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Adolescenes is the phase where teenagers are exposed to a lot of things. The world is a reservoir for them and they want to explore it. This often leads them engage in various negative behaviours and the social pressure aggragate these factors.

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I- EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT: Ups & Downs of Life.
-Adolescents are widely emotional and they experience huge swings in mood and turbulent outburst of emotions.
-These swings occur very frequently and maybe in a regular basis.
II- PARENTING STYLES AND THEIR EFFECTS ON ADOLESCENTS :
-There are growing source that parenting styles have a major role to play in a child's development.
- Two key dimensions:

Parental demandingness : The extent to which parents are strict or controlling .

Parental Responsivenes : The extent to which parents are involved in and supportive of their chhildren's activities.

- These dimensions lead to different Parenting Styles:

Authoritarian Parents - They are high in demanding(controlling) and low in responsiveness.

Authoritative Parents - They are high in both demandingness and responsiveness.

Permissive Parents - They are in high responsiveness and low in demandingness.

Rejecting/Neglecting Parents - They are low both in responsiveness and demandingness.

III - FRIENDSHIPS AND THE QUEST FOR IDENTITY:
-Friendships primarily with own gender and also with members of other gender become increasingly important.
- Most adolescents are part of extensive social networks consisting of many friends and acquaintances.
- One motive for forming friendships seems to be the developing need to belong - the need to have frequent positive interactions within ongoing relationships.
- Adolescence at this stage reject parental influence and identify more with their peers.
- Friendships and social success play and important role in personal identity.

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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT - FORMAL OPERATIONS: DEALING WITH ABSTRACTIONS AS WELL AS REALITY
- Major features of adult thought make their appearance.
- The abstract thinking capacity of the child develops- they can deal not only with real and concrete but with possibilities - events or relationships that do not exist, but can be imagined.
- They become capable of HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE REASONING: ability to generate hypothesis and to think logically about symbols, ideas and propositions.
- They also engage in INTERPROPOSITIONAL THINKING : thinking in which they seek to test validity of several propositions.
- They use their powers of reasoning to construct sweeping theories about human relationships, ethics or political systems.
- Even though the children who have reached this stage are capable of engaging in advanced forms of thought, there is no guarantee they they will actually do so as it requires lots of cognitive efforts.
https://www.verywellmind.com/formal-operational-stage-of-cognitive-development-2795459
https://www.simplypsychology.org/formal-operational.html#:~:text=The%20formal%20operational%20stage%20begins,Inhelder%20%26%20Piaget%2C%201958).

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Changes in the capacity to reason about the rightness or wrongness of various actions that occur with age. He suggested that humans move through 3 distinct levels of moral reasoning.

The experiment done by him to judge morality is known as HEINZ'S DILEMMA. Based on the answers Kholberg received from the children of different group he noticed that the judgement of morality tended to change as children grew older.
The levels identified by him were:
1- PRECONVENTIONAL
2- CONVENTIONAL
3- POST CONVENTIONAL
https://www.simplypsychology.org/kohlberg.html

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SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT - EARLY CHILDHOOD.

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SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT - EARLY CHILDHOOD.

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SCHOOLS & FRIENDSHIPS :
1- In schools children acquire a lot of information that contributes to their cognitive development.
2- They also get the opprtunity to develop social skills.
3- They learn to share, cooperate, to work together in groups to solve problems.
4- The most important relationship they form is friendships.
5- Friendships give children an opportunity to learn social skills that is needed for effective interpersonal relationships.
6- Friendships facilitate children's growing understanding of the fact that others may have thoughts quite different from their own.
7- It also contributes to emotional development

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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT :
CONCRETE OPERATIONAL - THE EMERGENCE OF LOGICAL THOUGHT-
The child's mastery of the concept of CONSERVATION- the fact that certain physical attributes of an object remain unchanged even though it's outward apprearance changes.
- Children gain understanding with of relational terms and SERIATION-refers to the ability to sort objects or situations according to any characteristic, such as size, color, shape, or type.
- They come to understand REVERSIBILITY - which refers to the ability to recognize that numbers or objects can be changed and returned to their original condition.
- The ability to use logic and reasoning appears during this stage.

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The concrete operational stage is the third stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development. This period spans the time of middle childhood-it begins around age 7 and continues until approximately age 11-and is characterized by the development of logical thought.

