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This module offers an overview of assistive technology (AT) with a focus on students with high-incidence disabilities such as learning disabilities and ADHD. It explores the consideration process, implementation, and evaluation of AT for these students (est. completion time: 2.5 hours).

Work through the sections of this module in the order presented in the STAR graphic above.

Related to this module

Copyright 2023 Vanderbilt University. All rights reserved.

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This module offers an overview of assistive technology (AT) with a focus on students with high-incidence disabilities such as learning disabilities and ADHD. It explores the consideration process, implementation, and evaluation of AT for these students (est. completion time: 2.5 hours). Work through the sections of this module in the order presented in the STAR graphic above.

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Works across all websites, tools and devices.

Get suggestions from Ginger while posting a Tweet, writing on Gmail,
drafting a Word document, and anywhere you write!

Add to Chrome It's free Add to Microsoft Edge It's free Add to Safari It's free Download for Mac It's free Download for Windows It's free

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Ginger Software | English Grammar & Writing App

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Get suggestions from Ginger while posting a Tweet, writing on Gmail, drafting a Word document, and anywhere you write! Add to Chrome It's free Add to Microsoft Edge It's free Add to Safari It's free Download for Mac It's free Download for Windows It's free

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Welcome to TechMatrix!

Search a database of nearly 400 products using extensive criteria tailored to assistive and educational technologies.

Compare up to four products across search criteria.

Read related research articles on the theory and practice of using technology to improve student learning.

Featured Resources

Consumer Guides

These simple and easy-to-use Consumer Guides (PDF) are decision support tools help school administrators and educational technology vendors learn what questions to ask and how to make informed decisions related to education technology.

School administrators can use this tool as a one-stop resource to becoming informed on the subject of assistive technology.

Elevate Your Professional Learning with PowerUp

If you are a teacher, principal, school leader, PD coordinator, or teacher educator, PowerUp offers you customizable resources to improve teaching and learning for struggling students and those with disabilities.
www.powerupwhatworks.org
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Search a database of nearly 400 products using extensive criteria tailored to assistive and educational technologies. Compare up to four products across search criteria. Read related research articles on the theory and practice of using technology to improve student learning.

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Use Memo to Me at home to remind yourself and your family about important occasions.

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Use Memo to Me at home to remind yourself and your family about important occasions. Remind yourself about your anniversary Use Memo to Me at work to remind yourself and your co-workers about meetings and deadlines. Remind yourself about a meeting with a client on Friday Get your Memo to Me reminders even when you're away from your computer!

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Bookshare is free for U.S. schools that support students with qualifying disabilities: K-12 public and private schools, colleges and universities, trade schools, Perkins School for the Blind, and Hadley School for the Blind. Qualified U.S. students can also sign up for free Individual Memberships.

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The following Free or Low-Cost Assistive Technology software programs are available for anyone to use. The following programs, software, websites, and apps focus on different forms of Dictation/Speech-to-Text/Speech Recognition Support.

Dictation/Speech-to-Text/Speech Recognition:

Dictation for Gmail
Features:
Cost: Free

Compatibility: Chrome extension

Dictation.io
Features:
Cost: Free

Compatibility: Online Web Application for Chrome Browser

Dragon Anywhere
Features:
Cost: Free trial for seven days, $15/month after seven days

Compatibility: iOS: iPad, iPhone, iPod Touch

GBoard
Features:
Cost: Free

Compatibility: iOS: iPad, iPhone; Android

LipSurf
Features:

Voice Control for the Web

Works within the web browser for Google Docs, webpages, Gmail, and more

Open Source Plugins

Customizable shortcuts

It stays offline when you are not using the program to respect privacy of users

More Information: https://www.lipsurf.com/

Cost: Free, Plus ($3/month), and Premium ($6/month) Options

Compatibility: Chrome Extension

ListNote
Features:
Cost: Free

Compatibility: Android

Speechnotes
Features:

Speech to text tool only for dictation

Offers a distraction-free environment

Allows for the ability to create new sessions, save to Google Drive, email, save to computer, and print

Zoom options available

More Information: https://speechnotes.co/

Cost: Free

Compatibility: Online Web Application for Chrome Browser

Speech Recognizer
Features:
Cost: Free

Compatibility: Online Web Application for Chrome Browser

VoiceNote
Features:
Cost: Free

Compatibility: iOS: iPad, iPhone, iPod Touch

Voice Control for Mac, iPad, iPhone
Features:
Cost: Free

Compatibility: Mac, iOS: iPad, iPhone

Voice Recognition in Windows 10
Features:
Cost: Free

Compatibility: Built-In to Windows Operating System

Voice Typing in Google Docs
Features:

Go into your Tools menu in Google Docs and select Voice Typing

Click on the microphone that pops up and start talking

Your text will be entered into the typing field

Correct mistakes without moving your cursor

No training needed

More Information: https://goo.gl/bQfLtg3

Cost: Free

Compatibility: Built-In Chrome Browser Option

Download a printable copy with live links of the list of Free and Low-Cost Assistive Technology for Notetaking AT Support, please click on the following link: Dictation AT

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The following Free or Low-Cost Assistive Technology software programs are available for anyone to use. The following programs, software, websites, and apps focus on different forms of Dictation/Speech-to-Text/Speech Recognition Support. Dictation/Speech-to-Text/Speech Recognition: Dictation for Gmail Features: Speech-to-text Chrome extension to assist with dictating emails Built into Gmail account Supports 60 languages More Information: https://chrome.google.com/webstore/detail/dictation-for-gmail/eggdmhdpffgikgakkfojgiledkekfdce?hl=en-US Cost: Free ...

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Log in or register to find out your implicit associations about race, gender, sexual orientation, and other topics!

Or, continue as a guest by selecting from our available language/nation demonstration sites:

GO!

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Log in or register to find out your implicit associations about race, gender, sexual orientation, and other topics! Or, continue as a guest by selecting from our available language/nation demonstration sites: GO!

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Last month, I reviewed Zaretta Hammond's fantastic book, Culturally Responsive Teaching and the Brain. Now I'm proud to have Zaretta here as a guest writer to share some specific strategies with us.

Culturally responsive teaching. Everybody is talking about it. The big question is: How do you actually make lessons culturally responsive? That comes up regularly when I am working with groups of teachers to improve outcomes for diverse students who are struggling. I remember working with a group of sixth grade teachers on improving learning for their at-risk students. These teachers were frustrated that their students, 95 percent of them students of color and English language learners, were not applying themselves to learning.

I suggested that we explore making lessons more culturally relevant in order to accelerate student learning. I remember the reaction of Janice, the science teacher. "I am not going to be rappin' about the periodic table," she said defiantly as she crossed her arms and sat back in her chair.

I couldn't blame her. Google "culturally responsive teaching" and you can find a dozen videos of well-meaning teachers leading some call-and-response chant about exponents or rapping about the Boston Tea Party while students sit back and giggle. That's because we usually talk about culturally responsive teaching only as an engagement strategy designed to motivate at-risk students to take learning seriously. Or we try to find a race-based connection to the content to make it "relevant" to minority students.

One of the biggest misconceptions about culturally responsive teaching is thinking you have to tie the lesson's content to African American or Latino students' racial background. The common belief is if you mention Africa, Mexico, or famous black and brown high achievers, it will spark students' attention. Then they will be motivated to participate.

In reality, culturally responsive teaching is less about using racial pride as a motivator and more about mimicking students' cultural learning styles and tools. These are the strategies their moms, dads, grandmas, and other community folks use to teach them life skills and basic concepts long before they come to school and during out-of-school time.

Culturally responsive teaching leverages the brain's memory systems and information processing structures. Why? Many diverse students come from oral cultural traditions. This means their primary ways of knowledge transfer and meaning-making are oral and active. It's a common cultural tradition that cuts across racial groups: African American, Latino, Southeast Asian, and Pacific Islander communities all have strong oral cultures. Each of these cultural groups uses the brain's memory systems for turning inert information into useable knowledge. They use memory strategies to make learning sticky, like connecting what needs to be remembered to a rhythm or music (that's why we still know the ABC song) or by reciting it in fun ways like a poem, riddle, or limerick.

I asked Janice what area of learning she wanted to help her kids improve. She said science vocabulary; they weren't learning the weekly words and it was getting in the way of their understanding of key concepts. She was frustrated and at the end of her rope. I asked how she was teaching it. She used the typical approach: On Monday, she listed the words on the board. Students copied them down and were required to look each word up and use it in a sentence. On Wednesday, there was a vocabulary test.

I suggested that we design word study to be more culturally responsive by making it more like the students' own cultural learning process. She was open for trying something different.

I offered her these three tips for transforming any lesson into something that looked and felt more culturally responsive to diverse students, something that would allow them to engage more and process the content effectively.

Games are the power strategy for culturally-grounded learning because they get the brain's attention and require active processing. Attention is the first step in learning. We cannot learn, remember, or understand what we don't first pay attention to. Call and response is just a way to get the brain's attention. Most games employ a lot of the cultural tools you'd find in oral traditions - repetition, solving a puzzle, making connections between things that don't seem to be related (Ever play Taboo or Apples to Apples?).

Organizing learning so that students rely on each other will build on diverse students' communal orientation. This communal orientation can be summed up in the African proverb, "I am because we are." Even making learning slightly competitive in a good-natured way increases students' level of attention and engagement. It's why the T.V. show Survivor has been around for so many years; it's a social-based game.

The brain is wired to remember stories and to use the story structure to make sense of the world. That's why every culture has creation stories. In oral traditions, stories play a bigger role in teaching lessons about manners, morality, or simply what plants to eat or not eat in the wilderness because it's the way content is remembered. Diverse students (and all students, really) learn content more effectively if they can create a coherent narrative about the topic or process presented. That's the brain's way of weaving it all together. (Bonus: It also offers a great way to check for understanding and correct misconceptions.)

So Janice took her weekly list of science vocabulary and created a variety of sorting and matching games for students. She built a set of simple card games based on Go Fish or Old Maid. In addition she created some team games. Each week students had different active ways to learn the vocabulary. For 10-15 minutes a couple of times during the week, students got to play these learning games rather than look up words in a dictionary. She gave them instructions for making the games at home if they wanted to.

Instead of the traditional weekly vocab test, she asked them to "storify" their understanding of key concept words like metamorphosis, using vocabulary from past weeks.

When I checked in with the group a few weeks later, she was the first one to share. She said student engagement was like night and day. Now all students were participating. She said she knew they were learning the vocabulary at a deeper level because they were actually using the new science terms during discussions and in their writing with no prompting from her.

The big A-ha's for the group that day were that (1) Culturally responsive teaching doesn't have to be some performance the teacher does to entertain students and (2) It doesn't have to mention race or reference culture at all. Instead, what makes a practice culturally responsive is that it mimics students' own cultural learning tools. They all realized that these practices are helpful for all students, not targeted at minority students.

The real trick is to use these strategies regularly as part of your instructional routine rather than doing them randomly every now and then. Consistency is the key. ♦

Learn more about how to improve diverse students' information processing skills and actually grow their brains in Zaretta Hammond's book, Culturally Responsive Teaching and The Brain: Promoting Authentic Engagement and Rigor Among Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students .

Stick around.
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3 Tips to Make Any Lesson More Culturally Responsive

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Google "culturally responsive teaching" and you can find a dozen videos of well-meaning teachers leading some call-and-response chant about exponents or rapping about the Boston Tea Party while students sit back and giggle.

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This collection holds materials from the Education Alliance at Brown University. The Education Alliance was a reform support organization committed to advancing equitable educational opportunities that prepare all student populations to succeed in the 21st century. From 1975-2021, the Alliance partnered with schools, districts and state departments of education to apply research findings in developing solutions to educational challenges. Its mission was to enhance learning for culturally and linguistically diverse students and focused on district and school improvement with special attention to underperformance and issues of equity and diversity. DOI: https://doi.org/10.26300/7eez-dz04

The Education Alliance archived website can be found here

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Brown Digital Repository | Collection | The Education ...

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This collection holds materials from the Education Alliance at Brown University. The Education Alliance was a reform support organization committed to advancing equitable educational opportunities that prepare all student populations to succeed in the 21st century. From 1975-2021, the Alliance partnered with schools, districts and state departments of education to apply research findings in developing solutions to educational challenges.

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Abolitionist Teaching Network's mission is simple: develop and support educators to fight injustice within their schools and communities. Utilizing the intellectual work and direct action of Abolitionists in many forms, including community organizers, educators, parents, social workers, counselors, lawyers, therapists, artists, health care providers, and incarcerated folx, we will organize and take action for educational freedom.

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Abolitionist Teaching Network's mission is simple: develop and support educators to fight injustice within their schools and communities. Utilizing the intellectual work and direct action of Abolitionists in many forms, including community organizers, educators, parents, social workers, counselors, lawyers, therapists, artists, health care providers, and incarcerated folx, we will organize and take action for educational freedom.

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January 18th is Martin Luther King (MLK) Day, a federal holiday celebrating the birthday of Martin Luther King Jr. Only since 2000 have all 50 states honored the date. Schools often have speakers to remind students what MLK stood for. When we heard about the opportunity to have Dr. Bettina Love, the author of We Want to do More than Survive, give a virtual lecture at Luther on MLK Day, we were very excited. We have heard her speak on panels and TED talks, and have taught her texts. Dr. King would agree with her premise to pursue educational freedom through abolitionist teaching. But what is abolitionist teaching? And what does it have to do with three white identified instructors? How is abolitionist teaching applicable to a primarily white institution of higher education? What does it have to do with you? And me?

Abolitionist teaching is teaching for freedom. Before we go any farther, it's important to know that it is freedom for all, not just freedom for Black folk; but that is where it starts. Abolitionist teaching shows that we need to reframe education for all, so that Black and Brown kids feel welcome, are able to learn and grow and discover, and can be seen in their full humanity.

