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Martin Hughes (1975)

Purpose:
Hughes argued that the three mountains task did not make sense to children and was made more difficult because the children had to match the doll's view with a photograph.

Methodology:
He showed children a model comprising two intersecting walls, a 'boy' doll and a 'policeman' doll. He then placed the policeman doll in various positions and asked the child to hide the boy doll from the policeman.

Hughes did this to make sure that the child understood what was being asked of him, so if s/he made mistakes they were explained and the child tried again.

Result:
Interestingly, very few mistakes were made. Hughes' sample comprised children between three and a half and five years of age, of whom 90 per cent gave correct answers. Even when he devised a more complex situation, with more walls and a third policeman, 90 per cent of four-year-olds were successful.

Further research:
Hughes brought in a second policeman doll, and placed both dolls at the end of two walls, as shown in the illustration above. The child was asked to hide the boy from both policemen, in other words he had to take account of two different points of view.

Findings:
This shows that children have largely lost their egocentric thinking by four years of age, because they are able to take the view of another. Hughes' experiment allowed them to demonstrate this because the task made sense to the child, whereas Piaget's did not.

Reference:
http://www.simplypsychology.org/preoperational.html

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1.According to Piaget,out of ....was out of....?
Mind,sight
sight,mind,
view,memory
memory,view

2.Robert Fantz developed which technique ?

visual preferance
audiotory preferance
visual habituation
violation of expactancy

3.The capacity of the brain to be shaped :

canalization
synaptic pruning
plasticity
critical periodity

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Rutter et al (2007)

• Sample: Romanian orphans adopted in the UK before the age of 4. Many were severely malnourished. • Control Group: UK-born adoptees who were placed with families before 6 months • Independent Variable: age at adoption (<6mths, 6mths – 24mths, 2-4 years) • Dependent Variable: inhibited/disinhibited attachment

Conditions in Romanian orphanages were very poor and children were often neglected

Findings :
• Disinhibited attachment: – Attention seeking behaviour towards all adults – Lack of fear of strangers – Inappropriate physical contact – Lack of checking back to the parent in stressful situations

ECONOMIC POVERTY IS NOT THE MAIN ISSUE - SOCIAL POVERTY IS! • To live in - and belong to - a social group is more important for child development than anything else - economic status, ethnicity, etc. • To have continuous caregivers from birth to school age is important.

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key: bcabb

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looking forward to doing all these quizzes!

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1. In perceptual constancies, infants cannot realise the change of the object because

The baby fails to identify the change.

The baby still do not have the idea of movement.

The baby adjusts for perceived physical changes of size and shape.

2. In sensorimotor stage, the infant may show which one of the phenomenon below?

Stareing the object which it has never seen before in longer time.

Stareing the sudden appearing unfamiliar object among the familiar object in longer time.

Stareing the abnormal object which they cannot understand in longer time.

3. The infant stay in               may prefer sweetness after birth.

Low amniotic fluids

Low acuity

Low teratogens

4. The infant may               in the sensorimotor stage.

Climb to the direction of acoustic source

Point at the direction of acoustic source

Turn to the direction of acoustic source

5. The infants who show an avoidant attachment style may

show more positive response to others

be more aggressive in the social relationship

fail to maintain close relationship with others

Key: C.B.A.C.B

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Quiz of Lecture 8

1. Name three classic experiment of the study on institutionalized children.
(Page 2)

2. What is John Bowlby’s theory of attachment?
(Page 3)

3. What is a homeostatic mechanism?
(Page 3)

4. Describe Harry Harlow's experiment (1960s) briefly.
(Page 5)

5. Which three parts consist of the basic situation of Ainsworth’s strange situation?
(Page 7)

6. What is the percentage of disorganized style in strange situation?
(Page 9)

7. Who rises the idea of behavioural inhibition?
(Page 12)

8. Which two factors can shape the attachment style?
(Page 13)

9. Describe the phenomenon of three adult attachment.
(Page 14)

What is the finding of the research of Rutter et al.(2007) on the Romanian orphans?
(Page 19)