Thinking still tends to be very concrete, but children become much more logical and sophisticated in their thinking during this stage of development.

While this is an important stage in and of itself, it also serves as an important transition between earlier stages of development and the coming stage where kids will learn how to think more abstractly and hypothetically.

Important things that happen in the concrete operational stage include a great understanding of logic, reversibility, and conservation. Children also become less egocentric during this stage.

Kids at this age become more logical about concrete and specific things, but they still struggle with abstract ideas.

Logic in the Concrete Operational Stage

Piaget determined that children in the concrete operational stage were fairly good at the use of inductive logic (inductive reasoning). Inductive logic involves going from a specific experience to a general principle.

An example of inductive logic would be noticing that every time you are around a cat, you have itchy eyes, a runny nose, and a swollen throat. You might then reason from that experience that you are allergic to cats.

On the other hand, children at this age have difficulty using deductive logic, which involves using a general principle to determine the outcome of a specific event. For example, a child might learn that A=B, and B=C, but might still struggle to understand that A=C.

Reversibility in the Concrete Operational Stage

One important development in this stage is an understanding of reversibility or awareness that actions can be reversed. An example of this is being able to reverse the order of relationships between mental categories.

An example of reversibility is that a child might be able to recognize that his or her dog is a Labrador, that a Labrador is a dog, and that a dog is an animal.

Reversibility is an important step toward more advanced thinking, although at this stage it only applies to concrete situations.

Conservation in the Concrete Operational Stage

Another key development at this stage is the understanding that when something changes in shape or appearance it is still the same, a concept known as conservation.

Kids at this stage understand that if you break a candy bar up into smaller pieces it is still the same amount as when the candy was whole. This is a contrast to younger children who often believe that pouring the same amount of liquid into two cups means that there is more.

For example, imagine that you have two candy bars of the exact same size. You break one candy bar up into two equally sized pieces and the other candy bar up into four smaller but equally sized sections.

A child who is in the concrete operational stage will understand that both candy bars are still the same amount, whereas a younger child will believe that the candy bar that has more pieces is larger than the one with only two pieces.

One of the key characteristics of the concrete-operational stage is the ability to focus on many parts of a problem.

While kids in the preoperational stage of development tend to focus on just one aspect of a situation or problem, those in the concrete operational stage are able to engage in what is known as "decentration." They are able to concentrate on many aspects of a situation at the same time, which plays a critical role in the understanding of conservation.

Egocentrism in the Concrete Operational Stage

The concrete operational stage is also marked by decreases in egocentrism. While children in the preceding stage of development (the preoperational stage) struggle to take the perspective of others, kids in the concrete stage are able to think about things the way that others see them.

In Piaget's Three-Mountain Task, for example, children in the concrete operational stage can describe how a mountain scene would look to an observer seated opposite them.

In other words, kids are not only able to start thinking about how other people view and experience the world, they even start to use this type of information when making decisions or solving problems.

While kids at earlier stages of development are egocentric, those in the concrete operational stage become more socio-centric.

In other words, they are able to understand that other people have their own thoughts. Kids at this point are aware that other people have unique perspectives, but they might not yet be able to guess exactly how or what that other person is experiencing.

Tips for Activities in the Concrete Operational Stage

Parents and other caregivers can help children develop their cognitive skills during this stage by encouraging a number of different activities. Some ideas that can help foster cognitive skills include:

Playing with building blocks

Pouring liquids into different-sized containers to demonstrate conservation

Doing things for other people to help kids think about other perspectives

Reading books and talking about what a child thinks might happen next

Comparing sizes of similar objects and breaking them into smaller pieces to demonstrate principles of conservation

A Word From Verywell

This stage of cognitive development also serves as an important transition between the preoperational and formal operational stages. The growing ability to mentally manipulate information and think about the thoughts of others will play a critical role in the formal operational stage of development when logic and abstract thought become critical.

Additional Reading

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Characteristics of Concrete Operational Stage in Cognitive Development

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The concrete operational stage of cognitive development occurs between the ages of 7 and 11. Learn about this stage's characteristics and milestones.

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Close physical contact between the infant and caregivers is essential to attachment. To find out about this an experiment was conducted by Harlow that is known as the surrogate mother experiment.