To us, this reframing of education means changing the way we teach. Beyond teaching, it means creating a new way of life. We have been in too many workshops and seminars and listened to speakers where the message is understood as "add an inclusive teaching statement on your syllabus," or "add an author of color." And some faculty believe that such workshops or messages are not for me, not my expertise or area. Abolitionist teaching is not about a tweak or adjustment to your teaching, nor is it just for peoples of color or for professors of color, and/or white liberals. Abolitionist teaching is about all of us, about the whole system of education, and all educators. It's about all the students in our classrooms. It's about the whole institution. It's about you, and it's about me.

Dr. Love will challenge us all to be co-conspirators in struggle and activists for change, for that is the only way that meaningful change will actually happen. Transformation of the system is going to take all of us being willing to stop oppressing others, to stop participating in systemic racism, to stop participating in white supremacy in all its forms, and to take a stand that Black lives matter.

Abolitionist teaching, then, operates at a number of levels:

1. It requires us to think about what we can do now within an educational system of which Luther College is a part that was and is created, reproduced, and sustained by racist policies and white supremacy ideology (a system, by the way, that we work in, get paid by, receive accolades from).

2. As mentioned above, it insists that we (white people) confront our own racism and privilege; it insists that we decenter whiteness even, and perhaps most explicitly, in classrooms that are made up of all white students taught by those who identify as white.

3. Though it may take years (as Love says), it obliges us to tear down the system as a whole--to abolish it--and to reconceive education/learning differently, replacing it with another model (perhaps one based on what Ruth Wilson Gilmore calls "pop up" universities).

4. It compels us to create learning environments wherein students are not only heard, but also learn how to resist, protest, and struggle against injustice, against white supremacy; that is, it compels us to offer a real civics education, one that does not only teach "here are the three branches of government."

5. It engenders joy--joy in the struggle; joy in and with communities that struggle.

Practically, for the three of us, abolitionist teaching means seeing every student in the room, to know them as best we can. It causes us to value where every student in each classroom is coming from, to see the assets that each of them brings, to nurture and expand their knowledge. It means accepting that I do not know everything, that I will make mistakes, that one size does not fit all. It means being open and curious about everything and everyone. It means being willing to challenge my role as a white identified person and a white teacher in a radically unjust educational system. It means loving my students, all of my students, not just loving my job to teach them. And it means challenging that system that denies some of our students, and some of our colleagues, their full humanity and in doing so diminishes the humanity of all of us.

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What Does Abolitionist Teaching Have to Do With Me?

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January 18th is Martin Luther King (MLK) Day, a federal holiday celebrating the birthday of Martin Luther King Jr. Only since 2000 have all 50 states honored the date. Schools often have speakers to remind students what MLK stood for.

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By: Rachel Brown, Ph.D., NCSP

The term "evidence-based" has become very popular in schools and other professional service settings. For example, physicians and dentists now often refer to the importance of evidence-based practices. Since the passage of the 2001 revision of the U.S. Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), teachers have been expected to use only evidence-based teaching practices, or something very similar such as empirically-based or scientifically-based instruction. Although this requirement has become almost universal, the exact meaning of evidence-based instruction is not always clear. The Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), a major rewrite of the much-maligned No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), is the first federal education law to define the term "evidence-based" and to distinguish between activities with "strong," "moderate," and "promising" support based on the strength of existing research. So, what, exactly, is evidence-based instruction?

Researchers have used terms such as evidence-based, empirical, and scientifically-valid for many years. Nonetheless, the application of such terms in public education was limited until 2001 when the ESEA was reauthorized in a version known as the NCLB. The ESEA is a law that makes federal funds for public education available to states and school districts if they comply with the provisions of the law. The NCLB version of the law expanded the scope of federal influence in public education by requiring states to collect more student data and show that students were meeting specific learning standards in order to have access to specific funding sources (NCLB, 2002). It is worth noting that the NCLB did not use the term evidence-based, but instead used the term scientifically-based. Here is the definition of scientifically-based instruction from the NCLB Act (2002):

SCIENTIFICALLY BASED RESEARCH.- The term 'scientifically based research'-

1. means research that involves the application of rigorous, systematic, and objective procedures to obtain reliable and valid knowledge relevant to education activities and programs; and

2. includes research that-

(i) employs systematic, empirical methods that draw on observation or experiment;

(ii) involves rigorous data analyses that are adequate to test the stated hypotheses and justify the general conclusions drawn;

(iii) relies on measurements or observational methods that provide reliable and valid data across evaluators and observers, across multiple measurements and observations, and across studies by the same or different investigators;

(iv) is evaluated using experimental or quasi-experimental designs in which individuals, entities, programs, or activities are assigned to different conditions and with appropriate controls to evaluate the effects of the condition of interest, with a preference for random-assignment experiments, or other designs to the extent that those designs contain within-condition or across-condition controls;

(v) ensures that experimental studies are presented in sufficient detail and clarity to allow for replication or, at a minimum, offer the opportunity to build systematically on their findings; and

(vi) has been accepted by a peer-reviewed journal or approved by a panel of independent experts through a comparably rigorous, objective, and scientific review.

The above definition is quite detailed and perhaps overwhelming. This is part of the reason why researchers and teachers have developed their own operational definitions. To be helpful, classroom teachers and school leaders need to understand and use evidence-based, scientifically-based, or whatever term will be used, with integrity and consistency.

Variations
Among the variations on evidence-based instruction are the terms scientifically-based, research-based, and empirically-based. There are others as well, but for this blog, I offer the two following condensed definitions (see also Brown-Chidsey & Bickford, 2016):

Scientifically-based instruction includes materials and methods that have been tested and found to be effective in relation to the specific research questions addressed by an individual study that uses experimental methods.

Evidence-based instruction includes materials and methods that have been tested and found to be effective for large groups of diverse students and across two or more experimental research studies.

For the purpose of this blog, the terms empirically-based and research-based are understood to mean the same thing as scientifically-based. The difference between scientifically-based and evidence-based instruction is that the former has supporting research from one study with a specific sample, and the latter has support research from two or more studies with diverse samples. This distinction is important because how well an instructional program will work for students relates to the extent it has been tested and verified as effective with multiple large groups of students. For this reason, the process that a school uses to review and adopt instructional materials is very important.

The selection of instructional materials and methods for use with large and small groups of students is likely to have an effect on those students' learning outcomes. Although different terms have been used to describe practices with some form of research base, these terms might not all mean the same thing. When schools consider what instructional practices to use, the amount of prior data, as well as the specific findings, can be important. Curriculum review teams are encouraged to carefully consider both the scientific findings and number of studies available when making decisions about instructional practices. In many U.S. schools, the materials and methods used for general classroom instruction (i.e., Tier 1 core instruction) must be approved by a district-wide committee and formally adopted by the district school committee or board. The rationale for such approval is that core instruction is used with all students, thus it has large effects. For this reason, very careful scrutiny of the practices adopted for core instruction is essential. As defined here, evidence-based instruction is likely to have a larger and stronger research base than scientifically-based instruction. The same principles apply to instruction for small groups and individual students, but the effects are much more limited for small groups and individuals. For this reason, when evidence-based instruction is not available for additional intensive instruction (i.e., intervention), short-term use and progress monitoring with a scientifically-based program might be justified. In such cases, it is important that regular data about the students' progress are collected and reviewed so that the instruction can be changed if the students do not make effective progress.

Although the terms evidence-based, research-based, and scientifically-based instruction might seem synonymous, the educational research community has recently provided more detailed definitions. As explained here, the terms empirically-based, research-based, and scientifically-based are all usually interpreted to mean that the practice has been shown to be effective with one group of specific students in one setting. In contrast, the term evidence-based is understood to mean that a particular practice has been shown to be effective in two or more studies with different groups and settings of students. For this reason, evidence-based instruction is more likely to work with students across more varied schools and settings. School leaders, including teachers, principals, superintendents, and board members are encouraged to think carefully about the programs and practices they endorse for use with large and small groups of students. Their decisions are likely to have lasting effects on student learning outcomes.

References
Brown-Chidsey, R. & Bickford, R. (2016). Practical handbook of multi-tiered systems of support: Building academic and behavioral success in schools . New York: Guilford Press.

No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, P.L. 107-110, 20 U.S.C. § 6319 (2002).

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By: Rachel Brown, Ph.D., NCSP The term "evidence-based" has become very popular in schools and other professional service settings. For example, physicians and dentists now often refer to the importance of evidence-based practices. Since the passage of the 2001 revision of the U.S.

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Evidence Based Teaching Strategies | Clemson University, South Carolina

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As an initiative of the U.S. Department of Education’s Institute of Education Sciences (IES), the What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) was created in 2002 to be a central and trusted source of scientific evidence for what works in education.

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Evidenced-based practices are those "effective educational strategies supported by evidence and research" (ESEA, 2002). When teachers use evidence-based practices with fidelity, they can be confident their teaching is likely to support student learning and achievement of CCRS. Teachers also use formative assessments to monitor the effectiveness of their teaching practice and make modifications as necessary.

Explore the resources below for further information on identifying, selecting and using evidence-based practices and then, evidence-based strategies for teaching English Language Arts, Math, and Science.

The IRIS Center offers a free Evidence-Based Practice (EBP) Module series that takes education professionals through the step-by-process of identifying, selecting, implementing, and evaluating evidence-based practices, including procedures for scenarios when the research is insufficient."

This Module discusses the importance of identifying and selecting evidence-based practices and answers questions such as:

What is an evidence-based practice or program?

What trustworthy sources can I use to find EBPs?

How do I know which EBP to use when multiple practices or programs seem to meet my needs?

What do I do if I can't find an EBP that seems suited to my needs?

This Module discusses implementing an evidence-based practice or program with fidelity, and offers notes and cautions about how and under what circumstances adaptations might be appropriate. More specifically, it answers questions such as:

What is fidelity of implementation?

How can I implement an EBP with fidelity?

I usually adapt strategies and practices to make them work with my students. Is anything wrong with that?

This Module examines how to evaluate whether an evidence-based practice is effective for the young children or students with whom you are working and provides information about assuring fidelity of implementation. In particular, it answers questions such as:

How can I tell whether an EBP is effective for my students?

How can I determine whether my students are improving?

How do I know whether I'm implementing an EBP correctly?

What does all this data mean and how can I use it?

Link to website: ( http://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu or http://iriscenter.com)

NCII has created an Academic Intervention Tools Chart that assists educators and families in becoming informed consumers who can select academic intervention programs that best meet their individual needs. This tools chart presents information about studies that have been conducted about academic intervention programs.

The U.S. Department of Educationprovides a PowerPoint description of explicit and systematic phonics instruction:

NTACT provides reviews of the literature regarding effective academic instruction in middle and high schools in specific content areas of English/Language Arts, Mathematics, Science, and Social Studies. They also provide a resource list of Research-Based Practices.

Math

English Language Arts

Improving Writing Performance: A Strategy for Writing Persuasive Essays: This Module highlights the differences between students who write well and those who struggle. Elements of the writing process are discussed, as are the prerequisite skills students need to write good papers. The module outlines and describes the process for teaching students a writing strategy to help them produce better persuasive essays.

Written Expression: Grades 2-5: This Case Study offers information about writing strategies that will benefit those students who struggle with written expression, helping them to feel less anxious or frustrated when faced with a writing assignment.

Science

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Evidenced-based practices are those "effective educational strategies supported by evidence and research" (ESEA, 2002). When teachers use evidence-based practices with fidelity, they can be confident their teaching is likely to support student learning and achievement of CCRS. Teachers also use formative assessments to monitor the effectiveness of their teaching practice and make modifications as necessary.

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University of Hawaii 3/6/2011
Sources reviewed (i.e., Best Evidence Encyclopedia, journal articles, National Autism Center, National Center on Response to Intervention, National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorders, National Secondary Transition Technical Assistance Center, Promising Practices Network, What Works Clearinghouse) apply standards related to research design, methodological quality, quantity, and magnitude of effect of supporting research to identify effective or evidence-based practices for children and youth with disabilities.

I briefly review identified sources related to: name of organization and website, general purpose of organization, categorization scheme, specific evidence-based practices for children and youth with disabilities, additional features of website/ source. See websites for specific information on standards applied.
Best Evidence Encyclopedia http://www.bestevidence.org/ General
"The Best Evidence Encyclopedia is a free web site created by the Johns Hopkins University School of Education's Center for Data-Driven Reform in Education (CDDRE) under funding from the Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. It is intended to give educators and researchers fair and useful information about the strength of the evidence supporting a variety of programs available for students in grades K-12.
Categories
Practices are categorized as having strong, moderate, or limited (with strong evidence of modest effects, or with weak evidence of notable effects) effects.
Evidence-based Practices
Of particular relevance for special educators, one of the areas of review reported on the BEE is "struggling readers." The BEE identifies 8 programs as having strong evidence of effectiveness:

- Success for All

- Direct Instruction/ Corrective Reading

- Peer Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS)

- Reading Recovery

- Targeted Reading Intervention

- Quick Reads

- One-to-One Teacher Tutoring with Phonics Emphasis

- One-to-One Paraprofessional/ Volunteer Tutoring with Phonics Emphasis
Additional Features
Email contacts and website URLs are provided for each EBP. Links to Educator's Summaries or Guides, with details on the reviews conducted for each topic area (including effect sizes), are provided.
Journal Articles General
A variety of author teams have employed the standards proposed by Gersten et al. (2005) and Horner et al. (2005) for identifying evidence-based practices in special education on the basis of group experimental and single-subject research studies, respectively.
Categories
Gersten et al. (2005) provided standards to categorize practices as evidence-based and promising on the basis of group experimental research.

Horner et al. (2005) provided standards to categorize practices as evidence-based (or not evidence-based) on the basis of single-subject research.
Evidence-based Practices (with article reference)

Cognitive strategy instruction found to be an evidence-based practice for reading comprehension of expository text for students with LD.

Jitendra, A. K., Burgess, C., & Gajria, M. (2011). Cognitive strategy instruction for improving expository text comprehension of students with learning disabilities: The quality of evidence. Exceptional Children, 77, 135-159.

