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English Language Proficiency Standards - these are important to include in the language objectives when lesson planning and for determining which language domains are begin addressed with the lesson.

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Proficiency Level Descriptors - these are important to refer to when monitoring the progress of the English learners. They also serve as reminders of what students can do at each level of proficiency within each domain of language.

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Student Oral Language Observation Matrix

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Student Oral Language Observation Matrix

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Using this tool can help teachers assess their students grasp of oral language. This matrix is based on what teachers can observe on a continual basis in the classroom during class discussion, playground interactions, and/or encounters between classes.

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Strategies for Successful Classroom Management

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Strategies for Successful Classroom Management

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Classroom management is an important goal to have as a teacher and there are many strategies out there to achieve this. Reaching this can be even more beneficial for culturally and linguistically diverse students, this website gives many strategies specifically designed for this type of classroom.

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In Part 1 of this article, we discussed the numerous issues that impact classroom management skills, in general terms, but also when working with students who are English learners or who come from diverse cultural backgrounds.

Classroom management is a phrase and concept all teachers are familiar with and know intimately.

There are numerous classroom management strategies that benefit all students, but that may be especially beneficial for culturally and linguistically diverse students. This population in particular requires additional considerations as we work to develop a classroom culture of learning and mutual respect.

Consider the following concepts and strategies as you reflect on your own classroom management style and classroom culture.

Interest in students

Carl Rogers, a humanistic psychologist is thought to be the first to discuss the unconditional positive regard for patients. In teaching, we can apply the concept as having an unconditional positive regard for children. This includes taking interest in our students, including their interests, hobbies and cultural norms and backgrounds.

Just as parents love their children unconditionally, when we view students with a positive regard, we do everything we can for them to improve their social and emotional health, including using discipline and classroom management strategies that help them to see what appropriate behavior looks, sounds and feels like.

Celebrating students' languages and cultures

Celebrating that students speak other languages and have culturally diverse backgrounds is as easy as encouraging students to speak their native language at home with their families, or in class as appropriate.

Students may be encouraged to speak in their native language when discussion a topic with a partner or clarifying instructions or concepts, for example. Ask students if they are familiar with vocabulary words or concepts in their native languages, and if they are comfortable, ask them to share those words.

Examining our cultural lens

As we celebrate students' cultures and linguistic backgrounds, it is important that we also begin to think about our own cultural norms and biases. How we understand the world and students can lead to misunderstandings of behavior displayed by students.

One way to consider this is to question if what we expect a classroom to look like is the same or different from what our students believe and expect. Do our practices align with what students are used to and believe school should be? While we do not necessarily need to completely change our system, it is important that we begin to recognize how our own cultural lens can cause misunderstandings.

Creating a culture of learning

Keep the affective filter low by encouraging risk-taking in the classroom. Celebrate when students make attempts at applying concepts or language skills, even if these attempts come at inopportune times.

Keep it positive

Perhaps the most important strategy teachers can use to effectively manage classrooms is the notion of public praise and private conversations. This refers to publicly recognizing students who are behaving appropriately, rather than students who are behaving in undesirable or disruptive ways.

The adage "what you permit, you promote" holds true in that teachers can and should make explicit the kids of behaviors they expect to see in class, and publicly acknowledge those behaviors. Phrases such as "thank you for staying quiet while others are speaking" and the like show students what you expect from them.

This does not mean that unacceptable behavior is ignored. But rather when the redirection of students by pointing out positive behavior does not work, a private conversation with the student is necessary.

Some students only know how to gain attention from the teacher by acting in disruptive ways. When we shift the paradigm and publicly acknowledge students when they are doing something correctly - especially recognizing positive behavior in students who have behavior challenges - we can begin to shift the paradigm of negative attention seeking behaviors.

Developing norms or agreements

In a positive classroom community, students and teachers can work together to collaboratively develop norms for behavior. Students at all levels know the types of behaviors that are helpful or harmful in learning and working with others. Students from diverse cultural backgrounds may have differing perspectives that will enrich the discussions.

If students are a part of developing the norms of behavior and agreements in the classroom, they are more likely to follow the norms as they had a hand in creating them.

Explicit teaching of social skills

Students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds may have differing expectations on how to behave in the classroom, as we have previously mentioned. Behavioral expectations should be explicitly taught to students so that they understand what the behaviors are, what the behaviors look like and sound like.

One way to explicitly teach this is by using a three-column chart. The behavioral norm or social skill is listed at the top of the chart. In each column, list - with the input of the students - what the skill looks like, sounds like and feels like.

While this may seem tedious, students may not be able to immediately articulate what empathy, listening, respect, collaboration, perseverance or other skills actually look like. Specific examples of what a particular skill looks like, sounds like, or feels like can be added over time.

The second column, "sounds like," is especially important for English learners. These students may need explicit instruction in the words and phrases that help demonstrate the social skill or behavior being taught.

Social objectives

Many teachers are familiar with writing instructional objectives and sharing those objectives with students. When working with English learners, the addition of language objectives is a widely accepted practice to help students develop academic language skills.

Social objectives that focus on the behavior students will engage in during the lesson are another way to make explicit the types of behavior students should engage in. For example, a social objective may focus on nonverbal cues speakers give when listening to a partner, such as nodding, asking clarifying questions or appropriate eye contact.

Active student participation

Effective instructional techniques will assist in keeping students engaged, thereby minimizing behavior issues. When scaffolding is used appropriately, students are met at their instructional level and supported to meet the objectives for the lesson.

Using techniques such as choral calling, frequent student conversations on academic topics, hands-on activities, and getting students up and moving around, students will be more highly engaged and less likely to behave in disruptive ways.

Implementing these strategies and concepts will likely not eliminate all behavioral issues in the classroom. However, as we strive to meet the needs of all students in the classroom, careful consideration of how we manage student behavior and carefully considering our students' experiences and cultural backgrounds will help us to ever move in the direction of helping each child to excel.

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MultiBrief: Transforming classroom management for ELLs: Strategies for success

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Classroom management is a phrase and concept all teachers are familiar with and know intimately. ​There are numerous classroom management strategies that benefit all students, but that may be especially beneficial for culturally and linguistically diverse students.

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Integration of Technology to Support Language Development

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Integration of Technology to Support Language Development

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There are some strategies listed here that rely on the integration of technology that will enhance the learning for EL’s. These strategies also include a way to better assess their language development over time as well.

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Technology Integration to Support Language Development

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A few strategies coupled with technology integration can enhance English language learning in the primary classroom.

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Using Educational Technology to Support ELs

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Using Educational Technology to Support ELs

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This toolkit records many different resources of educational technology for instruction and learning. This can be a useful tool that will help support English learners’ engagement in instruction and access to content.

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From elementary school to secondary, this PDF provides samples of what a language objective should look like. They have an example for each subject at every grade level, and even match up the example with a content objective.

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Linguistic Scaffolds to Write Effective Language Objectives

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Linguistic Scaffolds to Write Effective Language Objectives

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Within this example, language objectives are broken down to show what verbs and nouns should be used. By choosing the correct linguistic words, teachers will be able to write a language objective that includes expressive language tasks and specified language targets.