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Association for Psychological Science - APS

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Harry Harlow's empirical work with primates is now considered a "classic" in behavioral science, revolutionizing our understanding of the role that social relationships play in early development. In the 1950s and 60s, psychological research in the United States was dominated by behaviorists and psychoanalysts, who supported the view that babies became attached to their mothers because they provided food. Harlow and other social and cognitive psychologists argued that this perspective overlooked the importance of comfort, companionship, and love in promoting healthy development.

Using methods of isolation and maternal deprivation, Harlow showed the impact of contact comfort on primate development. Infant rhesus monkeys were taken away from their mothers and raised in a laboratory setting, with some infants placed in separate cages away from peers. In social isolation, the monkeys showed disturbed behavior, staring blankly, circling their cages, and engaging in self-mutilation. When the isolated infants were re-introduced to the group, they were unsure of how to interact - many stayed separate from the group, and some even died after refusing to eat.

Even without complete isolation, the infant monkeys raised without mothers developed social deficits, showing reclusive tendencies and clinging to their cloth diapers. Harlow was interested in the infants' attachment to the cloth diapers, speculating that the soft material may simulate the comfort provided by a mother's touch. Based on this observation, Harlow designed his now-famous surrogate mother experiment.

In this study, Harlow took infant monkeys from their biological mothers and gave them two inanimate surrogate mothers: one was a simple construction of wire and wood, and the second was covered in foam rubber and soft terry cloth. The infants were assigned to one of two conditions. In the first, the wire mother had a milk bottle and the cloth mother did not; in the second, the cloth mother had the food while the wire mother had none.

In both conditions, Harlow found that the infant monkeys spent significantly more time with the terry cloth mother than they did with the wire mother. When only the wire mother had food, the babies came to the wire mother to feed and immediately returned to cling to the cloth surrogate.

Harlow's work showed that infants also turned to inanimate surrogate mothers for comfort when they were faced with new and scary situations. When placed in a novel environment with a surrogate mother, infant monkeys would explore the area, run back to the surrogate mother when startled, and then venture out to explore again. Without a surrogate mother, the infants were paralyzed with fear, huddled in a ball sucking their thumbs. If an alarming noise-making toy was placed in the cage, an infant with a surrogate mother present would explore and attack the toy; without a surrogate mother, the infant would cower in fear.

Together, these studies produced groundbreaking empirical evidence for the primacy of the parent-child attachment relationship and the importance of maternal touch in infant development. More than 70 years later, Harlow's discoveries continue to inform the scientific understanding of the fundamental building blocks of human behavior.
References
Harlow H. F., Dodsworth R. O., & Harlow M. K. (1965). Total social isolation in monkeys. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC285801/pdf/pnas00159-0105.pdf

Suomi, S. J., & Leroy, H. A. (1982). In memoriam: Harry F. Harlow (1905-1981). American Journal of Primatology, 2, 319-342. doi:10.1002/ajp.1350020402

Tavris, C. A. (2014). Teaching contentious classics. The Association for Psychological Science. Retrieved from https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/teaching-contentious-classics

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Harlow's Classic Studies Revealed the Importance of Maternal Contact

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Harry Harlow's empirical work with primates is now considered a "classic" in behavioral science, revolutionizing our understanding of the role that social relationships play in early development. In the 1950s and 60s, psychological research in the United States was dominated by behaviorists and psychoanalysts, who supported the view that babies became attached to their mothers because they provided food.

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1- Social Learning Theory - emphasizes the role of learning;especially the impact of modelling & operant conditioning. Acc. to this theory,children are rewarded for behaving in accordance with gender stereotypes - cultural beliefs about differences between male & female and gender roles - expected behaviours of males and females in many situations.
Children also have a tendency to imitate models they  perceive as being similar to themselves, they tend to adopt the behviours of the same sex-parent.

2- Cognitive development theory - suggests that children's understanding of gender is just one reflection of their steady growth. When they acquire the ability to classify things as belonging to specific categories, they begin to form an idea of gender stability. They realize that they belong to one category and won't shift to other. This theory suggest that children first develop their gender identity and then adopt behaviours consistent with this identity.

3- Gender schema theory  (Bem) - Children acquire gender schemas- cognitive frameworks reflecting children's experiences with their society's belief about attributes of males and females. Once these are formed they strongly affects the processing of new social information.
Children processing such schemas, gender is a key concept, one they often use in attempts to make sense out of the social world, and one that becomes linked in important ways to their self-concept.