Self regulated strategy development (SRSD) for writing found to be an evidence-based practice for writing for students with or at-risk of LD.

Baker, S. K., Chard, D. J., Ketterlin-Geller, L. R., Apichatabutra, C., & Doabler, C. (2009). Teaching writing to at-risk students: The quality of evidence for self-regulated strategy development. Exceptional Children, 75, 303-320.

Time delay found to be an evidence-based practice for literacy for students with severe developmental disabilities.

Browder, D., Ahlgrim-Delzell, L., Spooner, F., Mims, P. J., & Baker, J. N. (2009). Using time delay to teach literacy to students with severe developmental disabilities. Exceptional Children, 75, 343-364.

Using a reduced set of quality indicators, found time delay (for sight word vocabulary and fluency) and pictures (for reading comprehension) as EBPs.

Browder, D. M., Wakeman, S. Y., Spooner, F., Ahlgrim-Delzell, L., & Algozzine, B. (2006), Research on reading instruction for individuals with significant cognitive disabilities. Exceptional Children, 72, 392-408.
Additional Features
Articles provided definitions and descriptions of practices, as well as descriptions of and references for research studies reviewed.
National Autism Center
http://www.nationalautismcenter.org/affiliates/reports.php
General
"The National Autism Center is May Institute's center for the promotion of evidence-based practice. It is a nonprofit organization dedicated to serving children and adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) by providing reliable information, promoting best practices, and offering comprehensive resources for families, practitioners, and communities.

In 2009, the National Autism Center completed an unprecedented multi-year project - the National Standards Project - to establish a set of standards for effective, research-validated educational and behavioral interventions for children on the spectrum. These standards identify treatments that effectively target the core symptoms of ASD."
Categories
The NAC identifies practices as established, emerging, unestablished, ineffective, and harmful.
Evidence-based Practices
Established Treatments:

Antecedent Package

Behavioral Package

Comprehensive Behavioral Treatment for Young Children

Joint Attention Intervention

Modeling

Naturalistic Teaching Strategies

Peer Training Package

Pivotal Response Treatment

Schedules

Self-management

Story-based Intervention Package

Emerging Treatments:

Augmentative and Alternative Communication Device

Cognitive Behavioral Intervention Package

Developmental Relationship-based Treatment

Exercise

Exposure Package

Imitation-based Interaction

Initiation Training

Language Training (Production)

Language Training (Production & Understanding)

Massage/Touch Therapy

Multi-component Package

Music Therapy

Peer-mediated Instructional Arrangement

Picture Exchange Communication System

Reductive Package

Scripting

Sign Instruction

Social Communication Intervention

Social Skills Package

Structured Teaching

Technology-based Treatment

Theory of Mind Training
Additional Features
Summary tables for each of the reviewed practices in the National Standards Report include treatment definition, skills increased and (undesirable) behaviors decreased by the treatment in the research, age range with which the treatment is effective, and diagnosis classification (i.e., autistic disorder, Asperger's syndrome, PDD-NOS).

The Evidence-Based Practice and Autism in the Schools Educator Manual (http://www.nationalautismcenter.org/pdf/NAC%20Ed%20Manual_FINAL.pdf) provides information on understanding Autism Spectrum Disorders, integrating professional judgments and data-based decision-making, incorporating family values and preferences, building and sustaining capacity to deliver treatments that work, and definitions and descriptions of each of the 11 established treatments.
National Center on Response to Intervention http://www.rti4success.org/ General
"The American Institutes for Research and researchers from Vanderbilt University and the University of Kansas - through funding from the U.S. Department of Education's Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP) - have established the National Center on response to intervention. The Center's mission is to provide technical assistance to states and districts and building the capacity of states to assist districts in implementing proven models for RTI/EIS [early intervening services]."
Categories
The NCRTI does not categorize practices as evidence-based per se. Rather, the center rates various elements of studies on interventions that might be used as part of RTI (i.e., participants, research design, fidelity of implementation, and measures). Evidence related to participants is rated as convincing or unconvincing, whereas evidence for the other elements are rated as convincing, partially convincing, or unconvincing.

Additionally, information on effect sizes for reviewed studies are provided (i.e., number of outcome measures, mean effect sizes based on adjusted and unadjusted posttests, availability of disaggregated data).

Consumers can then determine the quality and level of research support for a particular practice based on this information.
Evidence-based Practices
- Stepping Stones to Literacy (2 studies rated as having convincing evidence across all areas with moderate/large effects for reading outcomes)

- Self-regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) for Writing (1 study rated as having convincing evidence across all areas; 2 other studies rated as having a partially convincing design but all other areas convincing with moderate to large effect sizes)

- Sound Partners Kindergarten (1 study rated as having convincing evidence across all areas; 1 study rated as having a partially convincing design but all other areas convincing with small to moderate effect sizes)
Additional Features
Provides information on each program/ practice related to descriptive information (general overview of how to implement the practice), usage (with whom and where the practice has been implemented), acquisition and cost, program specifications and requirements, and training. Citations for research studies reviewed provided. Site also includes ratings for progress monitoring and screening tools that can be used in RtI.
National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorders
http://autismpdc.fpg.unc.edu/content/evidence-based-practices
General
"The National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorders is a multi-university center to promote the use of evidence-based practice for children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. The Center operates through three sites that include the FPG Child Development Institute at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, the M.I.N.D. Institute at University of California at Davis Medical School, and the Waisman Center at the University of Wisconsin at Madison. Each year, three states are selected through a competitive application process for a two-year partnership with the Professional Development Center. The Center works in coordination with each state's Department of Education, Part C agency, and University Center for Excellence in Developmental Disabilities to provide professional development to teachers and practitioners who serve individuals from birth through twenty-two years with autism spectrum disorders."
Categories
The NPDC on ASD uses a threshold approach in which practices are identified as EBPs or not.
Evidence-based Practices
* Antecedent-Based Interventions (ABI)

* Computer-Aided Instruction

* Differential Reinforcement

* Discrete Trial Training

* Extinction

* Functional Behavior Assessment

* Functional Communication Training

* Naturalistic Intervention

* Parent-Implemented Interventions

* Peer-Mediated Instruction and Intervention

* Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS)

* Pivotal Response Training

* Prompting

* Reinforcement

* Response Interruption/Redirection

* Self-Management

* Social Narratives

* Social Skills Groups

* Speech Generating Devices/VOCA

* Structured Work Systems

* Task Analysis

* Time Delay

* Video Modeling

* Visual Supports
Additional Features
After completing the free registration process at http://www.autisminternetmodules.org/user_reg.php, users can access autism internet modules that contain various information (e.g., videos) about the EBPs.

Links provided to EBP Briefs, which provide (a) an overview of the EBP (e.g., number of studies meeting criteria, age range for which EBP has been found to be effective in supporting research, skills or intervention goals addressed by the EBP in research, settings in which the EBP has been shown to be effective in research), (b) references for supporting research studies, (c) step by step instructions for implementation, (d) an implementation fidelity checklist, and (e) data collection forms to evaluate the effectiveness for each EBP.
National Secondary Transition Technical Assistance Center
http://www.nsttac.org/ebp/ebp_main.aspx
General
"NSTTAC is a national Technical Assistance and Dissemination center funded from January 1, 2006 through December 31, 2010 by the U.S. Department of Educations Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP) (Award #H326J050004)." Its purpose is "to assist states to build capacity to support and improve transition planning, services, and outcomes for youth with disabilities."

NSTTAC reviewed the literature to identify EBPs in 5 areas: student-focused planning, student development, interagency collaboration, family involvement, and program structure.
Categories
NSTTAC uses three categories to describe the level of evidence for causal inference (i.e., that a practice causes improved outcomes): Strong, moderate, and potential.
Evidence-based Practices
Student-focused planning: involving students in the IEP process, the Self-Advocacy Strategy, and the Self-Directed IEP all have moderate levels of evidence.

Student development: Teaching functional life skills and teaching purchasing skills have high levels of evidence. A number of areas of life skills instruction and (e.g., social skill training; teaching self-determination skills, banking skills, grocery shopping skills, safety skills) and employment skills instruction (e.g., self-management for employment, computer assisted instruction) have moderate levels of evidence.

Interagency collaboration: No practices identified.

Family involvement: Training families has a moderate level of evidence.

Program structure: Community-based instruction and extending services beyond secondary school have moderate levels of effect.
Additional Features
For each reviewed program, information is provided on "With whom is it implemented?" (i.e., disability categories, age range, gender, and ethnicity), "What is the practice?" (i.e., an overview of the practice), "How has the practice been implemented?" (i.e., steps involved in implementing the practice), "Where has it been implemented?" (i.e., settings in which the practice was implemented in reviewed research), "How does this practice related to national standards?", "Where is the best place to find out how to do this practice?" (i.e., links to useful information on implementing the practice), and "Reference(s) used to establish evidence base."
Promising Practices Network http://www.promisingpractices.net/ General
"The PPN website is a unique resource that offers credible, research-based information on what works to improve the lives of children and families." Practices examined in the following areas: Healthy and Safe Children, Children Ready for School, Children Succeeding in School, and Strong Families.
Categories
The PPN categorizes practices as proven, promising, or screened.
Evidence-based Practices
In the area of Children Succeeding in School:
Proven Practices:
Big Brothers Big Sisters of America

Carolina Abecedarian Project

Child-Parent Centers

Class Wide Peer Tutoring Program

The Effective Learning Program

HighScope Perry Preschool Program

New Hope Project

Nurse Family Partnership
Promising Practices:
Accelerated Academics Academy (AAA)

Child Development Project

Cognitively Guided Instruction (CGI)

Communities In Schools

Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition

Core Knowledge

Direct Instruction

Early Intervention in Reading

Parents as Teachers

Partners in Reading

Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies

Reading Recovery

Reciprocal Teaching

Resolving Conflict Creatively Program (RCCP)

Seattle Social Development Project

Student Achievement Guarantee in Education (SAGE)

Syracuse Family Development Research Program

Team Accelerated Instruction: Math

Teen Outreach Program
Additional Features
The PPN provides extensive information on the practices reviewed in the following areas: Program Info, Program Overview, Program Participants, Evaluation Methods, Key Evaluation Findings, Probable Implementers, Funding, Implementation Detail, Issues to Consider, Example Sites, Contact Information, Available Resources, Bibliography, (date) Last Reviewed
What Works Clearinghouse http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/ General
"Established in 2002, the What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) is a central and trusted source of scientific evidence for what works in education. ... The WWC:

* Produces user-friendly practice guides for educators that address instructional challenges with research-based recommendations for schools and classrooms;

* Assesses the rigor of research evidence on the effectiveness of interventions (programs, products, practices, and policies), giving educators the tools to make informed decisions."

Topic areas include Adolescent Literacy, Beginning Reading, Early Childhood Education for Students with Disabilities, Elementary School Math, English Language Learners, High School Math, Middle School Math, Students with Learning Disabilities, Character Education, Dropout Prevention, Early Childhood Education, and Emotional or Behavioral Disorders (currently in progress).
Categories
Practices categorized as having positive, potentially positive, mixed, no discernible, potentially negative, or negative effects.
Evidence-based Practices
In the topic area of Early Childhood Education for Students with Disabilities, Dialogic Reading reported to have potentially positive effects on communication and language competencies; and Lovaas Model of Applied Behavior Analysis reported to have potentially positive effects on cognitive development.

In the topic area of Students with Learning Disabilities, The Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing® (LiPS®) program reported to have potentially positive effects in alphabetics, reading fluency, and math; and Read Naturally ® reported to have potentially positive effects in writing.

Interventions with positive effects in other areas include:
Beginning Reading: DaisyQuest (for alphabetics), Earobics (for alphabetics), Fast ForWord (for alphabetics), Reading Recovery® (for alphabetics and reading achievement), Sound Partners (for alphabetics, reading comprehension, and reading fluency), SpellRead™ (for alphabetics), Stepping Stones to Literacy (for alphabetics), Success for All ® (for alphabetics)

Character Education: Positive Action (for academic achievement and behavior), Too Good for Drugs and Violence (for knowledge, attitudes, and values)

Drop out Prevention: Accelerated Middle Schools (for progressing in school), Check & Connect (for staying in school)

Early Childhood Education: Building Blocks for Math (SRA Real Math) (for mathematics achievement), DaisyQuest (for phonological processing), Dialogic Reading (for oral reading), Literacy Express (for oral language, phonological processing, and print knowledge), Phonological Awareness Training (for phonological processing), Phonological Awareness Training plus Letter Knowledge Training (for print knowledge), Pre-K Mathematics (for mathematics achievement)

English Language Learners: Peer Tutoring and Response Groups (for English language development)

Middle School Math: I CAN Learn® Pre-Algebra and Algebra (for mathematics achievement)
Additional Features
The WWC provides Intervention Reports on reviewed practices that include

- Program Description

- Additional Program Information (e.g., developer and contact information, teaching procedures, cost)

- Research (e.g., specific descriptions of studies that meet evidence standards with or without reservations, extent of evidence rating [small or medium to large depending on number and sample sizes of studies meeting evidence standards])

- Effectiveness (e.g., rating of effectiveness [positive, potentially positive, mixed, no discernible, potentially negative, or negative effects], improvement index [represents the difference between the percentile rank of the average student in the intervention condition and the percentile rank of the average student in the comparison condition]

- References (for studies reviewed that did or did not meet evidence standards)

Companion "Doing What Works" website ( http://www2.ed.gov/nclb/methods/whatworks/edpicks.jhtml) features information on implementing some of the practices promoted on the What Works Clearinghouse.

Download the article: Special Education EBPs

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Sources of Evidence-based Practices in Special Education: A Brief Overview

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University of Hawaii 3/6/2011 Sources reviewed (i.e., Best Evidence Encyclopedia, journal articles, National Autism Center, National Center on Response to Intervention, National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorders, National Secondary Transition Technical Assistance Center, Promising Practices Network, What Works Clearinghouse) apply standards related to research design, methodological quality, quantity, and magnitude of effect of supporting research to identify effective or evidence-based practices for children and youth with disabilities.