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Developing Language Skills through Science

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Developing Language Skills through Science

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This website provides different methods or tools that shows how science content can enhance how students develop linguistically in the English language. This is because there are so many opportunities for hands-on learning and observation within the subject of Science.

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Using Science to Develop ELLs' Language Skills

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"The most exciting phrase to hear in science, the one that heralds new discoveries, is not 'Eureka! I found it!' but 'That's funny...'" - Isaac Asimov "Oh, you mean the life cycle." This was my pre-school daughter's response to my long explanation of the metamorphosis of the butterfly.

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These glossaries are pre-approved testing accommodations that should be available to ELL students and can also be used for instruction throughout the school year. They are content based, available at any grade level or subject, and offered in a multitude of different languages.

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These glossaries are to provide permitted testing accommodations of ELL/MLL students. They should also be used for instruction during the school year.

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Incorporating “Science Talk” into the Classroom

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Incorporating “Science Talk” into the Classroom

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The main goal of science talk is to create a classroom setting where the natural synergy between language and content comes to life. This method supports all students in expressing ideas, while acquiring new knowledge and even goes in extra step in developing language for english language learners.

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This is a great example on how to incorporate both ELD and mathematics into a three phase lesson plan. These three parts include: three reads, math interview, and math summit.

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Differences in Math Instruction Between Countries

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Differences in Math Instruction Between Countries

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Math is not a universal language; within this pdf the instruction of math is explored in seven different countries. This is a great tool to explore alternate ways of learning a topic that could better influence an EL over a traditional American method.

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How to Meet the Linguistic Needs of GT EL’s

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How to Meet the Linguistic Needs of GT EL’s

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This journal can help teachers identify the distinction between everyday and academic languages and understanding English language proficiency levels. It also includes strategies and tools that linguistically responsive teachers can use in educating gifted and talented ELLs.

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The population of English language learners (ELLs) in general education classrooms has been increasing over the last few decades. However, ELLs are still underrepresented in gifted programs and teachers struggle to provide these students with adequate educational experiences. What do teachers need to know about high-potential ELLs? What research-based strategies can be used with these students regardless of their language background? Teachers need to know the distinction between everyday and academic languages and about English language proficiency levels. There are strategies and tools that linguistically responsive teachers can use in educating high-potential ELLs.

References

Bernal, E. M. (1974). Gifted Mexican-American children: An ethno-scientific perspective. California Journal of Educational Research, 25, 261-273.
Google Scholar

Hakuta, K., Butler, Y. G., Witt, D. (2000). How long does it take English-language learners to attain proficiency? Berkeley: University of California Linguistic Minority Research Institute. Retrieved from http://escholarship.org/uc/item/13w7m06g
Google Scholar

Harris, B., Plucker, J. A., Rapp, K. E., Martinez, R. S. (2009). Identifying gifted and talented English language learners: A case study. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 32, 368-442. |
Google Scholar SAGE Journals

Marland, S. P. . (1972). Education of the gifted and talented: Report to the Congress of the United States by the U.S. Commissioner of Education and background papers submitted to the U.S. Office of Education. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED056243.pdf
Google Scholar

No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 , Pub. L. No. 107-110, § 115, Stat. 1425 (2002).
Google Scholar

Pereira, N., Gentry, M. (2013). A qualitative inquiry into the experiences of gifted English language learners in midwestern schools. Journal of Advanced Academics, 24, 164-194. |
Google Scholar SAGE Journals

Schleppegrell, M. J. (2004). The language of schooling: A functional linguistics perspective. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Google Scholar

Yoon, S., Gentry, M. (2009). Racial and ethnic representation in gifted programs: Current status of and implications for gifted Asian American students. Gifted Child Quarterly, 53, 121-136.
Google Scholar

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Meeting the Linguistic Needs of High-Potential English Language Learners: What Teachers Need to Know - Nielsen Pereira, Luciana C. de Oliveira, 2015

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The population of English language learners (ELLs) in general education classrooms has been increasing over the last few decades. However, ELLs are still underrepresented in gifted programs and teachers struggle to provide these students with adequate educational experiences. What do teachers need to know about high-potential ELLs?

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The Importance of Effectively Assessing ELs in GenEd Classrooms

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The Importance of Effectively Assessing ELs in GenEd Classrooms

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This journal explains the importance of effectively assessing ELs in general education classrooms. It also provides tools for mainstream teachers to use that not only evaluates student progress but also helps teachers better plan more impactful instruction.

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Understanding the Difference Between the Two Types of Assessments

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Understanding the Difference Between the Two Types of Assessments

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There are two types of assessment explored in this pdf, and I like to focus on the explanation and examples provided for the formative assessments. It explains what this type of assessment entails and how it can enhance student learning for future lessons.

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The BUENO Center for Multicultural Education

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Bilinguals United for Education and New Opportunities (BUENO)Located in the School of Education at the University of Colorado, Boulder, The BUENO Center is

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Assessing ELs with Learning Disabilities 

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Assessing ELs with Learning Disabilities 

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This journal provides help in identifying ELLs with learning disabilities. This is an important tool to have access to because it’s vital that these students be identified in order to receive the appropriate educational services they require.

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Assessment of English Language Learners with Learning Disabilities

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Abstract Identifying English language learners (ELLs) with learning disabilities has become very important in education settings so that appropriate educational services can be provided to this group of students. Linguistic diversity may increase the measurement error and reduce the reliability of assessments.

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Transforming Instruction for ELLs with Disabilities

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Transforming Instruction for ELLs with Disabilities

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This video explores the different objectives and modifications that need to be included when planning a lesson for an EL with a disability. It’s important to transform your thinking as a teacher when adjusting a lesson for these students.

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Adjusting instruction for ELLs with disabilities: Auditory Processing Disorders

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This is an interactive guide that can help a teacher record a student’s traits, attributes, and behaviors when observing them in the classroom. Teachers should always have easy access to a tool like this in order to help identify GT potential students.

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In this pdf, many strategies are listed in order to better teach aural english in a foreign language classroom. This includes the problems in the traditional method of teaching aural English and ways to improve the strategy in order to enhance ELs listening comprehension.

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How to Teach Aural English More Effectively

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Information on Different State Policies of ELs in Education

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Information on Different State Policies of ELs in Education

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This site carefully organizes the different policies of each state on the topic of english language learners in education. They even provide links to more information on subjects like funding, identifications, authorizations, and training that is available in each state.

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The population of English learners (ELs) in K-12 schools continues to grow. Between the 2009-10 and 2014-15 school years, the percentage of English learners increased in over half of the states, and in 2017, English learners made up 10.1% of the total student population. Research suggests that in their transition to English, non-native speakers fall behind academically, which can intensify the longer a student remains in an English learner program. State education leaders are mindful of this and have implemented policies to identify, serve and reclassify English learners as they become proficient.

This resource provides a national comparison of EL policies in all states. Unless otherwise noted, all information in this resource was gathered from state statutes or regulations and does not include policies in state-level guidance documents or arising from court orders.

Click on the metrics below for 50-State Comparisons showing how all states approach these policies. Or view a specific state's approach by going to the individual state profiles page.
Key Takeaways

States primarily use four methods for funding English learner programs:

Foundation formula (33 states and the District of Columbia).

