strong and robust in nature to withstand harsh environmental conditions and strong winds. Therefore, they would tend to be made of tubular steel, concrete, or steel lattice.

PROPERTIES OF THE MATERIAL:

- Concrete: Durable, Dense, Fire and Impact Resistance

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Towers are made of steel and concrete.
Nacelles are made of steel, aluminium, copper, glass reinforced plastic, and permanent magnetic materials
Rotors are made of steel, glass reinforced plastic and carbon fibre reinforced plastic.

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They can come in many shapes and sizes and configurations and they can be built from a wide range of materials it consists of a rotor and has blades which are winged shaped which is attatched to a hub a gearbox which connects the the shafts and a generator and a tower.
They use low cost materials and have a high volume production while ensuring that the reliability is maintained.

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CIS fo short ha a high Absorption rate meaning 99% of light can be absorbed it can also be complained with gallium jn order to improve its efficiency

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Single-crystal Silicon
Multi-crystalline

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converts light energy into electrical energy
single crystalline, multi crystalline and amorphous
silicon is the most popular material for solar cells
multi crystalline is less efficient than single crystal silicone
it’s used for plastics and glass
-danish

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Materials used: Single crystalline, multi crystalline and amorphous silicon. Polycrystalline thin films such as copperindum diselenide, cadmium telluride and gallium arsenide.

Properties of the materials used:
Silicons molecular structure is uniform

What makes them fit for purpose:
Amorphous silicon can absorb 40 times more solar radiation than single crystal silicon

The copper indium diselenide has extremely high absorbivity and captures 99% of light illuminated.

Cadmium telluride is also very good at absorbing light to. Gallium arsenide is also very absorbent and only needs to be a few microns thick to absorb sunlight.

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In a MCFC (molten carbonate fuel cell) use a high temperature compound of salt (sodium or magnesium) they use this because it’s efficiently ranges from 60 to 80 percent , it’s high temperature  limits damage from carbon monoxide poisoning of the cell and it’s waste heat can be recycled to create more energy so it is used because it is very cost effective and very safe for home use

Use a nickel electrode catalyst which are used because they are inexpensive the high temperature also limits this fuel cell as it limits the materials of the MCFC, it’s high temps would also not be suitable for use in homes and cars , the carbonate ions are also used up in the fuels reaction so it is necessary for carbon to be injected into the cell to compensate

In a PEM (proton exchange fuel cell) they work with a polymer electrolyte in the form of a thin permeable sheet it is used because it has an efficiency of about 40 to 50 percent and its operating temperature is 80 degrees which is quite low so they can be used and are suitable for homes and cars due to the low temperature , the limitations are that the fuel must be purified before use and it’s cost is higher due to its need for a platinum catalyst that is used on both sides of the membrane

In a SOFC (solid oxide fuel cell) use a hard ceramic compound of metal (like calcium or zirconium) has an operating temperature of around 1000 degrees and has an output of 100kW , due to its high temperature a reformer a reformer is not required to extract any hydrogen from the fuel and the waste heat can be also recycled to make additional electricity this is very cost effective and functional this is why it is good to use these materials, they have limitations as their temp is too hot to be used in homes and cars so that is a limitation , the cell tends to be large too which isn’t good to fit into commercial homes or cars, and whilst they cannot leak they can crack

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Energy efficient lighting

The electricity used in the lifetime of an incandescent bulb is 5-10 the cost of the price of the bulb.

Compact Fluorescent Lights (CFL) – these are small versions of full-sized fluorescents which fix into lamp sockets to give off similar light to an incandescent bulb. They are not like the fluorescent lighting in factories and schools.

Light Emitting Diodes (LED) – these are solid light bulbs that are highly efficient solid bulbs, smaller than an incandescent bulb. New LEDs are grouped in clusters with diffuser lenses, which spreads the light in wider beams and increases the application of LEDs use in houses. The technology is advancing with new bulb styles being created. The first clustered bulbs were used for battery-powered items light flashlights and headlamps. They are now fitted with standard bases which fit common light fixtures in households. They are more expensive than CFL’s and LED’s but have a better value as they last a long time. The US department of energy states the adoption of LED bulbs will save millions of tons of greenhouse gases from entering the atmosphere. A feature of the bulbs is that they are directional, that is different to an incandescent bulb which spreads the light spherically. This is useful for recessed or under cabinet lighting but not useful for table lamps. The directional limitation has been addressed with diffuser lenses and reflectors, so the light is dispersed like incandescent bulbs. High production costs of LEDs has reduced their wide use but researchers have made a process that uses inexpensive silicon wafers to replace the sapphire based technology, which has made LEDs have competitive prices with CFLs and incandescent bulbs. They are now the standard for most lighting in houses.

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molten carbonate fuel cells use high temperature compounds of salt (Na or Mg) carbonates as the electrolyte. these would have high melting points. efficiency ranges from 60 to 80 percent & operating temperatures is about 650 degrees C. nickel electrodes are able to conduct electricity and are inexpensive compared to other options such as platinum. high temperature limits damage from carbon monoxide poisoning of cell and waste heat which can be recycled to make additional electricity.

phosphoric acid fuel cells use phosphoric acid as the electrolyte.

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Silicon is very often used in solar panels as a semiconductor because it is a cost-efficient material that offers good energy efficiency. Other than that it has high corrosion resistance, long-term durability, optimal thermal expansion properties, good photoconductivity, and low toxicity.

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Prestressed concrete towers will likely be used more. To do the will require a substantial amount of steel to reinforce it.

Low cost material are important in towers as the towers makes up around 65% of the entente weight of the turbine. Because of this, prestressed concrete is beginning to be used more in European turbines. Especially in one that are offshore or near shore applications.

Using concrete in towers can results in lowering the cost but may require just as much steel to reinforce it that would be used in an entire steel tower.

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(PV) cells is that they are made from a material that is rarely found in nature in the pure, elemental form needed

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Limitation of cadmium telluride: lower efficiency levels and CdTe is toxic

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The turbine material that is mainly used is steel but aluminium and other light composites may be used in the future if they can provide the strength/fatigue requirements.

The blades are primarily made from Glass Reinforced Plastic (GPR), this will likely continue. However, Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic (CFRP) could be an alternative as it would reduce the weight and cost.

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Fuel cells contain two electrodes, an anode and a cathode, an electrolyte to carry a charge between the electrodes and hydrogen and oxygen. These elecrodes are made of carbon and a metal such as nickel. These materials are good conductors of electricity and heat.

Fuel cells generate energy via chemical reactions. Hydrogen atoms are needed for fuel cells to work because they have a positive charge when they become ionised after entering the cell.

Oxygen atoms combine with the hydrogen ions.

Limitations
One limitation of fuel cells is that they do not generate much electricity so you would need lots of them to generate enough electricity to power something.

Benefits
.Fuel cells do not produce much pollution
.Fuel cells are very efficient

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Cadamium telluride: has high absorbtivity and low cost. Properties can be altered when adding alloy elements such as Mercury and zinc.

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Material used: silicon is the most popular one used but can have 3 types: single crystal silicone- ideal for transferring electrons efficiently. Multi crystalline silicone - less efficient but not expensive to produce. Amorphous silicone - can absorb more solar radiation (40 times ) more than single crystal silicon, its used because it can reduce PV cost