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Gender identity- the ability to understanding of the fact the one is male or female. This is developed quite early in life, by the time they are 2 most children have learned to label themselves appropriately and consistently.

Understanding of Gender stability comes by the time the children are 4 yrs. old. They grasp the concept that gender is stable over time.

By the time they are 6 or 7 that children acquire Gender consistency- understanding that their gender will not change even if they adopted the behaviour, dress or hairstyles of the other gender.

Complete understanding of one's sexual identity involves all the three components and centres around a biologically based category they term as Sex-category-constancy - Complete understanding of one's sexual identity,centering around a biologically based categorical distinction between males and females.

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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT : PREOPERATIONAL STAGE - GROWTH OF SYMBOLIC ACTIVITY -

Toddlers acquire the ability to form mental images of objects & events.

Language develops to the point at which they think in terms of verbal symbols-words.

They now are capable of many actions they could not perform earlier. They engage in SYMBOLIC PLAY- in which they pretend that one object is another.

Such play is marked by 3 shifts :

1. DECENTRATION

2. DECONTEXTUALIZATION

3. INTEGRATION

Piaget emphasized that these children are still immature even though they are using mental symbols.

Their thinking remains inflexible, illogical, fragmented and tied to specific context.

The way thinking is immature involves EGOCENTRISM.

Children in this stage seem to lack understanding of relational terms as lighter, larger, softer.

They lack SERIATION- the ability to arrange objects in order, along some dimensions.

Finally they lack a grasp of the concept of CONSERVATION - knowlegde that certain physical attributes of an object remains unchanged  even though the outward appearance of the object is altered.

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Piaget's preoperational stage is the second stage of his theory of cognitive development. It begins around age two and lasts until approximately age seven. During this stage, children can think symbolically and engage in make-believe play. However, their thinking is still egocentric and lacks logic.

The child's thinking during this stage is pre- (before) cognitive operations. This means the child cannot use logic, transform, combine, or separate ideas (Piaget, 1951, 1952).

The child's development consists of building experiences about the world through adaptation and working towards the (concrete) stage when it can use logical thought.

During the end of this stage, children can mentally represent events and objects (the semiotic function), and engage in symbolic play.

Key Features

Centration is the tendency to focus on only one aspect of a situation at one time. When a child can focus on more than one aspect of a situation, at the same time, they have the ability to decenter.

During this stage, children have difficulties thinking about more than one aspect of any situation at the same time; and they have trouble decentering in social situation just as they do in non-social contexts.

Egocentrism refers to the child's inability to see a situation from another person's point of view. The egocentric child assumes that other people see, hear, and feel exactly the same as the child does.

In the developmental theory of Jean Piaget, this is a feature of the preoperational child. Childrens" thoughts and communications are typically egocentric (i.e., about themselves).

Play

At the beginning of this stage, you often find children engaging in parallel play. That is to say, they often play in the same room as other children but they play next to others rather than with them.

Each child is absorbed in their own private world, and speech is egocentric. That is to say the main function of speech at this stage is to externalize the child's thinking rather than to communicate with others.

As yet, the child has not grasped the social function of either language or rules.

Symbolic Representation

The early preoperational period (ages 2-3) is marked by a dramatic increase in children's use of the symbolic function.

This is the ability to make one thing - a word or an object - stand for something other than itself. Language is perhaps the most obvious form of symbolism that young children display.

However, Piaget (1951) argues that language does not facilitate cognitive development, but merely reflects what the child already knows and contributes little to new knowledge. He believed cognitive development promotes language development, not vice versa.

Toddlers often pretend to be people they are not (e.g. superheroes, policeman), and may play these roles with props that symbolize real life objects. Children may also invent an imaginary playmate.

"In symbolic play, young children advance upon their cognitions about people, objects and actions and in this way construct increasingly sophisticated representations of the world" (Bornstein, 1996, p. 293).

As the pre-operational stage develops egocentrism declines and children begin to enjoy the participation of another child in their games and "lets pretend " play becomes more important.

For this to work, there is going to be a need for some way of regulating each child's relations with the other and out of this need we see the beginnings of an orientation to others in terms of rules.

Animism

This is the belief that inanimate objects (such as toys and teddy bears) have human feelings and intentions. By animism Piaget (1929) meant that for the pre-operational child the world of nature is alive, conscious and has a purpose.