Resource allocation model (six states).

Grants (six states).

Reimbursements (one state).

To identify English learners, at least 21 states require the administration of a home language survey, while at least 27 states require the use of an English language proficiency screening assessment for students whose primary or home language is not English.

At least 28 states provide for specific qualifications or pre-service and in-service training and professional development for general classroom teachers in statute or regulation.

At least 39 states provide for training, professional development, teaching standards, certification or endorsements for EL-specific teachers in statute or regulation.

At least 24 states explicitly require students to score proficiently on an English language proficiency exam to be reclassified as English proficient.
Some states consider additional metrics, including academic performance, statewide assessments, and teacher observations and recommendations.

50-State Comparisons
Click on the items below to see data for all states
Basics

1. State resource page for English learners

2. Percentage and number of English learners

3. Type of funding

4. Funding per student

Identification

1. How is "English learner" defined in state policy?

2. How does the state identify English learners?

Serving English Learners

1. Which program approaches does state policy authorize?

2. Is parent membership required on EL advisory councils or committees?

3. Can state-funded pre-K programs provide DLL/EL instruction?

4. What EL training or ongoing professional development is required of general classroom teachers?

5. Are EL-only instructors in K-12 required to hold a specialist certification or endorsement?

Reclassification

1. What is the process for EL reclassification?

2. What measures do schools use to reclassify students as "English proficient"?

3. How do states monitor former English learners?

How States Allocate Funding for English Language Learners (blog post)
Dear Colleague Letter: English Learner Students and Limited English Proficient Parents

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50-State Comparison: English Learner Policies - Education Commission of the States

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The population of English learners (ELs) in K-12 schools continues to grow. Between the 2009-10 and 2014-15 school years, the percentage of English learners increased in over half of the states, and in 2017, English learners made up 10.1% of the total student population.

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This site lists all federal legislation and major court decisions that have a direct impact on the education of ELLs. A brief description is given with each specified topic, along with a link to the full text of each case.

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Court Decisions

Lau vs. Nichols (1974) ruled that providing the same access to curriculum, instruction, and materials for students of limited English proficiency as is provided to English dominant students is not in effect equitable:
http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0414_0563_ZS.html

Plyler vs. Doe (1981) ruled that all students in public schools must be appropriately served, including any students who may not be documented as legal immigrants:
http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0457_0202_ZO.html

Castañeda vs. Pickard (1981) case precedent requires schools to use a three-pronged approach to assure that they are following the spirit of the above decisions vis-à-vis: a practice grounded in sound educational theory; effective implementation of an appropriate program; assurance that the program is working through an evaluation and subsequent program modification to meet this requirement.

http://www.helpforschools.com/ELLKBase/legal/Court_Cases_Federal_Equa_Educ_Opp.shtml(summary only)
http://www.santee.k12.ca.us/BP/Data/6000/BP6141-3.pdf (Compliance Policy of Santee, CA, with Castañeda)

Office of Civil Rights Policy Update on Schools' Obligations Toward National Origin Minority Students With Limited English Proficiency (1991) adopted the three prongs of Castañeda above, required that all language minority students be assessed for fluency, that parents be provided school information in a language they understand, and that schools assure that instruction to limited English proficient students is carried out by qualified staff.
http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/lau1991.html

Executive Order 13166: Improving Access to Services for Persons With Limited English Proficiency (2000)
http://www.usdoj.gov/crt/cor/13166.htm (full text)

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Legal Provisions for the Education of English Language Learners

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Court Decisions Lau vs. Nichols (1974) ruled that providing the same access to curriculum, instruction, and materials for students of limited English proficiency as is provided to English dominant students is not in effect equitable: http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0414_0563_ZS.html Plyler vs.

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This is a list of bilingual and English as a second language programs specifically put together by the Texas Education Agency (TEA).

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The Emergent Bilingual Support Division provides direction and leadership with the implementation of Bilingual and English as a Second Language (ESL) Programs for emergent bilingual (EB) students/English learners (ELs).

Announcements

Check out the Emergent Bilingual Student Web Portal TXEL.ORG for continuously updated resources for Teachers, Leaders, Parents and families of Emergent Bilingual Students, and Community Partners.

Language Proficiency Assessment Committee (LPAC) Guidance and Resources

Current School Year

2022-2023 Emergent Bilingual Support Update Meetings with LEAs and ESCs

The TEA Emergent Bilingual Support Division welcomes Local Education Agencies (LEAs) and regional Education Service Centers (ESCs) to join our English Learner Support Update Meetings. See our EL Portal for dates, meeting links, presentations, and recordings.

Program Requirement Resources

These resources, tools, and web pages provide guidance on bilingual and English as a second language (ESL) program requirements:

Program Requirement Resource Web Pages

Program Implementation

The TEA Emergent Bilingual Support Division has developed program implementation rubrics and associated tools to support LEAs with evaluating and enhancing their bilingual education and English as a Second Language (ESL) programs.

Program Statutes

The following statutes relate to bilingual and English as a second language (ESL) programs:

Title III, Part A - English Language Acquisition, Language Enhancement, and Academic Achievement Act

Title III, Part A of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), as reauthorized under the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), aims to ensure that English learners (ELs) and immigrant students attain English proficiency and develop high levels of academic achievement in English. Title III will also assist all English learners meet the same challenging State academic standards that all children are expected to meet.

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Bilingual and English as a Second Language Education Programs

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The Emergent Bilingual Support Division provides direction and leadership with the implementation of Bilingual and English as a Second Language (ESL) Programs for emergent bilingual (EB) students/English learners (ELs). Check out the Emergent Bilingual Student Web Portal TXEL.ORG for continuously updated resources for Teachers, Leaders, Parents and families of Emergent Bilingual Students, and Community Partners.

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This site can be utilized by educators or guardians in order to better support their students in developing English. For parents or guardians this is a great tool to find strategies on supporting their child in education or exploring resources within their community that can benefit the family as a whole.

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Supporting Emergent Bilingual Students in Texas

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Connecting Programs to Help Promote Educational Success of ELLs

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Connecting Programs to Help Promote Educational Success of ELLs

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This digital chapter explores a unique strategy in connecting program for dual language learners with programs for English learners from Pre-K to 12th grade. It explores the benefits behind using this strategy and engages in in-depth research of 7 programs that can be connected like this.

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Educating dual language learners (DLLs) and English learners (ELs) effectively is a national challenge with consequences both for individuals and for American society. Despite their linguistic, cognitive, and social potential, many ELs-who account for more than 9 percent of enrollment in grades K-12 in U.S. schools-are struggling to meet the requirements for academic success, and their prospects for success in postsecondary education and in the workforce are jeopardized as a result.

Promoting the Educational Success of Children and Youth Learning English: Promising Futures examines how evidence based on research relevant to the development of DLLs/ELs from birth to age 21 can inform education and health policies and related practices that can result in better educational outcomes. This report makes recommendations for policy, practice, and research and data collection focused on addressing the challenges in caring for and educating DLLs/ELs from birth to grade 12.

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Read "Promoting the Educational Success of Children and Youth Learning English: Promising Futures" at NAP.edu

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Educating dual language learners (DLLs) and English learners (ELs) effectively is a national challenge with consequences both for individuals and for American society. Despite their linguistic, cognitive, and social potential, many ELs-who account for more than 9 percent of enrollment in grades K-12 in U.S.