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IEP Resource Center | Frontline Education

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The IEP Resource Center is a place where teachers and administrators can keep learning about individualized education.

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Students who require extra help and support might be eligible for special services that provide individualized education programs (IEPs) in public schools, free of charge to families. Understanding your role in educating a student with an IEP will benefit both you and the student.

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) makes teachers of students with special needs responsible for planning, implementing, and monitoring educational plans to help the students succeed in school. The IEP describes the goals set for a student for the school year, and any special support needed to help reach those goals.

The IDEA requires states to provide free appropriate public education to students who are eligible for special education from ages 3 to 21, in the "least restrictive" environment. This means that kids with disabilities should learn alongside their classmates who don't have disabilities as much as possible.

Who Needs an IEP?

Students who are eligible for special education services require an IEP. Students could be eligible for many reasons, such as if they have:

Students might have a learning disability if they are consistently unable to meet standards that are normal for their age range. Some common signs of a learning disability can include:

trouble mastering tasks or applying academic skills to other tasks

trouble with communication and language processing, as well as expressive and receptive language

a lot of frustration with school and homework

having strong general knowledge, but not being able to read (dyslexia), write (dysgraphia), or do math (dyscalculia) at that level

needing ongoing, step-by-step guidance for tasks

poor grades despite a lot of effort

poor memory of spoken or written material

not being able to remember problem-solving steps if they don't understand the tasks or the logic behind them

not being able to remember skills and facts over time

How Are Services Delivered?

Usually, the services outlined in an IEP can be provided in regular education classrooms. In other cases, they might be given in separate classrooms or even separate schools, depending on the students' needs. Some students may have an IEP for one subject area only, while others may have one for all academic subjects and for social skills instruction.

Students with IEPs can participate in all subject areas, especially classes like science, social studies, art, music, library, gym, and health. It is critical for regular classroom teachers to read students' IEPs and be familiar with the services and monitoring required by the plan.

Services can also be provided in a separate supported environment within the school. In this setting, groups of students with similar needs are together for small-group instruction. A certified special education teacher is the instructor and other school personnel (aides or support teachers) help with teaching.

Students who need intense intervention, though, may be taught in a special school environment. These schools have fewer students per teacher, allowing for more individualized attention. Teachers in these schools usually have specific training in helping students with special educational needs.

How Are Students Evaluated?

The referral process generally begins when a teacher, parent, or doctor is concerned that a child may be having trouble in the classroom.

The first step is to gather specific data regarding the student's progress or academic problems. This may be done through:

a conference with parents

a conference with the student

observations of the student

analysis of the student's performance (attention, behavior, work completion, tests, classwork, homework, etc.)

This information helps teachers and school personnel decide on the next step. Strategies specific to the student could be used to help them be more successful in school prior to any formal testing. If this doesn't work, the child can receive an educational assessment, which could identify a specific learning disability or other health problem.

Note: The presence of a disability doesn't automatically guarantee a child will get services. To be eligible, the disability must affect how the child does at school.

To decide on eligibility, a team of professionals will consider their observations, as well as how the child does on standardized tests and daily work such as tests, quizzes, classwork, and homework.

Who's on the Team?

The professionals on the evaluation team can include:

classroom teachers

occupational therapist

physical therapist

psychologist

special educator

speech therapist

vision or hearing specialist

others, depending on the child's specific needs

If more testing is needed, parents will be asked to sign a permission form that details who is involved in the process and the types of tests they use. These tests might include measures of specific school skills, such as reading or math, as well as more general developmental skills, such as speech and language.

After the team members finish their assessments, a comprehensive evaluation report is developed. It includes an educational classification and outlines the skills and support the child will need.

The parents can review the report before the IEP is developed. If they disagree with it, they will have the chance to work with the school to come up with a plan that best meets the child's needs.

How Is the IEP Developed?

The next step is an IEP meeting, during which the team and parents decide what will go into the plan. Also, a regular classroom teacher should attend to offer suggestions about how the plan can help the child's progress in the standard education curriculum and how it can be used in a regular classroom setting, if that's appropriate.

At the meeting, the team will discuss a student's educational needs - as described in the evaluation report - and develop specific, measurable short-term and annual goals for each of those needs.

What Does the IEP Include?

The cover page of the IEP outlines the related services and supports students will get and how often they will be provided. These can include many different things; for example, transportation; speech-language pathology and audiology services; psychological services; physical therapy and occupational therapy; recreation, including therapeutic recreation; social work services; and medical services (for diagnostic and evaluation purposes only).

If the team recommends several services, the amount of time they take in the child's school schedule can seem overwhelming. To ease that load, a professional may talk with a child's teacher to come up with ways to help but won't offer hands-on instruction. For example, an occupational therapist may suggest accommodations for a child with fine-motor problems that affect handwriting, and the classroom teacher would incorporate these into the handwriting lessons taught to the entire class.

Other services can be delivered right in the classroom, so the child's day isn't interrupted by therapy. The child who has trouble with handwriting might work one-on-one with an occupational therapist while everyone else practices their handwriting skills. When deciding how and where services are offered, the child's comfort and dignity should be a top priority.

If a child has academic needs and is working below grade level, services may be offered outside the regular education classroom. Students might get small-group instruction in a particular subject area (usually language arts or math) by a special education teacher along with other students who have similar needs.

How Often Should the IEP Be Updated?

The IEP should be reviewed annually to update the goals and ensure the levels of service meet the student's needs. During the school year, progress monitoring is done often to make sure the student is achieving goals set in the IEP. IEPs can be changed at any time on an as-needed basis.

Specific timelines ensure that the development of an IEP moves from referral to providing services as quickly as possible. Be sure to ask about this timeframe and stay informed.

If parents disagree with any part of the evaluation report or the IEP, mediation and hearings are options.

It is important for teachers to understand the IEP process and their role in delivering instruction to students who have an IEP. Any questions related to an IEP can be directed to the team or the case manager assigned to a student.

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Individualized Education Programs (IEPs): Tips for Teachers

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IEPs make teachers of students with special needs responsible for planning, implementing, and monitoring educational plans to help the students succeed in school. This article is for educators.

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A NASET series that looks at each component of the IEP in depth

Before diving into the specifics of what must be included in an IEP, it's important to consider the "Big Picture" of the IEP-its purposes, how it serves as a blueprint for the child's special education and related services under IDEA, and the scope of activities and settings it covers.
The IEP has two general purposes:
(1) to establish measurable annual goals for the child; and

(2) to state the special education and related services and supplementary aids and services that the public agency will provide to, or on behalf of, the child. When constructing an appropriate educational program for a child with a disability, the IEP team broadly considers the child's involvement and participation in three main areas of school life:

the general education curriculum

extracurricular activities

nonacademic activities

By general education curriculum, we mean the subject matter provided to children without disabilities and the associated skills they are expected to develop and apply. Examples include math, science, history, and language arts.

When we talk about extracurricular activities and nonacademic activities, we're referring to school activities that fall outside the realm of the general curriculum. These are usually voluntary and tend to be more social than academic. They typically involve others of the same age and may be organized and guided by teachers or other school personnel. Examples: yearbook, school newspaper, school sports, school clubs, lunch, recess, band, pep rallies, assemblies, field trips, after-school programs, recreational clubs.

The IEP can be understood as the blueprint, or plan, for the special education experience of a child with a disability across these school environments.

Most special educators have an awareness of what is basically required in a child's IEP. However, the more you understand about each individual part, and especially how they go together to form an action plan for a child's education, the easier it will be to write a well-grounded and effective IEP. Using information from the National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities, this 11 part series will focus on each specific component of the IEP.

PAST ISSUE OF IEP COMPONENTS SERIES

How is the child currently doing in school? How does the disability affect his or her performance in class? This type of information is captured in the "present levels" statement in the IEP.

Once a child's needs are identified, the IEP team works to develop appropriate goals to address those needs. Annual goal describe what the child is expected to do or learn within a 12-month period.

Benchmarks or Short-Term Objectives
Benchmarks or short-term objectives are required only for children with disabilities who take alternate assessments aligned to alternate achievement standards. If you're wondering what that means, this article will tell you!

Each child's IEP must also contain a description of how his or her progress toward meeting the annual goals will be measured and when it will be reported to parents. Learn more about how to write this statement in this short article.

The IEP must contain a statement of the special education and related services and supplementary aids and services to be provided to the child, or on behalf of the child. This article focuses on the first element: a statement of the special education that will be provided for the child.

To help a child with a disability benefit from special education, he or she may also need extra help in one area or another, such as speaking or moving. This additional help is called related services. Find out all about these critical services here.

Supplementary aids and services are intended to improve children's access to learning and their participation across the spectrum of academic, extracurricular, and nonacademic activities and settings. The IEP team must determine what supplementary aids and services a child will need and specify them in the IEP.

The IEP must also include an explanation of the extent, if any, to which the child will not participate with nondisabled children in the regular class and in other school settings and activities. Read how this connects to IDEA's foundational principle of LRE.

IDEA requires that students with disabilities take part in state or districtwide assessments. The IEP team must decide if the student needs accommodations in testing or another type of assessment entirely. In this component of the IEP, the team documents how the student will participate.

When will the child begin to receive services? Where? How often? How long will a "session" last? Pesky details, but important to include in the IEP!

After a child is found eligible for special education and related services, a meeting must be held within 30 days to develop to the IEP. The school system must notify the child's parents of when and where the meeting will take place, so they have the opportunity to attend and participate.

After a child is found eligible for special education and related services, a meeting must be held within 30 days to develop to the IEP. The school system must notify the child's parents of when and where the meeting will take place, so they have the opportunity to attend and participate.

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires public schools to make available to all eligible children with disabilities a free appropriate public education (FAPE) in the least restrictive environment appropriate to their individual needs. The law requires that public schools develop appropriate Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) for each child. The IEP is a written plan for educating a child with a disability. The IEP describes the student's specific special education needs as well as any related services, including assistive technology.

The focus of this issue of NASET's IEP Component series was written by the National Dissemination Center for Students with Disabilities (NICHCY). The article will connect you with resources in the employment world. Exploring what these organizations and centers have to offer can be extremely helpful when involved in planning a student's future in this area.

Certain members of the IEP team may be excused from an IEP meeting under specific conditions. These conditions will vary depending on whether or the team member's area of expertise is going to be discussed or modified in the meeting. This issue of NASET's IEP Components series will address the issue of excusal of IEP team members from IEP meetings.

Many different individuals come together to help the student plan for transition. Typically, transition planning is handled by members of the IEP team, with other individuals becoming involved as needed. It's important to involve a variety of people, for they will bring their unique perspectives to the planning table. The team draws upon the expertise of the different members and pools their information to make decisions or recommendations for the student. In addition to the regular players at the IEP table (parents, student, special education and general education teachers, related service providers, administrators, others), when transition is going to be discussed, representatives of outside agencies may be invited, especially those who are well informed about resources and adult services in the community. This issue of NASET's IEP Components series presents a list of four different agencies to consider, plus the ever-useful "Other" category. Each is discussed in some detail throughout this article.

NSTTAC is the National Secondary Transition Technical Assistance Center, an OSEP-funded project whose expertise is secondary transition. As part of its work, NSTTAC has developed extensive training materials to help states collect data about the transition services they provide to youth with disabilities. Those materials are also useful for our purpose here, which is to look closely at the type of transition information to include in a student's IEP. NSTTAC's materials include a checklist of questions to ask, which are adapted here for use by IEP teams as they plan a student's transition services and craft statements to include in the student's IEP. This issue of NASET's IEP Components series will present a checklist of questions to ask for IEP Teams as they plan a student's transition. NASET would like to thank the National Secondary Transition Technical Assistance Center for their permission to use its materials for this publication.

This issue of NASET's IEP Component series was written by Dr. John Nikolaros. The paper specifies critical measures required by the Section 504 of Rehabilitation Act of 1973, and the Individual with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) for students with special needs. The author explains and offers successful strategies in special education. The specific benchmarks that are examined consist of the process leading up the Individual Education Program (IEP) meeting, the impact of the special education chair, and the least restrictive environment (LRE). The purpose of this paper is to inform the audience of practices in special education that lead to consistency and successful implementation.

This issue of IEP Component Series was written by Catherine C. George, Ph.D. and Sharon A. Lynch, Ph.D. The 2004 reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act included substantial changes related to Individual Education Programs. These changes require school personnel to provide students with disabilities greater access to the general curriculum. Multidisciplinary teams must implement these changes when developing and measuring a student's IEP. This article highlights some of these changes and offers practical recommendations to assist educators in the IEP development process. Specifically, the present article provides a working guidance document for developing a quality statement of a student's present levels of academic achievement and functional performance that leads to individualized benchmarks and goals. Additionally, the authors provide several recommendations regarding methods which can be used to measure student progress on a variety of benchmarks and goals.

This issue of NASET's IEP Component series was written by Olga M. Torguet from Florida International University. Her article focuses on the barriers to full participation in the IEP Process. To advocate for their children and make informed educational decisions, parents must be able to understand the information presented at Individualized Education Program (IEP) meetings. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) of 1997 legally mandated that students 14 and older be invited to participate in IEP meetings. As a means to better understand parents' and students' passive participation during these meetings, I analyzed current literature related to barriers that inhibit their full participation in the IEP process. Two studies were identified related to the readability of Procedural Safeguard documents provided by states department of education. Eight published articles were dissected to identify the reasons for the inactive involvement of parents and students. Overall arguments that emerged repeatedly across all articles concerned the inability to advocate due to the high readability level of parents' rights documents, jargon utilized in meetings, and lack of understanding of system procedures and policies.