Piaget has identified four stages of animism:

1. Up to the ages 4 or 5 years, the child believes that almost everything is alive and has a purpose.

2. During the second stage (5-7 years) only objects that move have a purpose.

3. In the next stage (7-9 years), only objects that move spontaneously are thought to be alive.

4. In the last stage (9-12 years), the child understands that only plants and animals are alive.

This is the belief that certain aspects of the environment are manufactured by people (e.g., clouds in the sky).

Irreversibility

This is the inability to reverse the direction of a sequence of events to their starting point.

The Three Mountains Task

Jean Piaget used the three mountains task (see picture below) to test whether children were egocentric. Egocentric children assume that other people will see the same view of the three mountains as they do.

According to Piaget, at age 7, thinking is no longer egocentric, as the child can see more than their own point of view.

Aim: Piaget and Inhelder (1956) wanted to find out at what age children decenter - i.e. become no longer egocentric.

Method: A child is shown a display of three mountains; the tallest mountain is covered with snow. On top of another are some trees, and on top of the third is a church. The child stands on one side of the display, and there is a doll on the other side of it.

The child was allowed to walk round the model, to look at it, then sit down at one side. A doll is then placed at various positions on the table.

The child is shown pictures of the scene from different viewpoints and asked to select the view that best matched what the doll can "see".

The child is then shown 10 photographs of the mountains taken from different positions, and asked to indicate which showed the doll's view.

Piaget assumed that if the child correctly picked out the card showing the doll's view, s/he was not egocentric. Egocentrism would be shown by the child who picked out the card showing the view s/he saw.

Findings - Typically a four years old child reports what can be seen from her perspective and not what can be seen from the doll's perspective.

Six years old were more aware of other viewpoints but still tended to choose the wrong one. This shows egocentrism as the child assumed that the doll "saw" the mountains as he did

Four year-olds almost always chose a picture that represented what they could see and showed no awareness that the doll's view would be different from this.

Six year-olds frequently chose a picture different from their own view but rarely chose the correct picture for the doll's point of view. Only seven- and eight-year-olds consistently chose the correct picture.

Conclusion - At age 7, thinking is no longer egocentric as the child can see more than their own point of view.

Evaluation - It has been suggested that Piaget's tasks at this stage may have underestimated the child's abilities due to a number of factors, including complicated language, unfamiliar materials, lack of context, and children misinterpreting the experimenter's intention.

More recent studies have attempted to ask questions more clearly and to present situations to which children can relate
more easily.

Critical Evaluation

Policeman Doll Study

Martin Hughes (1975) argued that the three mountains task did not make sense to children and was made more difficult because the children had to match the doll's view with a photograph.

Hughes devised a task which made sense to the child. He showed children a model comprising two intersecting walls, a "boy" doll and a "policeman" doll. He then placed the policeman doll in various positions and asked the child to hide the boy doll from the policeman.

Hughes did this to make sure that the child understood what was being asked of him, so if s/he made mistakes they were explained and the child tried again. Interestingly, very few mistakes were made.

The experiment then began. Hughes brought in a second policeman doll, and placed both dolls at the end of two walls, as shown in the illustration above.

The child was asked to hide the boy from both policemen, in other words he had to take account of two different points of view.

Hughes" sample comprised children between three and a half and five years of age, of whom 90 percent gave correct answers. Even when he devised a more complex situation, with more walls and a third policeman, 90 percent of four-year-olds were successful.

This shows that children have largely lost their egocentric thinking by four years of age, because they are able to take the view of another.

Hughes" experiment allowed them to demonstrate this because the task made sense to the child, whereas Piaget's did not. Suggesting that differences in "meaning" children ascribe to situation might cause them to pass or fail task.

The 'Turntable' Task

In Borke's (1975) test of egocentrism the child is given two identical models of a three-dimensional scene (several different scenes were used including different arrangements of toy people and animals and a mountain model similar to Piaget and Inhelder's). One of the models is mounted on a turntable so
it can easily be turned by the child.

After a practice session where the child is familiarized with the materials and the idea of looking at things from another person's point of view, a doll is introduced (in Borke's study it was the character Grover from 'Sesame Street', a programme the children were familiar with).

The Grover doll was placed so it was 'looking' at the model from a particular vantage point and the child was invited to turn the other model around until its view of the model matched what Grover would be able to see.