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Khan Academy does a great breakdown on language acquisition as a whole and organizes the exploration of different aspects of this acquisition. It also provides a great explanation on major theories about language acquisition and how it could effect language learning in the classroom.

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What is language?

Language is the primary method of human communication, but there are also other ways to communicate without the use of language. When asked to define language we tend to think of a verbal and written system in which certain sounds and symbols come together in a specific way to convey meaning. Language in its most complex form is unique to humans, although some animals have been found to have basic communication patterns. Languages often have verbal and written components, but how we classify something like American Sign Language? Animals manage to communicate - do they have language? How did language evolve? How do we learn enough language ourselves to begin to answer this question?

Why is it so surprising that we can learn language?

If you've ever tried to learn a new language, you know it's not easy. There are new rules of grammar which come with many exceptions, new sounds that are hard to make, endless lists of vocabulary to commit to memory and so on. And yet, you managed to learn the basics of your very first language around the time you were two years old; no textbooks in sight.

Not only are children able to absorb the complicated rules of grammar without formal teaching, they do so from a limited vocabulary. Regardless of how much a child is spoken to, they will not hear every possible word and sentence by the time they begin speaking. Yet when they do start to talk, children begin to follow grammatical rules and apply them to form new, innovative phrases. This level of information processing is incredibly impressive in anyone, much less someone still figuring out counting and skipping!

What do we know?

As is often the case in psychology and sociology, it's hard to get what we normally think of as data about language acquisition. It's not a chemical we can test for or a distance we can measure (imagine asking a 2 year old how many words they know - not a particularly useful or productive task, right? ). However, there are some facts that are generally agreed upon by the scientific community. The first couple years of life are the critical period for language learning, which becomes a much harder task as people age. Children usually say their first words around 10-18 months of age, and graduate to phrases sometime before they are two years old. In fact, studies have shown that 18 month olds can tell the difference between correctly formed verb pairs (is jumping) and incorrect ones (will jumping). Somewhere between four and seven years old children begin to be able to tell stories that more or less make sense.

We also know that learning a language is not like walking up the steady increase of a ramp, but more like walking the hills and valleys of a country road. Usually when we learn a new skill, the more we practice the better we get. However, this isn't always true in the early stages of language development. When children are first learning to talk, the verbs they use are usually the most common such as go, eat, talk, give, run, etc. These are often irregular in the past tense. Although at first they use the past tense properly ("I ran", "he went", etc), kids typically regress for a while. They often over-follow rules, saying phrases like "I runned" instead of "I ran". As their vocabularies expand rapidly (known as vocabulary burst), some researchers believe children notice patterns in language, and that leads to over-correction as described in the example above. Eventually, children begin to understand where the rules apply and where they don't, and then properly form the past tense once more. This is known as a U shaped learning curve, because the language mastery started high, dropped for a period of time, and then improved again. Thus, there appears to be a mimicking (copying) phase first and then a time of broad generalizations before children settle into language.

What are the major theories about language acquisition?

The most well-known theory about language acquisition is the nativist theory, which suggests that we are born with something in our genes that allows us to learn language. It proposes that there is a theoretical language acquisition device (LAD) somewhere in our brains that is responsible for learning a language the same way the hypothalamus is responsible for maintaining your body temperature. If language was partly biological, it could explain why humans seem to have far more complicated communication patterns than any other species .

Although no physical "language organ" exists in the brain, language acquisition can be hampered if certain parts of the brain are damaged during critical periods of language development. Damage to the left hemisphere, for example can lead to aphasia - a disorder which causes problems with language, while leaving intelligence untouched. For example, in Wernicke's aphasia, patients with damage in a certain region of the brain can no longer understand language. Although they can still form normal sentences, neither what they say nor the words of others make any sense to them. Patients with Broca's aphasia on the other hand, have problems forming language but no trouble understanding what is said to them. Studies have shown that young children with damage in similar regions of the brain can actually grow up with only slightly impaired language ability - implying that the brain can develop new language pathways that are good, but not quite as good as the original (Reilly, 1998).

Nativist theory also suggests that there is a universal grammar that is shared across differing languages, because this grammar is part of our genetic make-up. The majority of world languages have verbs and nouns, although this is not true in every instance, as well as similar ways to structure thoughts. Language is thought of as having a finite amount of rules from which we can build an infinite amount of phrases, and the core of these rules is somehow programmed into our brains. This is an ideal theory for explaining how young children can learn such complicated ideas so quickly, or why there are so many similarities in language around the world. This theory is comparable to how we think of numbers; regardless of cultural background, math always works the same way.

Another way to look at language learning is to treat it like learning a new skill. The learning theory of language acquisition suggests that children learn a language much like they learn to tie their shoes or how to count; through repetition and reinforcement. When babies first learn to babble, parents and guardians smile, coo, and hug them for this behavior. As they grow older, children are praised for speaking properly and corrected when they misspeak. Thus, language arises from stimuli and stimuli response. While this is logical, it fails to explain how new words or phrases come about, since children are only parroting the things they have heard from others.

The interactionist approach (sociocultural theory) combines ideas from sociology and biology to explain how language is developed. According to this theory, children learn language out of a desire to communicate with the world around them. Language emerges from, and is dependent upon, social interaction. The Interactionist approach claims that if our language ability develops out of a desire to communicate, then language is dependent upon whom we want to communicate with. This means the environment you grow up in will heavily affect how well and how quickly you learn to talk. For example, infants being raised by only their mother are more likely to learn the word "mama", and less likely to develop "dada". Among the first words we learn are ways to demand attention or food. If you've ever tried to learn a new language, you may recognize this theory's influence. Language classes often teach commonly used vocabulary and phrases first, and then focus on building conversations rather than simple rote memorization. Even when we expand our vocabularies in our native language, we remember the words we use the most.

It's important to keep in mind that theories of language acquisition are just ideas created by researchers to explain their observations. How accurate these theories are to the real world is debatable. Language acquisition is a complicated process influenced by the genetics of an individual as well as the environment they live in.

How do scientists today study language learning?

Many of these theories initially came about as a result of what is called "armchair psychology"; that is, sitting and thinking about a problem. It is extremely difficult to collect objective and accurate data on what's going on in the brain in terms of its direct relationship to a behavior such as language. That said, some computational models of language acquisition have been gaining traction in the past several decades. A computational model is a mathematical way to recreate complicated systems we see everyday; from how water flows in a river, to how children learn languages. The model is built to represent the way we think something happens. For example, in the model of the learning theory approach, a word would be learned faster if it came up a lot or the subject received a lot of input about it. Then, linguists change how different variables work to see what affect that would have on the system. If the model behaves and "learns" the same way that we do, it's a good sign that the model is on the right track. These models have helped to identify and measure linguistical features such as the critical period for language learning, the vocabulary burst, and the U-shaped learning mentioned earlier.

New brain imaging technology, such as MRIs and fMRIs have also allowed scientists to look at the brains of children and patients with language-acquisition disorders to understand this complicated event. An fMRI can track where and when our brains use energy. If a certain part of your brain lights up while you're learning a language, that part of your brain is using energy, and in this context might be related to language-acquisition. Of course we learn over time and not all at once, so there is a limit to what we can learn via imaging which represents the brain in a single moment.