This issue of IEP Component series was written by Arnold Chee Keong, CHUA, MEd/BCSE. Young children with developmental disabilities such as autism spectrum disorder, global developmental delay, cerebral palsy, and Down syndrome is on the rise in Singapore. Children diagnosed with such disabilities at the age of three years or below will undergo an early intervention program to prevent or minimize developmental delays. Teachers in the early intervention sector require to develop an Individualized Education Plan (IEP), a written statement of the educational program designed to meet a child's individual needs. Every child who receives special education services must have an IEP. Educators working with children of various disabilities need to consider several factors in the formulation of an appropriate IEP. Using the proposed S.M.A.R.T. framework, this paper discusses five key elements of designing an IEP (S: Specificity, M: Meaningful, A: Appropriateness, R: Routine-based, and T: Transferability) which educators can adopt so as to improve the quality of written IEP goals and objectives. It is hope with this framework, the child's learning can promote engagement, social interaction, and finally independence.

Adolescence is a time for dreaming-for youth to imagine and set a course for the future. High school students naturally spend time imagining the future-if and where to continue their education, to find a job or pursue a career, to move away from home, or to start a family. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) includes a process to help youth with disabilities turn their dreams into reality. This issue of NASET's IEP Component series comes from a Parent Brief from the National Center on Secondary Education and Transition and was written by Ceci Shapland, Co-Director of the Healthy & Ready to Work National Center. It provides information on the benefits of and strategies for including health in the Individualized Education Program (IEP) process.

This issue of NASET's IEP Component series was written by the National Collaborative on Workforce and Disability and discusses career planning and vocational assessment for transition-age youth. Many youth with disabilities have not had the same opportunities as their non-disabled peers in terms of exposure to career preparation options. In the past, the career planning process for youth with disabilities often did not reflect the values of choice and self-determination. Many youth with disabilities were relegated to passive roles in their own career planning process. As a result, many youth have not had the opportunity to pursue career options that they found motivating and satisfying.

This issue of NASET's IEP Component series was written by Jay Gottlieb, Ph.D., Mark Alter, Ph.D., and Marc A. Gottlieb, Esq. Why, forty years after passage of the original Education for All Handicapped Act of 1975 (the predecessor legislation to IDEA), is there is still no agreed-upon operational heuristic for defining the least restrictive environment? As with so many aspects of public education, the answer is complex. Schools are ultimately responsible for identifying the LRE, but they are buffeted by many external and internal influences that affect the quality and quantity of education IEP students receive. Even in the absence of internal or external influences, substantial variability in LRE implementation is to be anticipated; in fact, it is desirable. The underlying rationale of the federal special education law is that each student is unique and requires a tailored program. The potential wealth of services and placements recommended on an IEP define an appropriate education, and they should be different for each person.

This issue of NASET's IEP Component series was written by Dr. Heidi D'Ambrosio and Ms. Lora Reese. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) coupled with the Free Appropriate Education Act (FAPE) mandates the honoring of student rights to have complete access to curriculum and communication with zero rejection. Despite the legal demands of these two great Acts, some children are still being left behind. The purpose of this article is to bring attention to just one of many cases where the rights of a student with autism, a prevalent diagnosis, was denied his due entitlement to reach full academic and social potential. The United States Supreme Court has adjudicated cases as recently as Spring 2017. A case law review was conducted to offer insight into the world of school litigation and legislation as it relates to achievement, accountability, parental involvement, and special and remedial education reform policies and practices.

In this issue of NASET's IEP Component series, The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) lists five special factors that the IEP team must consider in the development, review, and revision of each child's IEP. Read IDEA's exact words. The importance of these special factors in the education of children with disabilities and the need for individualized consideration of these factors in IEP development and revision cannot be underestimated. The special factors are: (1) Behavior; (2) Limited English proficiency; (3) Blindness or visual impairment; (4) Communication needs/Deafness; and (5) Assistive technology. This edition of NASET's IEP Components series will provide you updated information and resources regarding special factors in IEP development.

In this issue of NASET's IEP Component series, Operating on the premise that the student with a disability-who is the focus of all this discussion and planning- may have something vital to contribute to planning his or her educational program and future, IDEA clearly provides for the child's inclusion in, and participation on, the IEP Team whenever appropriate.

In this issue of NASET's IEP Component series, A significant aspect of IDEIA's requirements relates to including transition-related goals and statements in the IEPs of students preparing for life after high school. Beginning not later than the first IEP to be in effect when the child turns 16, or younger if determined appropriate by the IEP Team, and updated annually, thereafter, the IEP must include appropriate measurable postsecondary goals based upon age appropriate transition assessments related to training, education, employment, and, where appropriate, independent living skills; and the transition services (including courses of study) needed to assist the child in reaching those goals. This issue of NASET's IEP Components series comes from The Center for Parent Information and Resources (CPIR) and takes a much closer look at the kind of information that might need to be included in a student's IEP as part of transition planning.

In this issue of NASET's IEP Component series, Beginning not later than the first IEP to be in effect when the child turns 16, or younger if determined appropriate by the IEP Team, and updated annually, thereafter, the IEP must include appropriate measurable postsecondary goals based upon age appropriate transition assessments related to training, education, employment, and, where appropriate, independent living skills; and the transition services (including courses of study) needed to assist the child in reaching those goals. This issue of NASET's IEP Components series is designed to connect you with basic information about transition planning. We've included articles, guides, and online trainings designed for specific audiences, because we all process and use information from the vantage point of why we want to know and what we're going to do with the info.

Assistive technology enables children with disabilities to participate more fully in all aspects of life (home, school, and community) and helps them access their right to a ?free appropriate, public education? in the ?least restrictive environment?. The IEP team must determine whether an individual child needs an assistive technology device or service, and if so, the nature and extent to be provided. This issue of NASET's IEP Component series comes from the Center for Parent Information & Resources. The checklist provided is designed to help IEP teams consider the needs of students with disabilities for assistive technology. It was adapted from the Nebraska Department of Education's Nebraska IEP Technical Assistance Guide (1998, September).

This issue of NASET's IEP Components series was written by Rebecca Fields. The article focuses on collaborating with parents through the transitioning stages of an IEP. Transitioning from one stage of life to another can be tedious. More-so tedious when considering a student with disabilities (SWD). One can imagine the hesitation, frustration and fear that conjures from the anticipation of the unknown for both the parent and the SWD. Specifically, transitioning from high school to the next step in life can be a nerve wrecking experience for most parents to SWD. For this reason, it is plausible to assume that being a well-informed parent is critical for the success of the student in many ways. By creating a culture of open communication and providing resources for both the parent and student, it is possible to establish a sense of ease in relation to transition. The purpose of this literature review is to examine the effects that parental involvement has on SWD and their transitioning stage into post-school settings. It is a product of five articles that examine transition planning, family involvement, and parental collaborations.

Developing appropriate Individual Education Program (IEP) academic goals can be a daunting task for IEP teams when considering that many special education students perform below grade level. According to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, student IEPs must be aligned with grade-level standards. A recent study that focused on identifying how teachers were navigating the potentially competing demands of Common Core State Standards (CCSS) Language Arts expectations and best practices for students with mild to moderate disabilities raised some potential concerns regarding IEP compliance in regards to academic goal development. This issue of NASET's IEP Component series will present those findings and provide implications for future practice, and research.

This issue of NASET's IEP Components series was written by Jessica Ramos. The Individual with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (2004) mandates parents' participation in planning the Individual Education Program (IEP). This review of the literature examines parents' experiences during the IEP meeting and the capacity in which parents are included. Additionally, the literature analyzes the barriers and limitations parents encounter due to culturally and linguistically diversity (CLD). According to the research, CLD parents of are less likely to feel fully involved in the IEP process due to bureaucratic procedures, legal jargon and verbal and nonverbal barriers. Research suggests, empathy along with formalizing relationships are key components in delivering an effective partnership between parents and educators in creating a quality IEP for students with disabilities.

By Ricki Sabia, Martha L. Thurlow, and Sheryl S. Lazarus Source: Sabia, R., Thurlow, M. L., & Lazarus, S. S. (2020, January). Developing IEPs that support inclusive education for students with the most significant cognitive disabilities (Brief #3). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, TIES Center. This issue of NASET's IEP Component series comes from the TIES Center. The IEP team must consider the general education classroom in the student's home school first before considering a more restrictive placement such as a special education class. The goal for the IEP team is to determine the least restrictive environment in which the student can be educated satisfactorily. It should be difficult to overcome the presumption that students should be educated in the general education classroom. Simply being behind peers in progress in the curriculum is not a reason to move a student to a more restrictive setting. "Restrictiveness" in LRE decisions relates to the amount of time spent with nondisabled students in the general education classroom or other general education environments (e.g., study hall). That is why the general education classroom is considered less restrictive than a special education classroom. The type of support a student may need, such as an aide in the general education classroom, does not make the setting more restrictive. Similarly, "LRE requirements apply to transition services, including employment-related transition services, and apply equally to the employment portion of the student's program and placement." There are many resources available for parents, but not all focus specifically on ensuring that the IEP is written in a way that supports inclusion in the general education curriculum and classroom. The purpose of this issue of NASET's IEP Component series is to identify specific ways in which the IEP can be written to support inclusion.

As part of a student's transition planning for life after high school, the student and the other members of his or her IEP team will probably consider the possibility of more education or training. In keeping with the options specifically mentioned in IDEA, the discussion of education/training after high school may focus on: (1) postsecondary education at a college, university, or community college; (2 ) vocational education to learn a trade or specific job skill; or (3) continuing and adult education. This edition of NASET's IEP Component series comes from the Center for Parent Information and Resources and will connect you with organizations and articles that can help tackle the education/training question during transition planning.

This issue of NASET's IEP Component series was written by Elizabeth M. Vasquez. Parents and guardians of students with disabilities play a fundamental role in their child's education. They play the advocate for their students in a room full of professionals. They are a piece of the puzzle that creates an Individualized Education Plan for their student. Their involvement in education allegedly is cohesive with the educators, psychologists, therapists and administrators. But there is a lack of parameters in effective parent involvement and engagement practices. The Individuals with Disability Education Act states clearly that parent participation needs to be ensured in their student's education, but there are no clear criteria. This leaves the idea of parent involvement for either parties, educators and/or parents, left up to their perception or understanding. With no guidelines parent involvement remains inconsistent, leaving those culturally or linguistically diverse less involved and uninformed.

This issue of NASET's IEP Component series comes from the National Center on Accessible Educational Materials, otherwise known as the AEM Center. It provides excellent guiding questions for those involved in writing a student's IEP. It begins by answering such basics as: What are accessible educational materials and technologies?; Why is it important for IEP teams to consider whether a student needs them in order to access the general curriculum? What does IDEA require? Where in the IEP should certain AEM-related information be included-and how? (Great examples!) The brief looks at key parts of the IEP where AEM-information can be and needs to be inserted, given the student's particular AEM needs.

The U.S. Department of Education (Department), Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services (OSERS) has received requests from a diverse group of stakeholders asking that the Department issue new guidance interpreting requirements of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in light of the many challenges of the COVID?19 pandemic and as more schools and programs are returning to in-person services. Topics include meeting timelines, ensuring implementation of initial evaluation and reevaluation procedures, determining eligibility for special education and related services, and providing the full array of special education and related services that children with disabilities need in order to receive a free appropriate public education (FAPE). In addition, stakeholders have inquired about the implications of delayed evaluations and early intervention services to infants and toddlers with disabilities and their families served under IDEA Part C. This issue of NASET's IEP Component series highlights certain Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requirements related to the development and implementation of individualized education programs (IEPs) and other information that state educational agencies (SEAs) and local educational agencies (LEAs), regular and special education teachers, related services providers, and parents should consider.

This issue of NASET's IEP Component series offers our readers the opportunity to view a webinar from the U.S. Department of Education. Content is focused explicitly and in detail on the development and implementation of IEPs as students return to school. Revisions to a student's IEP may be crucial, given changes that may have occurred in the social, emotional, mental, and behavioral well-being of the child during the pandemic. Students may need to reevaluated to determine what their current needs are, so these can be addressed in their IEPs. Much discussion centered around compensatory services: what they are, when and how schools should determine whether a student needs such services, and more.

This issue of NASET's IEP Components series comes from the Center for Parent Information and Resources. It will help you when it comes time to help students plan for transition to life after high school and especially to write an IEP that will: capture the student's postsecondary goals in concrete, measurable terms; write corresponding IEP goals to support and prepare the student to achieve the postsecondary goals after leaving high school; reflect the IEP team's decisions about the transition services the student needs (including what the student will study while still in high school) in order to achieve the postsecondary goals. Transition planning is complicated and involved. There are so many dimensions of adulthood to consider! That's why, for students with disabilities, planning ahead is critical. The more significant the disability is, the more imperative it is to prepare, plan, specify, investigate, coordinate, and support. Adulthood's coming.

This issue of NASET's IEP Components series comes from the Fall 2022 edition of JAASEP. It was written by Michael Dunn, Ph.D. and Mary Rice, Ph.D. This study investigated special educators' perspectives about an online toolkit that offers teachers example goals and objectives statements to use in service plans for students with special educational needs as well as teaching strategies and assessments. Special education teachers in a large school district in a Pacific Northwestern state answered a short survey (n=19). Some respondents also participated in group interviews (n=6). The research questions were: what are special education personnel's perspectives about the online toolkit materials for writing goals and objectives for children with special educational needs; and, what do special education personnel perceive to be online toolkit's limitations as well as weaknesses? Results indicated that the participants preferred to use the online toolkit for identifying initial ideas for goals and objectives statements in the disability service plans. However, the teachers desired more professional learning and collegial dialogue to learn about instruction, strategies, and assessment tools. The authors also discuss implications and suggested next steps for online tools in professional learning for teachers.