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HIf you guys need the answers, let me know. I don't want to put them here, so you're not tempted :-D

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Martina first part

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Martina second part

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1. What is the three attachment styles of Ainsworth’s strange situation?
(Lecture 8 page 8)

2. What is the internal working model of attachment?
(Lecture 8 page 11)

3. What is behavioural inhibition?
(Lecture 8 page 12)

4. When will be a significant shift away from egocentric speech and increasing perspective taking?
(Lecture 9 page 5)

5. After what age will children select a different scene in the three mountain task?
(Lecture 9 page 6)

6. During which stage will children show a false belief?
(Lecture 9 page 9)

7. What are the three explanations of theory of mind?
(Lecture 9 page 9)

8. From what age will children be more realistic about where they are on which four stages?
(Lecture 9 page 12)

9. With what kind of parents child may have less self-control?
(Lecture 9 page 13)

10. What is the taxonomy of language(5 elements)?
(Lecture 10 page 3)

11. Give 2 examples of the factors that can stimulate infants.
(Lecture 10 page 6)

12. How neonates adjust sucking rate is measured via?
(Lecture 10 page 8)

13. How do infants categorize the perceptual phenomenon?
(Lecture 10 page 13)

14. Describe the head-turn preference procedure.
(Lecture 10 page 16)

15. What is acquired distinctiveness?
(Lecture 10 page 18)

Key

1. Insecurely avoidant; securely attached; insecurely resistant.

2. Child has expectations about how carer will respond when child feel insecure.

3. The tendency towards shyness and fear.

4. Between 4 and 7 age.

5. After age 6 or 7.

6. Age 3 and 5.

7. (1) Fail to generate representation of others mind.
(2) Lack the language skill.
(3) Fail to inhibit the ‘curse of knowledge’.

8. From age 8 will children be more realistic about where they are on

9. Scholastic achievement

10. Social acceptance

11. Athletic competence

12. Physical appearance

13. With strict parents.

14. (1) Phonology
(2) Morphology
(3) Syntax
(4) Semantics
(5) Pragmatics

15. Startle and muffled voice.

16. Contingency learning

17. Set the same pronunciation in the same group.

18. Head-turn preference procedure

19. Sit on parent lap (older infant) faces forward.

20. Looks at blue light.

21. Light ‘blinks’, capture attention - then stops

22. Red light (or toys) on RHS; child looks.

23. Sound/speech on LHS; Head turns

24. If look away for > 2 seconds; sounds stop.

25. Trains child to turn towards reinforce to listen to the auditory.

26. Relevant dimensions of auditory input become distinctive, and irrelevant dimensions not discriminated so become equivalent.

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Eleaner Gibson& Richard
Walk,1960-----visual cliff                                  Claire

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Eleaner Gibson& Richard
Walk,1960-----visual cliff                                  Claire

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Aim:

Prior to the visual cliff experiment, researchers had found that infants are able to respond to depth cues before they are able to crawl, which happens around ages six to eight months. Depth cues are just visual cues that are used to estimate the distance between objects. Thus, it is safe to say that most infants will not crawl off ledges, table tops and other surfaces that drop off into open spaces.

Psychologists Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk were interested in studying depth perception in infants. Gibson and Walk wanted to know if depth perception is a learned behaviour or if it is something that we are born with.

Method:

Device: Half of the glass table had a checker pattern underneath in order to create the appearance of a 'shallow side'. In order to create a 'deep side,' a checker pattern was created on the floor; this side is the visual cliff.

Subject: 36 infants between the ages of six and 14 months, all of whom could crawl.

Procedure:

The infants were placed on the centre board one by one. The mother of each child would call the child from the deep side and the shallow side consecutively. Researchers looked to see if the infant would cross the deep side and crawl to the mother, or if the infant would crawl away from its mother toward the shallow side.

Results of the Experiment

Gibson and Walk found the following:

• Nine of the infants did not move off the center board.

• All of the 27 infants who did move crossed into the shallow side when their mothers called them from the shallow side.