While we still have a ways to go before we completely understand how we learn a language, we definitely know enough to know that it's a pretty incredible feat. So give yourself a well-deserved pat on the back and just remember that the phrase "it's so easy, a child could do it!" doesn't always apply.

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Theories of the early stages of language acquisition (article) | Khan Academy

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Learn for free about math, art, computer programming, economics, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, finance, history, and more. Khan Academy is a nonprofit with the mission of providing a free, world-class education for anyone, anywhere.

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Teaching Strategies in Second Language Acquisition

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Teaching Strategies in Second Language Acquisition

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This pdf explores different teaching strategies modeled after the second language acquisition theory. This explores the development stage of learning a second language and how it can be integrated into a classroom setting.

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The Difference in Acquiring Social and Academic Language

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The Difference in Acquiring Social and Academic Language

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This digital chapter explores the differences in social and academic language at a fundamental level, as well as the difference in how it can be taught. It also encourages the integration of social language into an acedmic setting in order to better acquire some academic language.

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by Judie Haynes

Some of the most pressing and frequent questions administrators, board members, and classroom teachers ask are "How long should it take a newcomer to learn English?" and "What kinds of programs help ELLs acquire English quickly?" In this chapter, we explore the answers to these questions, analyze the essential theories in second-language acquisition, and examine the differences between social and academic English.

As you read the statements below, decide whether you think they are true or false.

□ English language learners need one to three years to master social language in the classroom.

□ Students don't always acquire social language naturally in informal contexts. They may need to be taught how to communicate appropriately in social situations.

□ Although English language learners may speak English on the playground, this does not mean they have mastered the academic and cognitive language of the classroom.

□ Learning academic subjects in their native language helps ELLs learn English.

□ Parents of English language learners should be encouraged to speak their primary language at home.

□ Students who have strong literacy skills in their native language will learn English faster.

□ Students need more than two to three years in bilingual or ESL classes to succeed in school.

Social Language and the English Language Learner

Social language is the language of the playground. Researcher Jim Cummins calls this language Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills or BICS (Cummins, 1981, 1996). Newcomers use BICS to function socially in hallways, classrooms, school buses, and playgrounds. Cummins's research shows that it takes one to three years for English language learners to reach the social language level of their peers.

The context of social language is embedded. For example, if a student wants a drink of water, he can ask for it by making a drinking motion and saying the word water. Newcomers have support for BICS because they can use gestures, objects, and pictures to help make the information comprehensible. English language learners who are in the beginning stages are able to handle the following tasks:

Produce survival vocabulary such as the words for water orbathroom.

Follow simple directions that are accompanied by gestures such as "Point to the door" or "Walk to the chair."

Engage in one-to-one social conversation using gestures.

Answer low-level questions such as "Is an elephant large or small?" or "What color is the chair?"

Participate effectively in hands-on classes such as art and physical education.

Play uncomplicated games, particularly games that they play well in their native language, such as checkers, chess, or backgammon.

Produce simple drawings, charts, and graphs.

Context-Reduced Social Language Activities

As we learned in the previous section, social interactions are usually context embedded. These interactions occur in meaningful social settings and most likely they are not cognitively demanding. As your newcomers' listening and oral language skills start to develop, they will be able to add more challenging activities to their repertoire and the context and social cues for these interactions will be reduced. Some context-reduced social language activities include the following:

Holding predictable conversations with teachers and peers. For example, the student might tell the teacher during a math lesson, "I don't understand." The teacher can demonstrate the math concept using manipulatives and drawings to help the student comprehend.

Decoding simple reading passages. ELLs will be able to sound out words, but they may not comprehend what they are reading.

Copying words and sentences from the board.

Reading a weekly school schedule or a homework assignment.

Listening to and understanding a simple story.

Responding to and writing answers for short informational questions. For example, for a history unit on the Pilgrims, a teacher can test literal comprehension by asking, "What was name of the Pilgrims' ship?

Executing answers to questions about a chart or map, such as "Find Mexico on the map and label it."

Understanding and communicating knowledge about math facts. At this stage, however, students will not be ready to learn difficult math concepts.

Interacting socially with classmates. English language learners should be able to ask for help with their schoolwork or understand a teacher's instructions for a game.

Newcomers will be able to participate in context-reduced activities during their content-area classes as well. These activities include science experiments, content-related craft projects, and language arts assignments involving drawings, bookmarks, book covers, and dioramas.
How Do Students Acquire Social Language?

Does social language need to be taught and practiced or do students pick it up automatically on the playground or in the lunchroom? English language learners may need to be specifically taught interpersonal skills such as how to greet people, give and receive compliments, apologize, and make polite requests. They also need to understand nonverbal language and the use of personal space. The goal of Standard 1 of the 2006 PreK-12 English language proficiency standards is for ELLs to learn to communicate in English for social and instructional purposes during the school day. This goal is important because many ELLs need to learn the appropriate voice tones, volume, and language for different school settings. For example, some ELLs speak to a teacher in the same way that they talk to a peer, such as Min Ki in the next example.

→ Min Ki is a beginning ELL from Korea. Although his English is quite limited, Min Ki is adept at picking up expressions on the playground. During recess one day he learned to say "Yeah, yeah, yeah." Whenever Ms. Chen, his classroom teacher, gave directions, Min Ki would reply, "Yeah, yeah, yeah." The teacher finally had to ask an adult volunteer to explain to him that this is inappropriate language for a child to use with an adult. In this setting, an adult had to teach Min Ki that there is a difference between language used with an adult and language used with friends on the playground.

Another example of improper language in the classroom is swearing. ELLs may pick up inappropriate language on the playground and may not realize why this language is not suitable in the classroom. In the next example, Vadim's teacher tries to convey the seriousness of his inappropriate language.

→ Vadim, a 4th grade student from Russia, used an X-rated expression in the classroom. The teacher was understandably distressed and made Vadim write an apology letter for homework. The teacher became even more upset when Vadim's parents did not take the infraction seriously. What the teacher did not know, however, was that Vadim's parents were not appalled because swearing does not have the same shock value in a person's second language as it does in a person's first language.

Many newcomers in middle school and high school say that they are learning academic language but have few opportunities to practice social language. Most of their social interactions are with students with the same native language background. In the next example, we look at Carmen and Diego and their social language skills.

→ Carmen is an English language learner from the Dominican Republic who attends a suburban middle school. She is a very good student who works hard and has quickly acquired academic English; however, she socializes only with classmates who speak Spanish. Her social language in English is slow and hesitant. She has difficulty initiating a conversation in English. Her Brazilian classmate Diego, on the other hand, is athletic and plays soccer with the boys from his class. Because Diego interacts with many English-speaking teammates, his social English is quite fluent.

Social language comes easier to students who have real reasons to speak with their classmates. Organized school activities such as sports teams, band, or chorus can expose ELLs to social English.