This issue of NASET's IEP Components series was written by Buruuj Tunsill, Ed.S. A global pandemic placed a strain on many educators across the world, educators and students alike had to suddenly switch to a different mode of education--online learning. Online learning is when students receive instruction through synchronous or asynchronous interactions via the internet (Rice & Carter, 2015). Without professional training, educators were expected to deliver all lessons virtually to all students, which includes students with disabilities. Prior to the pandemic, educators have had difficulties implementing individualized education plans for students with disabilities. The research identifies key issues that impact educators who teach culturally and linguistically diverse students via online learning and provide recommendations for how special educators and other practitioners can better serve culturally and linguistically diverse students from low socioeconomic backgrounds. Thought fictitious scenarios incorporating Yessenia and Shawn, issues that may negatively influence online learning experiences will be examined to determine the best approaches to resolving the issues in an online learning setting. There were four identified factors that can contribute to culturally and linguistically diverse students with disabilities online success and proper implementation of their rep: Collaborate with families, build relationship with student, familiarize yourself with students' IEP and exceptionalities, and professional development for online teaching.

Transition planning is complicated and involved. There are so many dimensions of adulthood to consider! That's why, for students with disabilities, planning ahead is critical. The more significant the disability is, the more imperative it is to prepare, plan, specify, investigate, coordinate, and support. This issue of NASET's IEP Component Series will address transition goals in the IEP. It will help you when it comes time to help students plan for transition to life after high school and especially to write an IEP that will: capture the student's postsecondary goals in concrete, measurable terms; write corresponding IEP goals to support and prepare the student to achieve the postsecondary goals after leaving high school; and reflect the IEP team's decisions about the transition services the student needs (including what the student will study while still in high school) in order to achieve the postsecondary goals.

This issue of NASET's IEP Components Series was written by Lydia K. Mallah. Parents' involvement in their children's education is paramount to their children's successful learning and behavior outcomes in schools. As the school-age population continues to grow with students from diverse races and ethnicities, parents face the challenge of smoothly collaborating with schools and teachers to support their children. The CLD families of children with disabilities who are served with IEPs under the IDEA face more barriers and feel marginalized in implementing their legal rights in IEP meetings where decisions are made about their children with disabilities education or behavioral support. This review presents current trends in the growing population of various races and ethnicities and impacts on education, CLD families' experiences in IEP meetings, challenges, and recommendations that teachers can use to improve their collaboration with families and their experiences and participation in the IEP process.

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The National Association of Special Education Teachers-national membership org for teachers, professors, and college students involved in special education

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Have you ever read through a student's Individualized Education Program (IEP) and felt unsure about what to focus on?

There are best practices for getting the most important information from an IEP. Here are five key things to be on the lookout for when you read an IEP and how they apply to your classroom.

1. Present level of performance

Sometimes, present level of performance is shortened to PLOP or PLP. It may also be called PLAAFP (present level of academic achievement and functional performance) or PLEP (present level of educational performance).

Present level of performance describes a student's current abilities, skills, challenges, and strengths at the time the IEP is written. It covers both academic performance and everyday functional skills.

This information helps you best support the student's learning in your classroom. If the student's challenges are in the subject you teach, knowing the present level of performance will help you adjust your instruction to meet those needs. Keep in mind that some challenges - like reading - may impact many subjects.

All IEPs have annual goals. These goals build on the student's present level of performance. The IEP team believes the student should be able to achieve the goals in one calendar year. Depending on when an IEP is written, the goals may span more than one academic year. For instance, an IEP written in May will have an annual review next May.

Each goal describes the skill or subject area the student is focusing on and the targeted result. It's like a map describing where the student is going this year, the route for getting there, and the stops along the way.

If you teach the content area of one of these goals, like language arts or math, you may be responsible for tracking and reporting on progress. The same is true if you're helping the student with functional skills. Special education law requires that student progress toward IEP goals be reported as often as progress is reported for students without IEPs.

3. Special education and related services

Every IEP has a section that describes the services a student receives. This includes specially designed instruction (called special education ) and related services , like speech therapy, occupational therapy, and social work services.

Sometimes, special education and related services take place in the general education classroom. That means you and other school staff will need to plan and work together to provide instruction for the student. The IEP may list "consultation services" to account for this planning time.

It's also helpful to know how often a student may be pulled out of your classroom for services. You can then work with the service provider on scheduling to help the student get as much instructional time in your classroom as possible.

4. Supplementary aids, services, modifications, and/or supports

The IEP will have a section on supplementary aids and services. It may list accommodations , modifications , and assistive technology , along with when and where they'll be used. These supports will help the student access learning in your classroom, as well as throughout all school activities.

This is one of the most important parts of the IEP for you as a general education teacher. Chances are you'll need to manage the student's accommodations in the classroom. You may need specific training to do what the IEP requires, so don't hesitate to ask for it.

Sometimes, the IEP team may determine that a certain test isn't appropriate for the student. The IEP will explain why and give information about other ways to assess the student.

5. Notes and considerations - including special factors

It can also help you know what other obstacles are in the way of learning. If your student is an ELL, you might need to learn more about how to support that student and connect with the family .

A student whose disability involves behavior challenges that impact learning might also have a behavior intervention plan . If the plan isn't attached to the IEP, ask the IEP case manager to see it. You may be responsible for putting parts of the plan into practice in your classroom.

Keep in mind these aren't the only things in an IEP. An IEP will have evaluation results and comments from other teachers, which can also be helpful.

Although IEPs often take a standard form, they can have some differences from state to state and even from district to district. That's why it's important to read the whole IEP, even as you focus on the five key ideas above.

About the Author

About the Author

worked as a classroom teacher and as an early intervention specialist for 10 years. She is the author of Amanda Morin The Everything Parent's Guide to Special Education. Two of her children have learning differences.

Reviewed by

Reviewed by

Timothy King, EdD is the statewide program director for the Multiagency Network for Students with Emotional/Behavioral Disabilities, University of South Florida St. Petersburg.

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How to read an IEP: 5 things teachers should look for

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Have you ever read through a student's Individualized Education Program (IEP) and felt unsure about what to focus on? There are best practices for getting the most important information from an IEP. Here are five key things to be on the lookout for when you read an IEP and how they apply to your classroom.

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Russel Tarr, International School of Toulouse

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ClassTools.net: Create your own interactive learning resources

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Dozens of templates, quiz generators and learning tools for use in the classroom

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Freeology - Free Worksheets and More Since 2001

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Analogies Art Bellwork Bingo Brainstorming Cause and Effect Character Christmas Classroom Management Classroom Organization Common Errors Compare and Contrast Creative Writing Details Organizers Division Earth Day Funny Videos Games Halloween Hall Passes Humor Ice Breakers Imagery Inspiration Interesting Facts Interviews Literary Terms Main Idea Multiplication New Year's Day Note Taking Paragraphs Parent Communication Parts of Speech Personal Response Writing Planning Poetry Quotes Reading Comprehension Reading Logs Sequencing Organizers Short Stories Stationery Vocabulary Word Searches

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Internet4Classrooms - Helping Students, Teachers and Parents Use the Internet Effectively

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An educational portal with free resources for teachers and their classrooms as well as students and parents.

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Elementary Teacher Resources, Get The Teaching Resource You Need

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Quick, easy and effective elementary teacher resources.

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We have hundreds of standards-based lesson plans written and reviewed by educators using current research and the best instructional practices. Find the perfect one for your classroom.

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Overview

Legislation, regulations, guidance, and other policy documents can be found here for the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), and other topics.

Please note that in the U.S., the federal role in education is limited. Because of the Tenth Amendment, most education policy is decided at the state and local levels. So, if you have a question about a policy or issue, you may want to check with the relevant organization in your state or school district.

Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (ESEA), as amended

FERPA (Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act)

IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act)

WIOA (Workforce Innovation and Opportunities Act)

Regulations and Rulemaking

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Legislation, regulations, guidance, and other policy documents can be found here for the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) , and other topics. Please note that in the U.S., the federal role in education is limited. Because of the Tenth Amendment, most education policy is decided at the state and local levels.

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Most federal education laws focus on broad matters such as civil rights and free speech. But education is primarily controlled at the state level, including how public schools are funded; relations with teachers' unions; and state university systems. North Carolina, for instance, school is mandatory for children ages seven to 16 (with certain exceptions). And unlike some other states, North Carolina law explicitly allows teachers and principals to use "reasonable force" as a means of punishment. This section covers education laws, including privacy of school records; compulsory education requirements; and prayer in public schools.

Learn About North Carolina Education Laws

North Carolina Education Law Articles

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Most federal education laws focus on broad matters such as civil rights and free speech. But education is primarily controlled at the state level, including how public schools are funded; relations with teachers' unions; and state university systems. North Carolina, for instance, school is mandatory for children ages seven to 16 (with certain exceptions).

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UDL stands for Universal Design for Learning. When you teach using UDL, your lessons are designed in flexible ways to meet the needs of individual learners. Read more about UDL.

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Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST)

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5 Examples of Universal Design for Learning in the Classroom

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Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is an approach to teaching aimed at meeting the needs of every student in a classroom. It can be helpful for all kids, including kids with learning and attention issues. But UDL takes careful planning by teachers. Here are just a few examples of how UDL can work in a classroom.

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What is Universal Design for Learning (UDL)?

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To be effective, a program of vocabulary instruction should provide students with opportunities for word learning by:

encouraging wide reading;

exposing students to high-quality oral language;

promoting word consciousness;

providing explicit instruction of specific words; and

providing modeling and instruction in independent word-learning strategies.

Each of these components contributes to helping students overcome the major obstacles to vocabulary growth.

What to do about the size of the task

Wide Reading

We know that the volume of students' reading is strongly related to their vocabulary knowledge. ¹ Students learn new words by encountering them in text, either through their own reading or by being read to. Increasing the opportunities for such encounters improves students' vocabulary knowledge, which, in turn, improves their ability to read more and more complex text. In short, the single most important thing you can do to improve students' vocabularies is to get them to read more.

Remember, to keep up, students need to learn at a rate of 2,000-3,000 words per year; to catch up, they need to exceed this rate. Can wide reading really be enough to help students learn so many words? Evidence indicates that it can. First, there is the evidence of those avid readers who acquire large vocabularies largely apart from any type of explicit instruction in vocabulary. Second, there is a growing body of research showing that, although the odds of learning any particular word from context are small, the cumulative effects of learning from reading can be large. Consider the following argument for the effects of wide reading: ²

If, over a school year, a fifth-grade student reads for an hour each day, five days a week (in and out of school), at a conservative rate of 150 words per minute, the student will encounter 2,250,000 words in the course of reading.

If 2% to 5% of the words the student encounters are unknown words, he or she will encounter from 45,000 to 112,500 such words.

We know that students learn between 5% 10% of previously unknown words from a single reading. This accounts for at least 2,250 new words the student learns from context each year.

The figure 2,250 new words learned a year is based on the lowest points of the estimated ranges. Even this conservative figure suggests that reading is a powerful influence on students' vocabulary growth.

What kinds of reading are necessary to produce such vocabulary growth? Whereas some argue that almost any reading ultimately will have powerful benefits for students, ³ others say that if students consistently select texts below their current reading levels, even wide reading will not result in measurable vocabulary growth. ⁴ Nor is reading text that is full of unfamiliar words likely to produce large gains in word knowledge. ⁵

To help students get the most out of reading, you should encourage them to read at a variety of levels - some text simply for enjoyment, which should benefit their fluency if nothing else - and some text that challenges them. You should also help students develop reading strategies that will allow them to read more challenging texts with lower levels of frustration. When students have been taught comprehension strategies, they tend to do more reading. ⁶

Increasing their motivation to read is another critical factor in helping students make the most of wide reading. One powerful motivating factor associated with more reading is a classroom environment that encourages and promotes social interactions related to reading. ⁷ Making available a variety of books and setting aside ample time for reading also motivate increased reading.

As is true for any method of promoting vocabulary growth, wide reading has some limitations. One is that it obviously cannot be effective with very young students who are not yet able to read very much on their own. Another limitation is that, although wide reading may be effective in producing general vocabulary growth, it is not an effective method for teaching the words that students need to master a particular selection or a concept related to a specific content area. Finally, it is important to acknowledge that, as important as it is, wide reading does not produce immediate, magic results; its effects are cumulative, and emerge over time.

You can encourage wide reading in a number of ways. You might, for example, recommend or provide lists of books for students to read outside of class, and make time in class for students to discuss what they have read. You can set aside a time each day for independent reading. And, of course, you can model the value you place on reading as they read, by telling students about the books you are reading.

What to do about the differences between spoken and written English

High Quality Oral Language

As we discussed earlier, both English language learners and English-speaking students may achieve fluency in the language of face-to-face conversation and still have little exposure to or knowledge of the kind of language they encounter in school textbooks. Clearly these students need more exposure to written English, and wide reading is the most effective way of increasing exposure to this kind of language. But what can be done with students who are in the process of learning to read, and who cannot do a great deal of reading on their own? Here is one solution: Increase the quality of the oral language to which students are exposed - let them hear spoken English that incorporates more of the vocabulary and syntax typical of written, and particularly literate English.

A very effective way to expose children to literate vocabulary is to read to them from storybooks, especially when the reading is accompanied with discussion. ⁸ Authors of good children's literature have always found ways to talk "over children's heads" - using big words and other aspects of literate language - without decreasing children's interest or enjoyment. Both younger and older students appear to benefit from read-aloud activities, and older students can learn the meanings of new words as efficiently from hearing stories read to them as they can from reading the stories themselves. ⁹ Making available (either in the classroom or school library) a selection of quality audio books and players that students can use on their own can also be a good way to expose them to a variety of good books and broad language experiences.