• Three of the infants crawled off the visual cliff toward their mother when called from the deep side.

• When called from the deep side, the remaining 24 children either crawled to the shallow side or cried because they could not cross the visual cliff and make it to their mother.

Conclusion:

Gibson and Walk concluded that, although we are not born with the ability to discriminate and perceive depth, this ability manifests as soon as we are able to crawl. Humans are not born fearing heights, but rather we develop this fear sometime during the stages of infancy.

Researchers found that when placed in uncertain circumstances, such as a situation where an infant cannot get to its mother without falling off of a cliff, infants look for cues from those around them to decide how to proceed. The infants whose mothers had a frightened look on their faces did not attempt to crawl across the glass, while the infants whose mothers appeared happy and encouraging crawled onto the glass.

video:https://youtu.be/3WvtEFJGp-8

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Delay of Gratification

Experiment:

In the 1960’s, Walter Mischel gave 4 years old the choice of receiving immediate gratification for a small reward (1 marshmallow) or the chance to delay for a better reward

(2 marshmallows).

Findings:

At 14 years, children capable of delaying, scored higher on IQ, were more socially competent and better adjusted to control temper. Less addictive behaviours at 27 years. Why do you think that might be so?

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by Simon Baron-Cohen, Alan M. Leslie, and Uta Frith (1985)

Purpose: to measure a person's social cognitive ability to attribute false beliefs to others
(the core of Theory of Mind)

Methodology:

In the test process, after introducing the dolls, the child is asked the control question of recalling their names (the Naming Question). A short skit is then enacted; Sally takes a marble and hides it in her basket. She then "leaves" the room and goes for a walk. While she is away, Anne takes the marble out of Sally's basket and puts it in her own box. Sally is then reintroduced and the child is asked the key question, the Belief Question: "Where will Sally look for her marble?"

Result

In the Baron-Cohen et al. (1985) study, 23 of the 27 clinically unimpaired children (85%) and 12 of the 14 Down's syndrome children (86%) answered the Belief Question correctly. However, only four of the 20 autistic children (20%) answered correctly. Overall, children under the age of four, along with most autistic children (of older ages), answered the Belief Question with "Anne's box", seemingly unaware that Sally does not know her marble has been moved.

Thinking: Ben and Amy?

Implication:
Passing the test is thus seen as the manifestation of a participant understanding that Sally has her own beliefs that may not correlate with reality; this is the core requirement of theory of mind.

Finding:

The test is by no means fully conclusive; however, its application is telling about social development trends in autism.

Further research/hypothesis: Doll and real actor(1988, Leslie and Frith) have similar result

Criticism:

other possible factors. For instance, individuals with autism may pass the cognitively simpler recall task, but language issues in both autistic children and deaf controls tend to confound results.

eye gaze as a social communicative function. They added a third possible location for the marble: the pocket of the investigator. When autistic children and children with moderate learning disabilities were tested in this format, they found that both groups answered the Belief Question equally well; however, participants with moderate learning disabilities reliably looked at the correct location of the marble, while autistic participants did not, even if the autistic participant answered the question correctly. These results may be an expression of the social deficits relevant to autism. (Ruffman, Garnham, and Rideout, 2001)

Tager-Flusberg (2007) states that in spite of the empirical findings with the Sally-Anne task, there is a growing uncertainty among scientists about the importance of the underlying theory-of-mind hypothesis of autism. In all studies that have been done, some children with autism pass false-belief tasks such as Sally-Anne

Reference:

Wimmer H, Perner J (1983). "Beliefs about beliefs: Representation and constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children's understanding of deception". Cognition 13 (1): 103–128. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(83)90004-5. PMID 6681741.

Baron-Cohen S, Leslie AM, Frith U (1985). "Does the autistic child have a 'theory of mind'?" (PDF). Cognition 21 (1): 37–46. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(85)90022-8. PMID 2934210. Retrieved 2008-02-16.

Leslie A M, Frith U (1988). "Autistic children's understanding of seeing, knowing and believing". British Journal of Developmental Psychology 6 (4): 315–324. doi:10.1111/j.2044-835X.1988.tb01104.x.