Role playing, teacher modeling, peer modeling, and videos are all good tools for teaching ELLs social skills. Teachers can encourage newcomers to observe their peers as models of correct behavior. Teachers should set expectations for these behaviors by using real incidents that come up in the class such as having students practice saying good morning and good-bye to their teachers and classmates. In the next example, Mrs. Arena teaches her students simple language for social interactions.

→ Mrs. Arena is a kindergarten teacher who stands at her classroom door at the end of the day. She shakes hands and says good-bye to students as they leave. She uses each child's name and intersperses her farewells with comments. A typical exchange might be:
"Good-bye, Juan. Have fun at the park," Mrs. Arena says.

"Good-bye, Mrs. Arena," replies Juan. "See you tomorrow."

Mrs. Arena makes an everyday classroom routine a valuable lesson in social interaction and small talk. As students leave the playground after school, they say good-bye to each other using the same farewells modeled earlier by the teacher.

Evaluating the Silent Period

How does a teacher know when a child is ready to speak? When should an ELL be encouraged to participate in the standard social language of the classroom?

Mi Yeon is a Korean student who has been in the United States for 18 months. Although she is progressing in her academic work, she barely speaks to her teachers. Even when prompted, she will not say good morning or good-bye to them when she enters and leaves the classroom. One of her teachers, Mrs. Burns-Paterson, has not forced the issue because she knows about the silent period and does not want to traumatize Mi Yeon. Let's take a look at how Mrs. Burns-Paterson helps guide Mi Yeon through the silent period.

→ Mrs. Burns-Paterson decided to set realistic expectations for routine social exchanges in the classroom. She didn't want to single Mi Yeon out, so she gradually added lessons in social language for the whole class. She began by explaining that when they entered the classroom each day, everyone was going to say hello or good morning to the teacher and to the students who sat at their table. She asked several children to act out the greeting. After a week, Mi Yeon successfully participated in this activity.

To further help shy students like Mi Yeon, Ms. Burns-Paterson had her students practice giving compliments. The comments had to be positive and could not be about a classmate's appearance. Students brainstormed a list of compliments they could give each other, such as "I like the way you drew that dinosaur" or "Your handwriting is so neat" or "Your story was interesting. I liked the part where you chased the dog."

We have seen how social language is informally acquired through interactions in classrooms, hallways, cafeterias, and on school buses. Although some social language needs to be modeled and reinforced by the teacher and native English speakers, other social interactions can be picked up by frequent interactions.

Understanding How Students Acquire Academic Language

Teachers and administrators may decide to move students who have social communication skills out of language support services because they sound like native English speakers. ELLs who speak English well in social situations, however, are not necessarily prepared for academic tasks in the classroom. It is crucial for educators to understand the difference between BICS and Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP).

CALP includes language for formal academic learning and for written texts in content areas such as English literature, math, science, and social studies. CALP skills also encompass reading, writing, and thinking about subject-area content material. Students also use CALP skills to compare, classify, synthesize, evaluate, and infer.

Consider this conversation between Mrs. Perez, an 8th grade history teacher, and Carlota, a student from Mexico.

→ Mrs. Perez: Why didn't you do your homework, Carlota? You're going to fail this class.

→ Carlota: I go visit my aunt. She sick. She got something bad with her heart. My uncle drive my mother and me. We bring aunt some food. When I get home, it's too late finish homework.

Carlota's social language is good. She is able to clearly tell Mrs. Perez what happened. Although Carlota makes some errors, they do not impede communication. In contrast, however, Carlota is not doing well in history and her other academic subjects. She has acquired social language, but she still needs help with her academic vocabulary.

Cognitive academic language skills are both abstract and context reduced. Information can be read from a textbook or presented by the teacher with few verbal cues to help students grasp its meaning. Some ELLs struggle to comprehend what they read and have difficulty expressing what they know in writing.

Many students can say all the words in a reading passage and memorize the definitions of vocabulary words but still not comprehend the text. CALP is more than understanding vocabulary and learning academic facts for a test; it also requires students to sharpen their cognitive abilities and learn new concepts.

As students progress in school, teachers are more likely to present material in a lecture format. The content also becomes more cognitively demanding and the vocabulary becomes more specific to each subject area. New ideas and concepts are presented to the students at the same time as the context-reduced language. Textbooks may be written beyond the language level of an English language learner. ELLs may also have limited background knowledge for subjects such as U.S. history. An instructor's teaching style can also affect how English language learners develop CALP skills. Let's compare Carlota's science teacher, Mr. Angelo, with her history teacher, Mrs. Perez.

→ Mrs. Perez gives reading assignments in a textbook that is written above Carlota's English language ability. She presents material by lecturing in front of the classroom. Her tests are not modified for the English language learners in the classroom and she provides very little support for ELLs. On the other hand, Mr. Angelo, Carlota's science teacher, uses simple language to introduce new concepts to his students. He outlines the most important information on the chalkboard. ELLs are given the important vocabulary for the lesson with simple definitions. Students are engaged in group work with partners. To help students prepare for tests, Mr. Angelo gives students a study guide. Needless to say, Carlota's progress in science far exceeds her progress in history.

Connecting Languages

Another concept that is generally accepted in the field of second-language acquisition is Cummins's Common Underlying Proficiency (CUP) theory. This model shows the relationship between native language and second language. Cummins says, "Concepts are most readily developed in the first language and, once developed, are accessible through the second language. In other words, what we learn in one language transfers into the new language" (Freeman & Freeman, 1994, p. 176).

This model, often referred to as the "Iceberg Model," is shown in Figure 2.1 (Cummins, 2000). The model shows two peaks above the waterline. One peak represents a student's social language in the primary language and the other peak represents a student's social language in English. Beneath the waterline is one solid iceberg. One side shows a student's academic language proficiency in the primary language and the other side shows academic language proficiency in English. In the middle you can see where academic proficiency in English and the primary language intersect. The overlapping area is called Common Underlying Proficiency (CUP).

Figure 2.1 The Iceberg Model

Language, power, and pedagogy: Bilingual children in the crossfire

Using a Primary Language at Home

School administrators and classroom teachers should encourage parents to speak their native language at home. It is much more beneficial for children to hear fluent native language with a rich vocabulary than it is to hear imperfect, halting English. We learned from the Iceberg Model that academic concepts learned in students' primary language will help them acquire English. In the next example, Isobel and her family try to integrate English into their home life.

→ Isobel's family is from Costa Rica. Her parents speak some English and are literate in Spanish. When Isabel's teacher told them that they should speak English at home, her parents became distressed. They tried to speak English with her at the dinner table, but their conversations were stilted. Isobel's parents no longer felt comfortable asking her about her school, classes, and homework in Spanish. They stopped discussing books and the television news with her. Although the family reverted to their native language at the dinner table after a week of hesitant English, Isobel felt ashamed of her native language. She wished her parents spoke English.

What Isobel's teacher and parents did not know was that by reading and discussing stories with her and by encouraging Isobel to share her school experiences in Spanish, they were giving her experiences in their native language. Informal conversations like these are critical for Isobel because they will help her establish values and discuss ideas that she is not ready to learn in English. Eventually, what she learns in Spanish will help promote her English proficiency. The concepts and skills that students learn in one language will transfer to the second language when the learner is ready.