Storytelling is yet another way to increase the quality of students' oral language experiences. Even when no text is involved, storytelling still exposes students to richer language than does normal conversation. Pretend play likewise involves rich language use. The quality of preschool children's conversations, and teachers' use of a more sophisticated vocabulary also have been found to affect students' language and literacy development. ¹⁰

Word Consciousness

Asked what they could do to use more sophisticated vocabulary without intimidating or confusing their students, a group of teachers responded enthusiastically, "Make it fun!" We definitely agree. Playing with language is an essential component of language development. Word consciousness is the knowledge of and interest in words. Word-conscious students enjoy learning new words and engaging in word play. They know and use many words, and are aware of the subtleties of word meaning and of the power words can have. ¹¹

To become word conscious, students first need to develop a feel for how written language is different from everyday conversation. To this end, it is valuable to draw their attention to the distinctive characteristics of written language, even when reading aloud, and to help them learn to read like a writer, and to write with an audience in mind.

Having students copy in their journals phrases or sentences from their reading that are examples of especially effective language use - vivid descriptions, striking metaphors, interesting similes, plays on words-can help make language more alive for them. Students can share their examples with the class, or they can post them in the classroom to serve as inspiration or models for others.

Reading and discussing two versions of the same story - ideally, one with rich language and one with language that is less interesting - can promote word consciousness in younger students.

Word consciousness can be promoted in a way that helps students become aware of differences between Standard English and non-standard varieties, without stigmatizing the latter. Shirley Brice Heath describes classrooms in which students learned to be "language detectives," studying how people speak differently in different groups and in different situations. She believes that this awareness made an important contribution to the students' academic success. ¹² It may be especially important to make such differences explicit for students less familiar with standard English.

A number of oral and written word games can serve to promote word consciousness, including puns, limericks, Hink-Pinks, crossword puzzles, jokes, riddles, and anagrams. ¹³ Encouraging students to play with words can create an interest in knowing more about them, and thus, can become a strategy for independent word learning.

What to do about the limitations of sources of information about words

Independent Word-Learning Strategies

Techniques that teachers can model and teach to students so as to help them figure out the meanings of unknown words on their own. Because students learn most new words incidentally, through wide reading, helping students to acquire a set of word-learning strategies is important to their vocabulary development. Key word-learning strategies include:

1. the efficient use of the dictionary;

2. the use of word parts (prefixes, suffixes, roots, compounds) to unlock a word's meaning; and

3. the use of context clues.

Dictionary Use

Instruction in dictionary use that focuses on having students look up words and use information from their definitions to write sentences does not provide students with the guidance they need to make dictionary use an efficient independent word-learning strategy.

This is not to say, however, that dictionaries are not important aids to word learning. In fact, the more students are exposed to dictionary definitions, the better their word learning. ¹⁴ The crucial point here is that students receive instruction in how to use what they find in a dictionary entry so that they are able to translate the cryptic and conventionalized content of definitions into usable word knowledge. ¹⁵ This instruction includes modeling how to look up the meaning of an unknown word, thinking-aloud about the various definitions in an entry, and deciding which is the most appropriate definition for a particular context. ¹⁶

Word Parts

Teaching students how to use information about word parts can be very valuable in promoting vocabulary growth. Many students, however, are not aware of this strategy. Even students who have learned to break words into parts in their decoding instruction may not understand that they can use this knowledge to figure out word meanings. Teacher modeling helps to make the strategy's value clear to students. ¹⁷

Using word-part information can be especially helpful in learning certain content-area concepts. (See Teaching Word Meaning as Concepts)

Context Clues

Context clues are clues to the meaning of a word contained in the text that surrounds it. These clues include definitions, examples, and restatements. Teaching students strategies for identifying and using context clues has been suggested as a major instructional technique for vocabulary development. ¹⁸ A student learns a new word from context by making connections between the word and the text in which it appears. When a new word is first encountered, the student stores in memory some information about how it fits into what is being read. In subsequent encounters with the word, this information is reinforced, and more information about the word's role in particular contexts is added until the word is understood and used appropriately. As in teaching other kinds of strategies, teaching students to use context clues to develop vocabulary is an extended process that involves: modeling the strategy; providing explicit explanations of how, why, and when to use it; providing guided practice; gradually holding students accountable for independently using the strategy; and then providing intermittent reminders to apply it to reading across content areas.

As we noted earlier, learning words from context is a long-term process, one that involves multiple encounters with words. The challenge is to create vocabulary instruction that compresses this process to enable students to learn more words in a shorter period of time. ¹⁹

What to do about the complexity of word knowledge

Explicit Instruction of Specific Words

Although students gain most of their word knowledge through wide reading, explicit instruction of specific words and their meanings also can contribute greatly to their vocabulary development. Explicit instruction is especially important for students whose exposure to the vocabulary of literate English is limited. To be most effective, explicit vocabulary instruction should be dynamic and involve a variety of techniques. Specifically, instruction should:

1. Use both definitional and contextual information about word meanings,

2. Involve students actively in word learning, and

3. Use discussion to teach the meanings of new words and to provide meaningful information about the words.

Use Definitional and Contextual Information

In the past, vocabulary instruction most often consisted of learning lists of words and definitions (with a test on Friday). We now know that such instruction is of limited value, particularly in improving students' reading comprehension. ²⁰ Students need to know how a word functions in various contexts. Therefore, instructional methods that provide students with both definitional and contextual information do improve comprehension, and do so significantly.

Some instructional activities that provide students with definitional information include:

Teach synonyms.
Often a synonym is all students need to understand a new word in context.

Teach antonyms.
Not all words have antonyms, but thinking about antonyms requires students to identify the crucial aspects of a word. For example, the word chaos implies an abyss, a void, or clutter, but its antonym, order, narrows the focus to the "clutter" part of the word's meaning.

Rewrite definitions.
As we noted earlier, dictionary definitions can often confuse or mislead students. Asking students to restate a dictionary definition in their own words can be more effective than requiring them to remember the exact wording of the definition.

Provide example sentences.
A good way to ascertain whether students understand a word's definitions is to have them provide example sentences in which they use the word. They may draw these examples from personal experiences ("Mom's kitchen is chaos.") or from textbooks ("After the great flood of 1937, there was chaos all over the Tennessee Valley.").

Provide non-examples.
Another way to find out if students truly understand the meaning of a new word is to have them supply words that are not examples of the word's meaning. For example, point out to them that cry is not an example of the word guffaw, then ask them to think of other non-examples of the word (bawl, sniffle, whine, whimper). Coming up with non-examples requires students to think about the critical attributes of a word, much like providing antonyms.

Discuss the difference between the new word and related words.
A discussion of the word debris, defined as "trash," "garbage," or "waste," might include a discussion of the differences between debris and trash, garbage, and waste. For example, debris might be the result of some sort of accident or disaster, whereas trash might include anything. Garbage generally refers to organic material, such as food leftovers, and waste implies something left over, rather than something resulting from a disaster. Such a thorough discussion encourages students to focus on the meanings of words.

Some activities that provide students with contextual information include:

Have students create sentences that contain the new word.
Encourage students to create sentences that show a clear understanding of the meaning of the word - not just "I like chaos." More acceptable sentences are those that include the definition, such as, "Chaos is when everything is in disorder." Even more acceptable are sentences that extend the definition, such as, "The scene was complete chaos - desks were turned over, paint was splashed on the floor, and the trash can was upside down." Of course, to write sentences containing a new word, students need examples of how it is used correctly. Definitions, even those that give brief examples, rarely provide enough information to guarantee that students have a real sense of how words are used. One way to scaffold students' use of new words is to have them complete sentence stems containing the word, e.g., "John thought it would pacify the teacher if "²¹

Use more than one new word in a sentence.
Asking students to use more than one new word in each sentence they create can force them to look for relations among words.

Discuss the meaning of the same word in different sentences.
Many words have multiple meanings, which depend on the context in which the words appear. To prevent students from limiting word meanings to one particular context, have them use a new word in several different and varied sentences. For the word chaos, their sentences might include topics such as chaos in classroom behavior, chaos as clutter and mess, chaos in personal relations, and so forth.

Create a scenario.
Invite students to make up a story in which a new word features prominently. If students are too young for this activity, have them draw a picture story for a new word.

Create silly questions.
You might have students pair new words and use each pair to make a silly question.²² For the words actuary, hermit, philanthropist, and villain, their questions might include "Can an actuary be a hermit?" "Can an actuary be a philanthropist?" "Can a philanthropist be a hermit?" "Can a philanthropist be a villain?"

Involve Students Actively in Word Learning

Students remember more when they relate new information to known information, transforming it in their own words, generating examples and non-examples, producing antonyms and synonyms, and so forth.

Instruction that works

In one study of exemplary vocabulary instruction, activities were conducted in a five-day cycle. On the first day, the new words were defined, and students discussed the use of each word in context. This discussion took different forms, including discussion of examples and non-examples, pantomimes, and having students say "Yay" if the word was used correctly in a sentence and "Boo" if it was not. On the second day, after a review of the definitions, students might work on log sheets, completing sentences for each word. On the third day, they completed another log sheet, then worked on a timed activity in which pairs of students attempted in the shortest amount of time to match words with their definitions. This activity was repeated on the fourth day. After completion of the second timed activity, students were asked silly questions. On the fifth day, they took a post-test.

These activities varied somewhat with different units. For example, students also completed a "Word Wizard" chart activity each day. A Word Wizard chart is a chart that contains new vocabulary words. These words can be taken from a storybook, from a text, or just be words that are encountered in some way. Every time a child in the class found one of these words in context, the teacher attached an adhesive note with the child's name and the context next to the word. The first child who received 5, 10, or some other number of notes became the Word Wizard. Students were given credit toward becoming a "Word Wizard" by finding examples of each word used outside of class.

This program, or variations of it, significantly improved students' comprehension of texts containing words that were taught. As part of the program, it was revealed that twelve encounters with a word reliably improved comprehension, but four encounters did not. The instructional approach, which involved active processing of each words' meaning, had significantly greater effects than did a definition-only approach on measures of comprehension but not on measures involving the recall of definitions. These findings suggest that vocabulary instruction can improve comprehension, but only if the instruction is rich and extensive, and includes a great many encounters with to-be-learned words.

Use discussion to teach word meanings. Discussion adds an important dimension to vocabulary instruction. Students with little or no knowledge of some new words they encounter in a vocabulary lesson are often able to construct a good idea of a word's meaning from the bits of partial knowledge contributed by their classmates. (When the class as a whole does not know much about a particular word, however, you may have to help. Perhaps supplying some information about the word, such as a quick definition.)

Discussion can clarify misunderstandings of words by making the misunderstandings public. For words that a student knows partially, or knows in one particular context, the give-and-take of discussion can clarify meanings. When misunderstandings are public, the teacher can shape them into the conventional meaning.

Discussion involves students in other ways. As they wait to be called on, students practice covertly, or silently prepare a response. Therefore, even though you call on only one student, many other students anticipate that they will have to come up with an answer. As a result, discussion leads to increased vocabulary learning. ²³ Without the practiced response, discussion is not likely to be valuable as a learning experience.

Bringing instruction together

Sample Lesson

This sample lesson illustrates how a teacher can bring together the three components of explicit vocabulary instruction to teach words that are key to understanding the story The Talking Eggs by Robert San Soucil. The words chosen for instruction are backwoods, contrary, dawdled, groping, rubies, and silver. ²⁴

For the key word backwoods, read the following sentence from the story: "Then the old woman took her by the hand and led her deep into the backwoods." Ask students to predict what backwoods means. Backwoods is a compound, and, when the information from the word parts is combined with some information from the context, its meaning should be fairly clear. Next, ask students to describe the backwoods briefly.

The key word contrary can be taught the same way, beginning with reading this sentence from the book: "You do as I say and don't be so contrary," and asking students to predict the meaning of the word from context. For this word, have students discuss a definition for the word, such as "disagreeable, raising objections," and encourage them to explain how the definition fits in the context of the sentence. As a follow up, you have them create some sentences that contain contrary. This can lead to a discussion of another, related meaning for contrary, that of "from another point of view," as in the expression "to the contrary."

For dawdled and groping, begin once again by reading sentences in the story that contain the words. Because these words are verbs, however, you might want to pantomime the meaning of each, rather than supply a conventional definition. Then ask students to create sentences that use the words. You might define dawdled with some non-examples, because it is a word that has some clear antonyms, such as hustled, ran, went quickly, and so on.

For rubies and silver, begin by having the class discuss what precious things are. You might illustrate the words by providing pictures that show rubies and things made of silver. Next, work with the class to make a list of precious things, including rubies and silver, as well as gold, diamonds, and so forth.

The words used in the sample lesson are highly dissimilar. They were selected for instruction only because they happen to come from the story they students were reading. The techniques used to teach the words, however, are somewhat similar. For four of the six words, the teacher starts with sentences from the text, then asks students to create additional sentences to extend the meaning of the word beyond the text. Finally, the teacher also includes a definition, either a conventional verbal one or a gestural one, for each of the words.

The instruction this lesson illustrates is relatively minimal, designed to support the reading of the text. More elaborate instruction would shift the focus from the story to the vocabulary words, and might be useful in a classroom with many English language learners, or in any classroom when a greater emphasis on vocabulary is appropriate. More elaborate instruction also might include using additional sentence contexts for each word, a "yea or nay" activity ("Would you dawdle in the backwoods?"), or having students write a scenario, or story that contains these words.

Some cautions

Explicit vocabulary instruction does seem to improve comprehension significantly, at least when the words taught come from the text students are reading. Nevertheless, some cautions are in order. First, teaching vocabulary as students read can, under certain circumstances, distract them from the main ideas of the text. Second, teaching words that are not important to understanding the text leads students to focus on individual word meanings rather than on the overall meaning of what they read. The more effort students expend focusing on word meanings, the less effort they will have available to recall information that is important to comprehension. ²⁵ Thus, to be effective, pre-reading vocabulary instruction should focus on words that relate to the major ideas in a text, rather than on words that are interesting or unusual.