Premack DG, Woodruff G (1978). "Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind?". Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1 (4): 515–526. doi:10.1017/S0140525X00076512. Retrieved 2012-11-19.

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It's definitely worth seeing all lectures.

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PSYC 110 - Lecture 5 - What Is It Like to Be a Baby: The Development of Thought | Open Yale Courses

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This lecture explores issues and ideas related to the branch of psychology known as cognitive development. It begins with an introduction of Piaget who, interested in the emergence of knowledge in general, studied children and the way they learn about the world in order to formulate his theories of cognitive development.

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Environmental Enrichment as an effective treatment for Autism

Published in: APA journal Behavioural Neuroscience

Method:
28 autistic boys, ages 3 to 12. Researchers placed the boys in two groups based on their age and autism severity. For six months, both groups participated in standard behavioural therapy but boys in one of the groups also underwent daily environmental enrichment exercises.

Findings: sensory enrichment may well be an effective therapy for the treatment of autism, particularly in children much past the toddler age.

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Murray & Trevarthan 1985
provided what seemed to be strong evidence that 2-months old infants can discriminate a view of their mother interacting with them via TV either live or in a reply.

Method: A double closed circuit colour television system was build similar to the one employed.

The apparatus was set up in two adjasent rooms

In both rooms, a mental frame structure supported a TV monitor facing down. The image from the TV was reflected in a one-way mirror

A video recorder was placed behind the one-way mirror
The video camera from the infants room transmited the image of the baby

Everything baby did towards mother
Mutual effects to the mother

Smile: Does express feeling
The same feeling as a mother was expressing at the experiment

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Edward Tronick (1975)

Methodology: babies will have three minutes of “interaction” with a non-responsive expressionless mother

Result:

babies rapidly become more serious and grow wary

When repeated attempts to get the interaction into its usual reciprocal pattern fail, the infant withdraws [and] orients his face and body away from his mother with a withdrawn, hopeless facial expression.

Findings:

have some sense of the relationship between facial expression and emotion

have some primitive social understanding

are able to regulate their own affect and attention to some extent

able to plan and execute simple goal-directed behaviours. (attempts to re-engage with their caregivers also suggest)

Further studies:

Wider range of subjects: differences, deaf infants, infants with Down syndrome, cocaine-exposed infants, autistic children, and children of parents with various psychopathologies, especially depression.
[to investigate cross-cultural]

The still face experiment has also proved useful in determining the extent of an infant’s social world. That is, the still face effect is not only elicited by the mother (i.e. the primary caregiver), but also by fathers, strangers, and even by televised images of other adults. However, infants do not respond in similar ways to objects, no matter how interesting, interactive, or dynamic they appear to be. This provides more evidence that young infants readily categorize the world into potential social partners and inanimate objects.

The video of still-face effect

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=apzXGEbZht0

Reference:

http://scienceblogs.com/thoughtfulanimal/2010/10/18/ed-tronick-and-the-still-face/ [Accessed in Feb.08 2016]

Adamson, L., & Frick, J. (2003). The Still Face: A History of a Shared Experimental Paradigm Infancy, 4 (4), 451-473 DOI: 10.1207/S15327078IN0404_01

Tronick, E., Adamson, L.B., Als, H., & Brazelton, T.B. (1975, April). Infant emotions in normal and pertubated interactions. Paper presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Denver, CO.

A Still-face Paradigm for Young Children: 21/2 Year-olds’ Reactions to Maternal Unavailability during the Still-face

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New-born infants __________. Which one is
not correct.

a. could discriminate between
stimuli using the habituation technique

b. prefer sweet food because amniotic
fluid have an impact on their taste preference.

c.  could not recognise
that a moving object is the same thing as when it is still

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can you cover your wall at home with terms and definitions from Schacter ch 11 and 12?  take a photo and post it up here...

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The questions range from quite easy to difficult:

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The questions range from quite easy to difficult:

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developmental psychology revision lecture 2015 

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developmental psychology revision lecture 2015 