Students who are literate in their native language have many skills to draw on when they learn academic English, even when the writing system is different. It is more difficult to teach a concept if it does not exist in the student's native language. Once students grasp the underlying literacy skills of one language, they can use these same skills to learn another language. For example, 10th graders who are literate in Spanish will understand the underlying process of reading in English. Older students will be able to transfer skills such as scanning, selecting important information, predicting what comes next, and visualizing to enhance comprehension. Younger children who are literate in one language will know that printed words carry meaning, that words can be combined into sentences and paragraphs, and that certain letters stand for certain sounds. Regardless of students' age, a new concept will be difficult to teach if it doesn't exist in the students' native language. Let's take a look at Xiang and her progress in her English class.

→ Xiang is a 6th grade student from China who has been in the United States for three years. Her teacher, Mrs. Rahmin, worries that Xiang does not use articles, plurals, or pronouns. Her verb tenses are usually incorrect. She consistently leaves the s off plural words. Xiang's parents report that she is literate in Mandarin, a Chinese language.

Mrs. Rahmin does not understand that Chinese languages do not have morphological changes to show case, number, and tense. For example, there is no subject-verb agreement and there are no markings at the end of words to denote plurals. There are also no Chinese words that translate into a, an, or the. Because of these differences, it is very difficult for Xiang to master the grammatical features of English that do not exist in Chinese.

How Long Does It Take Students to Learn English?

Classroom teachers, administrators, and school board members frequently ask, "How long does it take a student to learn English?" and "How long should students receive language support?" Let's look at the research.

The most comprehensive research available on English language learners was conducted by Thomas and Collier (1997). They studied the language acquisition of 700,000 English language learners in a longitudinal study from 1982 to 1996. They wanted to find out how long it would take for students with no background in English to reach the performance of a native speaker on norm-referenced tests (50th percentile). In addition, they looked at variables such as socioeconomic status, students' first language, programs used to learn English, and the amount of formal schooling in students' primary language.

Thomas and Collier found that the most significant variable in how long it takes for a student to learn English is the amount of formal schooling students receive in their first language.

In one part of the study, Thomas and Collier researched a group of Asian and Hispanic students from an affluent suburban school district. These students received one to three hours of second-language support per day in a well-regarded ESL program. These students generally exited the ESL program in the first two years. All students were at or above grade level in native language literacy. For this group, Thomas and Collier found these results:

Students ages 8 to 11 years old with two to three years of native language education took five to seven years to test at grade level in English.

Students with little or no formal schooling who arrived in the United States before the age of 8 took 7 to 10 years to reach grade-level norms in English language literacy.

Students who were below grade level in their native language also took 7 to 10 years to reach the 50th percentile. Many of these students never reached grade-level norms.

These data held true regardless of the home language, country of origin, or socioeconomic status.
Which Program Works?

Many ESL educators believe that English language learners who receive a specific ESL service acquire English faster than students in other types of programs. However, research does not support this belief. Thomas and Collier found that English language learners who received all of their schooling in English performed extremely well in kindergarten through 3rd grade, regardless of the type of bilingual or ESL program. These students made dramatic gains in English. However, when they reached the 4th grade and moved through middle school and high school, the performance of students who had been in all-English programs, such as ESL pullouts, fell substantially.

Why did this happen? Native English speakers make an average language gain of 10 months each school year. However, English language learners who had not become literate in their native language, regardless of what that native language was, only made a six- to eight-month gain per school year. As a result, the gap between native English speakers and English language learners in all-English programs widened from the 4th grade through high school (Thomas & Collier, 1997).

Students in two-way bilingual immersion and developmental bilingual programs, however, reach the 50th percentile in both their native language and English by 4th or 5th grade in all subject areas. These students are able to sustain these gains in English, and in some cases they achieve even higher success than native English speakers as they move through their secondary school years.

Bilingual programs are not always more effective than ESL or sheltered content programs. Schools should look beyond a program's label and consider the following:

Are the assigned teachers qualified to teach English language learners?

Are there sufficient materials for the program?

What instructional methods are used?

Are students exited into all-English programs too quickly?

Cummins says, "Quick-exit transitional bilingual education is an inferior model based on an inadequate theoretical assumption; this model aspires to monolingualism and does little to address the causes of bilingual students' underachievement" (Freeman & Freeman, 1998).
What does this research mean for school administrators and supervisors? Bilingual programs are not always feasible, especially in school districts where students come from multiple language backgrounds. Your district can build a better program by taking these key steps:

Give students more time to develop English language academic skills. Don't rush younger students through language support programs.

Provide more support services to underschooled upper elementary and middle school students. Remember that it will take them 7 to 10 years to reach grade-level norms.

Encourage parents to maintain their native language at home. Promote after-school and Saturday instruction in a first language. If your school district has enough students, push for a developmental bilingual or two-way immersion program.

Provide a sheltered English program. A sheltered English program uses simplified English to present subject-specific material to English language learners. For more information on these programs, see Chapter 7.

* * *

Let's review the major points from this chapter:

English language learners need one to three years to master social language skills (BICS) for everyday interactions.

Students may need to be taught how to communicate appropriately in social situations.

Newcomers who speak English on the playground are not necessarily fluent in the academic and cognitive language of the classroom.

Learning academic subjects in their native language helps ELLs learn English.

Parents of English language learners should be encouraged to speak their native language at home.

Students who have strong literacy skills in their native language will learn English faster.

ELLs receiving pullout ESL services do not necessarily make more progress in English than students in dual-language or developmental bilingual programs.

Students need more than two to three years in bilingual or ESL classes to succeed in school.

In this chapter, we looked at the differences between acquiring social and academic language. We examined how students acquire first and second languages and we showed how the common underlying proficiency (CUP) helps students acquire a second language. Finally, we discussed how long it takes for students to acquire academic language in various types of programs.

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How Students Acquire Social and Academic Language

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by Judie Haynes Some of the most pressing and frequent questions administrators, board members, and classroom teachers ask are "How long should it take a newcomer to learn English?" and "What kinds of programs help ELLs acquire English quickly?"

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Varieties of English in Current English Language Teaching

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Varieties of English in Current English Language Teaching

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This journal explores the varieties of the English language and how it can enhance the future teaching of ELs. It touches on how varieties can be heavily influenced by the various regional, social, and cultural backgrounds the teacher or student has.

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The Impact a Community has on ELL Families

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The Impact a Community has on ELL Families

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This site offers many strategies and tips on how to engage community partners into the support of ELL families. It also highlights the importance of the give and take between the school and it’s surrounding community in order to better support their English learners.