Excerpt from: Texas Education Agency. (2002). Promoting Vocabulary Development: Components of Effective Vocabulary Instruction, 2002 Online Revisited Edition (pp. 10-20). Retrieved October 11, 2007, from http://www.tea.state.tx.us/reading/practives/redbk5.pdf.

iunningham, A. E., & Stanovich, K. E. (1991). Tracking the unique effects of print exposure in children: Associations with vocabulary, general knowledge, and spelling. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83, 264-274.; Fielding, L. G., Wilson, P. T., & Anderson, R. C. (1986). A new focus on free reading: The role of trade books in reading instruction. In T. Raphael & R. E. Reynolds (Eds.), The contexts of school-based literacy. New York: Random House.

2 Herman, P. A., Anderson, R. C., Pearson, P. D., & Nagy, W. E. (1987). Incidental acquisition of word meanings from expositions with varied text features. Reading Research Quarterly, 23, 263-284.; Nagy, W. E., Anderson, R. C., & Herman, P. A. (1987). Learning word meanings from context during normal reading. American Educational Research Journal, 24, 237-270.; Nagy, W. E., Herman, P. A., & Anderson, R. C. (1985). Learning words from context. Reading Research Quarterly, 20, 233-253.

3 Krashen, S. (1993). The power of reading: Insights from the research. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited.

4 Carver, R. P. (1994). Percentage of unknown vocabulary words in text as a function of the relative difficulty of the text: Implications for instruction. Journal of Reading Behavior, 26, 413-437.; Carver, R. P., & Leibert, R.E. (1995). The effect of reading library books at different levels of difficulty upon gain in reading ability. Reading Research Quarterly, 30, 26-48.

5 Shefelbine, J. L. (1990). Student factors related to variability in learning word meanings from context. Journal of Reading Behavior, 22, 71-97.

6 Guthrie J.T., Schafer, W.D., Wang, Y., & Afflerbach, P. (1995). Relationships of instruction to amount of reading: An exploration of social, cognitive and instructional connections. Reading Research Quarterly, 30, 8-25.

7 Guthrie, Schafer, Wang & Afflerbach, 1995.

8 Dickinson, D.K., & Smith, M.W. (1944). Long-term effects of preschool teachers' book readings on low-income children's vocabulary and story comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly, 29, 104-122.

9 Stahl, S.A., Richek, M.G., & Vandevier, R. (1991). Learning word meanings through listening: A sixth grade replication. In J. Zutell & S. McCormick (Eds.) Learning factors/teacher factors: Issues in literacy research. Fortieth yearbook of the National Reading Conference (pp. 185-192). Chicago National Reading Conference.

10 Dickinson & Smith, 1994.

11 Graves, M.F., Juel, C., & Graves B.B. (1997). Teaching reading in the twenty-first century. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

12 Brice Heath, S. (1983). A lot of talk about nothing. Language Arts, 60, 39-48.; Brice Heath, S. (1983). Ways with words: Language, Life, and work in communities and classrooms. New York: Cambridge University.

13 Stahl, 1999.

14 McKeown, M. G., Beck, I. L., Omanson, R. C., & Pople, M. T. (1985). Some effects of the nature and frequency of vocabulary instruction on the knowledge and use of words. Reading Research Quarterly, 20, 522-535.

15 Scott & Nagy, 1997.

16 Graves et al., 1997.

17 Nagy, W. E., Winsor, P., Osborn, J. & O'Flahaven, J. (1994). Structural analysis: Some guidelines for instruction. In F. Lehr & J. Osborn (Eds.), Reading, language, and literacy: Instruction for the twenty-first century (pp. 45-58). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

18 Anderson & Nagy, 1991; Sternberg, R. J. (1987). Most vocabulary is learned from context. In M. G. McKeown & M. E. Curtis (Eds.), The nature of vocabulary acquisition (pp. 89-105). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

19 Stahl, 1999.

20 Stahl, S. A., & Fairbanks, M. M. (1986). The effects of vocabulary instruction: A model-based meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 56, 72-110.

21 Beck, I. L., Perfetti, C. A., & McKeown, M. G. (1982). Effects of long-term vocabulary instruction on lexical access and reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 74(4), 506-521.

22 Beck, Perfetti, & McKeown, (1982).

23 Stahl, S. A., & Clark, C. H. (1987). The effects of participatory expectations in classroom discussion on the learning of science vocabulary. American Educational Research Journal, 24, 541-556.

24 This sample lesson is adapted from Stahl, 1999.

25 Wixson, K.K. (1986). Vocabulary instruction and children's comprehension of basal stories. Reading Research Quarterly. 21, 317-329.

For any reprint requests, please contact the author or publisher listed.

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The Components of Effective Vocabulary Instruction

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To be effective, a program of vocabulary instruction should provide students with opportunities for word learning by: encouraging wide reading; exposing students to high-quality oral language; promoting word consciousness; providing explicit instruction of specific words; and providing modeling and instruction in independent word-learning strategies.

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The Importance of Vocabulary Development

According to Steven Stahl (2005), "Vocabulary knowledge is knowledge; the knowledge of a word not only implies a definition, but also implies how that word fits into the world." We continue to develop vocabulary throughout our lives. Words are powerful. Words open up possibilities, and of course, that's what we want for all of our students.

​ Teaching words and vocabulary-learning strategies with Read Naturally programs

Key Concepts

Differences in Early Vocabulary Development

We know that young children acquire vocabulary indirectly, first by listening when others speak or read to them, and then by using words to talk to others. As children begin to read and write, they acquire more words through understanding what they are reading and then incorporate those words into their speaking and writing.

Vocabulary knowledge varies greatly among learners. The word knowledge gap between groups of children begins before they enter school. Why do some students have a richer, fuller vocabulary than some of their classmates?

Language rich home with lots of verbal stimulation

Wide background experiences

Read to at home and at school

Read a lot independently

Early development of word consciousness

Why do some students have a limited, inadequate vocabulary compared to most of their classmates?

Speaking/vocabulary not encouraged at home

Limited experiences outside of home

Limited exposure to books

Reluctant reader

Second language-English language learners

Children who have been encouraged by their parents to ask questions and to learn about things and ideas come to school with oral vocabularies many times larger than children from disadvantaged homes. Without intervention this gap grows ever larger as students proceed through school (Hart and Risley, 1995).

How Vocabulary Affects Reading Development

From the research, we know that vocabulary supports reading development and increases comprehension. Students with low vocabulary scores tend to have low comprehension and students with satisfactory or high vocabulary scores tend to have satisfactory or high comprehension scores.

The report of the National Reading Panel states that the complex process of comprehension is critical to the development of children's reading skills and cannot be understood without a clear understanding of the role that vocabulary development and instruction play in understanding what is read (NRP, 2000).

Chall's classic 1990 study showed that students with low vocabulary development were able to maintain their overall reading test scores at expected levels through grade four, but their mean scores for word recognition and word meaning began to slip as words became more abstract, technical, and literary. Declines in word recognition and word meaning continued, and by grade seven, word meaning scores had fallen to almost three years below grade level, and mean reading comprehension was almost a year below. Jeanne Chall coined the term "the fourth-grade slump" to describe this pattern in developing readers (Chall, Jacobs, and Baldwin, 1990).

Incidental and Intentional Vocabulary Learning

How do we close the gap for students who have limited or inadequate vocabularies? The National Reading Panel (2000) concluded that there is no single research-based method for developing vocabulary and closing the gap. From its analysis, the panel recommended using a variety of indirect (incidental) and direct (intentional) methods of vocabulary instruction.

Incidental Vocabulary Learning
Most students acquire vocabulary incidentally through indirect exposure to words at home and at school-by listening and talking, by listening to books read aloud to them, and by reading widely on their own.

The amount of reading is important to long-term vocabulary development (Cunningham and Stanovich, 1998). Extensive reading provides students with repeated or multiple exposures to words and is also one of the means by which students see vocabulary in rich contexts (Kamil and Hiebert, 2005).

Intentional Vocabulary Learning
Students need to be explicitly taught methods for intentional vocabulary learning. According to Michael Graves (2000), effective intentional vocabulary instruction includes:

Teaching specific words (rich, robust instruction) to support understanding of texts containing those words.

Teaching word-learning strategies that students can use independently.

Promoting the development of word consciousness and using word play activities to motivate and engage students in learning new words.

Research-Supported Vocabulary-Learning Strategies

Students need a wide range of independent word-learning strategies. Vocabulary instruction should aim to engage students in actively thinking about word meanings, the relationships among words, and how we can use words in different situations. This type of rich, deep instruction is most likely to influence comprehension (Graves, 2006; McKeown and Beck, 2004).

Student-Friendly Definitions

The meaning of a new word should be explained to students rather than just providing a dictionary definition for the word-which may be difficult for students to understand. According to Isabel Beck, two basic principles should be followed in developing student-friendly explanations or definitions (Beck et al., 2013):

Characterize the word and how it is typically used.

Explain the meaning using everyday language-language that is accessible and meaningful to the student.

Sometimes a word's natural context (in text or literature) is not informative or helpful for deriving word meanings (Beck et al., 2013). It is useful to intentionally create and develop instructional contexts that provide strong clues to a word's meaning. These are usually created by teachers, but they can sometimes be found in commercial reading programs.

Defining Words Within Context

Research shows that when words and easy-to-understand explanations are introduced in context, knowledge of those words increases (Biemiller and Boote, 2006) and word meanings are better learned (Stahl and Fairbanks, 1986). When an unfamiliar word is likely to affect comprehension, the most effective time to introduce the word's meaning may be at the moment the word is met in the text.

Using Context Clues

Research by Nagy and Scott (2000) showed that students use contextual analysis to infer the meaning of a word by looking closely at surrounding text. Since students encounter such an enormous number of words as they read, some researchers believe that even a small improvement in the ability to use context clues has the potential to produce substantial, long-term vocabulary growth (Nagy, Herman, and Anderson, 1985; Nagy, Anderson, and Herman, 1987; Swanborn and de Glopper, 1999).

Sketching the Words

For many students, it is easier to remember a word's meaning by making a quick sketch that connects the word to something personally meaningful to the student. The student applies each target word to a new, familiar context. The student does not have to spend a lot of time making a great drawing. The important thing is that the sketch makes sense and helps the student connect with the meaning of the word.

Applying the Target Words

Applying the target words provides another context for learning word meanings. When students are challenged to apply the target words to their own experiences, they have another opportunity to understand the meaning of each word at a personal level. This allows for deep processing of the meaning of each word.

Analyzing Word Parts

The ability to analyze word parts also helps when students are faced with unknown vocabulary. If students know the meanings of root words and affixes, they are more likely to understand a word containing these word parts. Explicit instruction in word parts includes teaching meanings of word parts and disassembling and reassembling words to derive meaning (Baumann et al., 2002; Baumann, Edwards, Boland, Olejnik, and Kame'enui, 2003; Graves, 2004).

Semantic Mapping

Semantic maps help students develop connections among words and increase learning of vocabulary words (Baumann et al., 2003; Heimlich and Pittleman, 1986). For example, by writing an example, a non-example, a synonym, and an antonym, students must deeply process the word persist.

Word Consciousness

Word consciousness is an interest in and awareness of words (Anderson and Nagy, 1992; Graves and Watts-Taffe, 2002). Students who are word conscious are aware of the words around them-those they read and hear and those they write and speak (Graves and Watts-Taffe, 2002). Word-conscious students use words skillfully. They are aware of the subtleties of word meaning. They are curious about language, and they enjoy playing with words and investigating the origins and histories of words.

Teachers need to take word-consciousness into account throughout their instructional day-not just during vocabulary lessons (Scott and Nagy, 2004). It is important to build a classroom "rich in words" (Beck et al., 2002). Students should have access to resources such as dictionaries, thesauruses, word walls, crossword puzzles, Scrabble® and other word games, literature, poetry books, joke books, and word-play activities.

Teachers can promote the development of word consciousness in many ways:

Language categories: Students learn to make finer distinctions in their word choices if they understand the relationships among words, such as synonyms, antonyms, and homographs.

Figurative language: The ability to deal with figures of speech is also a part of word-consciousness (Scott and Nagy 2004). The most common figures of speech are similes, metaphors, and idioms.

Once language categories and figurative language have been taught, students should be encouraged to watch for examples of these in all content areas.

Teaching Words and Vocabulary-Learning Strategies With Read Naturally Programs

Take Aim at Vocabulary: Build Vocabulary in the Middle Grades

These intentional vocabulary learning strategies can be efficiently and effectively implemented using Read Naturally's program Take Aim! at Vocabulary. Take Aim is appropriate for students who can read at least at a fourth grade level. Take Aim is available in two formats:

The semi-independent format provides differentiated instruction for students working mostly independently.

The small-group format is designed for small-group instruction-up to six students.

Each Take Aim level teaches 288 carefully selected target words in the context of engaging, non-fiction stories. The target words are systematically taught using the research-based strategies described above. The intensive and focused lesson design helps students learn the target words and internalize the skills and strategies necessary for independently learning unknown words.

Learn more about how Take Aim teaches vocabulary and word-learning strategies:

Splat-O-Nym: Vocabulary Word Game for iPad

Read Naturally also offers a Splat-O-Nym app for iPad that teaches vocabulary using game-based technology. Splat-O-Nym quizzes students with synonym questions, antonym questions, and meaning-from-context questions and awards points for correct answers.

Learn more about the Splat-O-Nym app:

Other Programs That Support Vocabulary Development

These other Read Naturally programs do not focus on vocabulary but include activities that support vocabulary development:

Read Naturally® Live
Cloud-based software that develops fluency and phonics and also provides support for vocabulary with audio-supported definitions of key words.
Learn more about Read Naturally Live

Bibliography

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Baumann, J. F., Edwards, E. C., Font, G., Tereshinski, C. A., Kame'enui, E. J., & Olejnik, S. (2002). "Teaching morphemic and contextual analysis to fifth-grade students." Reading Research Quarterly, Vol. 37, pp. 150-176.

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Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., & Kucan, L. (2013). Bringing words to life. Robust vocabulary instruction, 2nd ed., New York: Guilford Press.

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Vocabulary development supports reading and increases comprehension. Students need to be explicitly taught words and vocabulary learning strategies.