Borke (1975) found, using the 'mountains' model three-year-olds selected a correct view 42% of the time and four-year-olds selected the right view 67% of the time. With other displays, the three-years-olds accuracy increased to 80% and the four-year olds' to 93%.

Limitations in the Child's Thinking

Piaget focused most of the description of this stage on limitations in the child's thinking, identifying a number of mental tasks which children seem unable to do.

These include the inability to decenter, conserve, understand seriation (the inability to understand that objects can be organized into a logical series or order) and to carry out inclusion tasks.

Children in the preoperational stage are able to focus on only one aspect or dimension of problems (i.e. centration). For example, suppose you arrange two rows of blocks in such a way that a row of 5 blocks is longer than a row of 7 blocks.

Preoperational children can generally count the blocks in each row and tell you the number contained in each. However, if you ask which row has more, they will likely say that it is the one that makes the longer line, because they cannot simultaneously focus on both the length and the number. This inability to decenter contributes to the preoperational child's egocentrism.

Conservation is the understanding that something stays the same in quantity even though its appearance changes. To be more technical, conservation is the ability to understand that redistributing material does not affect its mass, number or volume.

The ability to solve this and other "conservation" problems signals the transition to the next stage.

So, what do these tasks tell us about the limitations of preoperational thought in general?

Piaget drew a number of related conclusions:

1. Understanding of these situations is "perception bound". The child is drawn by changes in the appearance of the materials to conclude that a change has occurred.

2. Thinking is "centered" on one aspect of the situation. Children notice changes in the level of water or in the length of clay without noticing that other aspects of the situation have changed simultaneously.

3. Thinking is focused on states rather than on transformations. Children fail to track what has happened to materials and simply make an intuitive judgment based on how they appear "now".

4. Thinking is "irreversible" in that the child cannot appreciate that a reverse transformation would return the material to its original state. Reversibility is a crucial aspect of the logical (operational) thought of later stages.

Frequently Asked Questions

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Piaget's Preoperational Stage Of Cognitive Development

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The preoperational stage is the second stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development. This stage begins around age two and lasts until approximately age seven. During this period, children think at a symbolic level but are not yet using cognitive operations.

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In this test a caregiver leaves the child alone with a stranger for a few minutes and then returns. Attachment involves a balance between infants tendencies to seek to be near to their caregivers and their willigness to explore new environments.
Research has shown children differ in the quality or style of attachment. They  have come with 4 basic styles the infant shows.
1- SECURE ATTACHMENT- They freely explore new environments, touching base with their caregiver periodically to assure themselves that she is present and will respond if needed.
2- INSECURE/AVOIDANT- They don't cry when the care giver leaves and gets comfortable with the stranger. When the caregiver returns they typically avoid her or is slow to greet her.
3- INSECURE/AMBIVALENT- Before separation, these infants seek contact with their caregiver. After she leaves and then return, they first seek her but then rejects.
4- DISORGANIZED/DISORIENTED- is that they seem confused and hesitate to seek that comfort from one or both of their parents. By definition, these children display freezing or contradictory behaviors both when their parent leaves the room and upon their return.

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The strong affectional tie between infants and their caregivers is known as attachment and in an important sense, the first form of love the infant experience towards others. Evidence has revealed that those children who have been separated from their mother quite early were unable or found difficulty in relating to other people. Thus it is essential for the mental health of the child to experience a warm intimate relation with the mother.
Infants reactions to separation from their mothers or caregivers has central role in the development of the child. In order to measure this Mary Ainsworth & Lamb developed a 'Strange Situation Test'. It was originally developed by Mary in (1970's) to observe the attachment security in children within the context of caregiver relationships. It applies to infants between the age of nine and 18 months.

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SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT :
- Infants can't express their subjective feelings. So to understands their emotions and what they experience we tend to focus on their discrete facial expressions-outward signs of distinct emotions. Infants as young as 2 months old demonstrate social smiling in response to human faces. They show laughter,anger,sadness and surprise also quite early. Emotional development and cognitive development occur simultaneously and there are many connections between them.
As infants grow older they acquire increasing capacities to 'read' the emotional expression of others. They engage in social referencing that is they actively seek information about other people's feelings and begin to demonstrate growing understanding of their own mental states and those of others.
- Infants also show key dimensions of temperament. They involve positive emotionality, distress-anger, fear and activity feel. Based on these dimensions infants can be divided into 3 basic groups - Easy children (40%), difficult children (10%) and slow-to-warm-up children (15%).
- Infants as young as 18 month old show empathy. They attempt to do something comforting when another child is distressed.