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Engaging ELL Families Through Community Partnerships

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The following strategies offer tips for thinking creatively about how to work with community partners and identify the most effective partnerships for your school community.Supporting immigrant familiesFor related ideas, see the following:Ten Strategies for Supporting Immigrant Students and FamiliesHow to Support Immigrant Students and Families: Strategies for Schools and Early Childhood Programs17. Build partnerships with the local communityDownload PDF versions:This article >Full guide >A. What you need to knowCommunity organizations are a valuable ally in engaging ELL families, whether it’s by providing key services such as interpreters and medical care or educational opportunities such as GED, ESL, and citizenship classes.These partnerships can benefit your family and your partners alike, and they may lead to great opportunities for your students as well!B. ReflectionHave you built any relationships with organizations in the community? If so, what are the successes and challenges you’ve experienced? Which social services do your families need most?C. StrategiesConsider offering local organizations free space in your school as a way to encourage them to bring their services closer to your families (Houk, 70).Ask your families which organizations they think would make good partners for the school community and which issues are of concern to them.Find out if your district has a community education department that might be able to support a partnership with a local organization.Invite members from the community to inform parents about their services, such as a local librarian, a nurse, or a firefighter.Note: When inviting guests from the community to the school, assure parents that identification will not be checked and explain that they do not need to show proof of legal residency to sign up for a library card.D. ExamplesChristine Pearsall from New York shares the following on the National Education Association’s website: “Our school hosts monthly Latino Family meetings - hosted and conducted entirely in Spanish by Spanish-speaking staff. The turnout is incredible every time. We discuss issues of concern to the parents and community, as well as periodically bringing in outside speakers (i.e. reps. from the library, Census bureau, etc.).” She also recommends using students from local adult ESL programs as translators in these informal settings as “it helps them practice English, get extra credit for themselves” and support their fellow country people (Flannery, NEA.org).Highland Elementary School in Montgomery County, Maryland was chosen as a Blue Ribbon turnaround school by the Maryland State Department of Education in 2008. Part of its success, according to school principal, was its increased inclusion of the families. According to The Washington Post, “The school positioned itself as the center of its community, offering weekend soccer tournaments, English and computer classes for parents, and an array of other community services, from housing assistance to mental health counseling (de Vise, 2008).“Resources: Immigration topicsCreate partnerships with community organizations related to immigration issuesConnecting Immigrant Families with Legal Support and AdviceHow Community Schools Can Support ELLsCommunity schools are neighborhood schools that work closely with local partners to serve students and families at the school. These partnerships might focus on a wide range of services and supports that the families and school have identified as priorities.Learn more about community schools and how they can support ELL/immigrant families from the following:Video Project: How a Community School Helps ELLs Succeed See bonus interviews, clips, and more from this project!Video: What each community needs Video: How partnerships benefit community partners Video: Some partners aren’t a good fit 18. Get to know your neighborsA. What you need to knowChanging demographics can lead to tensions in the local neighborhood. (Think Clint Eastwood’s character in the movie Gran Torino.) You may find it very productive to build a stronger relationship with your school’s local neighbors, for your sake and theirs as well!B. ReflectionWhat is your school’s relationship like with the local community? If your local demographics are changing, what is the community’s response to that change? What are some of the needs of your local community? What are the social/emotional/health issues your students face that community agencies might be able to help with?C. StrategiesLook for ways that students can contribute to their neighbors (especially those who have young children or the elderly) by doing neighborhood clean-ups and volunteer work.Inform local neighbors about the opportunity to tutor, volunteer, or donate used goods to the school and ELL families.Look for places where interests and activities overlap. Consider posting a community board where everyone can post what they need or can offer.Look for fundraising opportunities, such as a local yard sale that raises money for a new parent center.Tell the community about the challenges your ELL families are facing. For example, if you have a new group of refugees arriving, collaborate with their placement agency to collect household items, furniture, and winter clothing.D. ExamplesWhen the Extreme MakeoverTM show came to Buffalo, NY, the students at Kevin Eberle’s school took on an “extreme” neighborhood clean-up and food drive, raking leaves for the neighbors and collecting a record-breaking 85 tons of food. Their efforts did far more to change the attitude that local residents had about the school than any meeting could have done, and they attracted great publicity for the school’s students.Following the 2010 Haitian earthquake, the phones at Evans High in Orlando, FL began ringing off the hook and the office was filled with visitors as concerned neighbors asked how they could help the school’s more than 600+ Haitian students and families.Video: How we partner with our neighborhood association < Parents as LeadersCreating an Action Plan >

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This pdf covers the importance for advocacy, what it looks like in action, curriculum access, language rights, and education training. All of these topics are important aspects to be aware of when advocating for ELs, this is a great pdf to have access to as an educator.

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This site explains the importance of the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) and how it has a direct impact on advocating for English language learners. It shows how this act has both positive and negative implications but how to work this legislation into benefitting ELs.

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With the December 2015 passage of the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), education stakeholders have begun to examine how the law will impact different groups of students.

English language learners continue to be one of the fastest growing student populations in the United States, and experience unique educational challenges. Given that English language learners will be 25 percent of public school students by 2025, consideration of the implications ESSA may have on this particular population is essential.
How ESSA Will Impact ELLs
Under ESSA, English language learners and dual language students will experience some major shifts in the ways they are counted, classified, and supported. Title I of ESSA lists English languag e development as a priority in statewide accountability systems. In a break from the way No Child Left Behind (NCLB) treated English language acquisition and accountability, ESSA's Title I requires all schools to demonstrate they are improving English language proficiency of their ELLs. This means ELLs will have a substantial role in accountability systems, particularly in states like California, Texas, Florida, New York, and Illinois, which have the largest concentrations of ELL students. The legislation alters the exclusion of ELLs from standardized tests, providing states with two options:

1. States can still exclude ELLs students' results from accountability measures during a student's first year in US schools, OR
2. Recent arrivals would not be required to take the ELA test, and the state would not have to count ELLs' language proficiency scores in the accountability systems.

In year 2 states are required to use a growth measure for reading and math to be included in the accountability systems, and in years 3 and beyond, assessment scores for ELLs will be included the same way as all other students.

In terms of classifying students, ESSA requires states to have a standardized system for determining which students are ELLs, as well as clear processes for how ELLs enter and exit special services. This will translate to more consistency for ELLs, at least within a given state.

Lastly, when it comes to federal support, the news is good for ELLs: Under Title III, ESSA maintains the prior commitment from NCLB of federal funds to support language instruction for ELLs, but could increase funding by more than 20 percent by 2020, bringing it to a total of $885 million.
What Does This Mean for ELL Advocates?
As there is no longer a federal accountability system, states' and districts' accountability plans must work to ensure the educational rights of English learners. Delia Pompa of the Migration Policy Institute explains, "In the absence of strong central direction for accountability plans, [we must engage] all groups that have a stake in the success of English learners to ensure robust monitoring of how these students are faring academically." To ensure a safeguard of the civil and educational rights of English language learners, state and community stakeholders must prepare for the shifts ESSA requires.

Recommended Action Items for Community Stakeholders:
● Engage in designing new processes and clearly articulate how accountability will work for ELLs.
● Understand current range of entry and exit criteria for ELLs within the state in order to recommend appropriate criteria moving forward.
● Determine optimal method of counting ELLs and make recommendations to state officials.

Recommended Action Items for States:
● Identify best practices in identification and classification that are evidence-based and tailored to state needs.
● Prepare to monitor performance of all English language learners and to intervene when poor outcomes are detected, as early as possible.
● Regarding the exclusion of ELLs' outcomes in the accountability system, work to understand how ELLs would benefit from each option and how each option interacts with the state's overall accountability system.

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Advocating for English Language Learners under ESSA - NCTE

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With the December 2015 passage of the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), education stakeholders have begun to examine how the law will impact different groups of students. English language learners continue to be one of the fastest growing student populations in the United States, and experience unique educational challenges.