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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT : SENSORY MOTOR STAGE ( 0-2 years) - The child develops basic idea of cause and effect and object performance.
-It is characterised by incorportaion of reflex pattern into intentional moments.
-Increasing understanding of means-end-relationship.
-Object constancy is achieved and the begining of 'true thought' and internalized problems solving are seen . They have acquired a basic idea of object permenance- the idea that objects continue to exist even when they are hidden from the view.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/sensorimotor.html#:~:text=It%20extends%20from%20birth%20to,(i.e.%2C%20motor%20movements).

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MATURATION - Maturation is the process of learning to cope and react in an emotionally appropriate way. It does not necessarily happen along with aging or physical growth, but is a part of growth and development. Maturation does not stop when physical growth ends - it continues through adulthood.

DEVELOPMENT - Psychological development, the development of human beings’ cognitive, emotional, intellectual, and social capabilities and functioning over the course of the life span, from infancy through old age. It is the subject matter of the discipline known as developmental psychology.

GROWTH- Growth is the physical process of development, particularly the process of becoming physically larger. It is quantifiable, meaning that it can be measured, and it is mostly influenced by genetics.

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The processess involved in making sense of the world are :
1- ASSIMILATION : It involves the incoporation of new information or knowledge. It is the cognitive process of making new information fit in with your existing understanding of the world. It is an adaptive process. https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-assimilation-2794821#:~:text=Assimilation%20refers%20to%20a%20part,them%20into%20our%20existing%20ideas.
2- ACCOMODATION- It involves modification in existing knowledge structures as a result of exposure to new information or experiences.
https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-accommodation-2795218#:~:text=The%20process%20of%20accommodation%20involves,this%20process.%E2%80%8B2%EF%BB%BF
Acc. to Piaget both the processess operate in different stages & levels which results in different way of thinking and knowing.

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LSD is the study of humans how they grown and change throughout their entire life.

Jean Piagets theory of cognitive development is a stage theory. A type of theory suggesting that all humans move through an orderly and predictable series of changes.
Central to it is the concept of CONSTRUCTIVISM - children are active thinkers who are constantly trying to construct more accurate or advanced understanding of the world.
Each specific way of knowing is called a SCHEMA - it is a mental framework a 'cognitive scaffold' for holding knowledge and organizing it.

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In psychology, a schema is a cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information.

Simply put, a schema describes patterns of thinking and behavior that people use to interpret the world. We use schemas because they allow us to take shortcuts in interpreting the vast amount of information that is available in our environment.

You may have heard the word schema as it relates to coding, where it refers to how a database is structured. While a schema in psychology still refers to how information is organized, it focuses on how the human mind does it.

Schemas are mental models found in long-term memory. The brain utilizes such models to organize information about the world. Schemas are essentially built from our memories of our unique experiences.

However, these mental frameworks also cause us to exclude pertinent information to focus instead only on things that confirm our pre-existing beliefs and ideas. Schemas can contribute to stereotypes and make it difficult to retain new information that does not conform to our established ideas about the world.

History of Schemas

The use of schemas as a basic concept was first used by a British psychologist named Frederic Bartlett as part of his learning theory. Bartlett's theory suggested that our understanding of the world is formed by a network of abstract mental structures.

Theorist Jean Piaget introduced the term schema, and its use was popularized through his work. According to his theory of cognitive development, children go through a series of stages of intellectual growth.

In Piaget's theory, a schema is both the category of knowledge as well as the process of acquiring that knowledge. He believed that people are constantly adapting to the environment as they take in new information and learn new things.

As experiences happen and new information is presented, new schemas are developed and old schemas are changed or modified.

Schema Examples

For example, a young child may first develop a schema for a horse. She knows that a horse is large, has hair, four legs, and a tail. When the little girl encounters a cow for the first time, she might initially call it a horse.

After all, it fits in with her schema for the characteristics of a horse; it is a large animal that has hair, four legs, and a tail. Once she is told that this is a different animal called a cow, she will modify her existing schema for a horse and create a new schema for a cow.

Now, let's imagine that this girl encounters a miniature horse for the first time and mistakenly identifies it as a dog.

Her parents explain to her that the animal is actually a very small type of horse, so the little girl must at this time modify her existing schema for horses. She now realizes that while some horses are very large animals, others can be very small. Through her new experiences, her existing schemas are modified and new information is learned.

Types of Schemas

While Piaget focused on childhood development, schemas are something that all people possess and continue to form and change throughout life. Object schemas are just one type of schema that focuses on what an inanimate object is and how it works. People have all types of schemas for all kinds of information, including schemas about people, objects, places, events, and relationships.

For example, most people in industrialized nations have a schema for what a car is. Your overall schema for a car might include subcategories for different types of automobiles such as a compact car, sedan, or sports car.

The four main types of schemas are:

Person schemas are focused on specific individuals. For example, your schema for your friend might include information about her appearance, her behaviors, her personality, and her preferences.

Social schemas include general knowledge about how people behave in certain social situations.

Self-schemas are focused on your knowledge about yourself. This can include both what you know about your current self as well as ideas about your idealized or future self.

Event schemas are focused on patterns of behavior that should be followed for certain events. This acts much like a script informing you of what you should do, how you should act, and what you should say in a particular situation.

How Schemas Change

The processes through which schemas are adjusted or changed are known as assimilation and accommodation.

In assimilation, new information is incorporated into pre-existing schemas.

In accommodation, existing schemas might be altered or new schemas might be formed as a person learns new information and has new experiences.

Schemas tend to be easier to change during childhood but can become increasingly rigid and difficult to modify as people grow older. Schemas will often persist even when people are presented with evidence that contradicts their beliefs.﻿﻿

In many cases, people will only begin to slowly change their schemas when inundated with a continual barrage of evidence pointing to the need to modify it.

How Schemas Affect Learning

Schemas also play a role in education and the learning process. For example:

Schemas influence what we pay attention to. People are more likely to pay attention to things that fit in with their current schemas.

Schemas also impact how quickly people learn. People also learn information more readily when it fits in with the existing schemas.

Schemas help simplify the world. Schemas can often make it easier for people to learn about the world around them. New information could be classified and categorized by comparing new experiences to existing schemas.

Schemas allow us to think quickly. Even under conditions when things are rapidly changing our new information is coming in quickly, people do not usually have to spend a great deal of time interpreting it. Because of the existing schemas, people are able to assimilate this new information quickly and automatically.

Schemas can also change how we interpret incoming information. When learning new information that does not fit with existing schemas, people sometimes distort or alter the new information to make it fit with what they already know.

Schemas can also be remarkably difficult to change. People often cling to their existing schemas even in the face of contradictory information.

Challenges of Schemas

While the use of schemas to learn, in most situations, occurs automatically or with little effort, sometimes an existing schema can hinder the learning of new information.﻿﻿

Prejudice is one example of a schema that prevents people from seeing the world as it is and inhibits them from taking in new information.

By holding certain beliefs about a particular group of people, this existing schema may cause people to interpret situations incorrectly. When an event happens that challenges these existing beliefs, people may come up with alternative explanations that uphold and support their existing schema instead of adapting or changing their beliefs.

Resistance to Change

Consider how this might work for gender expectations and stereotypes. Everyone has a schema for what is considered masculine and feminine in their culture. Such schemas can also lead to stereotypes about how we expect men and women to behave and the roles we expect them to fill.

In one interesting study, researchers showed children images that were either consistent with gender expectations (such as a man working on a car and woman washing dishes) while others saw images that were inconsistent with gender stereotypes (a man washing dishes and a woman fixing a car).

When later asked to remember what they had seen in the images, children who held very stereotypical views of gender were more likely to change the gender of the people they saw in the gender-inconsistent images. For example, if they saw an image of a man washing dishes, they were more likely to remember it as an image of a woman washing dishes.

A Word From Verywell

Piaget's theory of cognitive development provided an important dimension to our understanding of how children develop and learn. Though the processes of adaptation, accommodation, and equilibration, we build, change, and grow our schemas which provide a framework for our understanding of the world around us.

Additional Reading

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What Role Do Schemas Play in the Learning Process?

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In psychology, a schema is a cognitive framework that helps organize and interpret information in the world around us. Learn more about how they work, plus examples.