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At the 2008 American Association of Equine Practitioners Convention, attendees were treated to an in-depth presentation on horse conformation and its effects on soundness by veterinarian G. Marvin Beeman, MS, DVM, of the Littleton Large Animal Clinic in Colorado. He addressed methods of evaluating conformation as well as his own conformation categories.

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Summit Equine Nutrition - Feeding Performance Horses featuring Susan Treabess

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By Margaret Evans

What does it cost to keep a horse today?
Are more people entering the horse industry than leaving it?
Which sectors of the riding community are growing?
Are horse values still dropping?
Is the horse industry sustainable in today's economy?

The 2010 Canadian Equine Industry Profile Study - The State of the Industry, was commissioned by Equine Canada and authored by Vel Evans of Strategic Equine Inc. It was conducted to assist in planning for the introduction of a national traceability system for the Canadian equine industry, and to provide insight into the current state of the Canadian horse industry, issues affecting its future, and its readiness to meet challenges that could affect its sustainability, growth patterns, domestic markets, and farm management.

Published in March 2011, the 2010 study was based on the format of previous national studies conducted in 1998 and 2003, and compares the results of the three studies in order to identify industry trends over a period of more than ten years.

In 2010, a total of 2566 interviews were conducted during May through August 2010, with adults in all ten provinces, the Yukon Territory, and the Northwest Territories. The survey directly represented 2566 riders, drivers, and horse caregivers, and indirectly represented an additional 4296 Canadians who ride or drive horses and are residents of the households of those surveyed. Horses represented in the study include the 17,712 horses that were owned by survey participants, an additional 1024 horses owned through syndication, and a further 5279 horses owned by others but cared for by survey participants.

The results published in The State of the Industry report in 2011 included statistics that took some by surprise, while others nodded their heads sagely, seeing in print what their intuition had already warned them.
Racing was the primary use identified for 52,000 horses or 5.4 percent of Canada's herd. Of the 220,000 young horses not yet in use, 9 percent or 19,790 individuals are intended for racing.
Canada's Herd
Defining the industry and assessing its significance for the purpose of the report meant the need to assess the number of horses in Canada and their various uses. The study estimated the Canadian herd size in 2010 at 963,500 horses which are resident on 145,000 properties, down from the estimated 1,092,461 horses in 2005. This represents a reduction of approximately 128,960 head or 11.8 percent of the national herd.

By province, it was estimated that Alberta had the most horses at 33 percent, followed by Ontario (22 percent), Quebec and BC (12 percent each), Saskatchewan (11 percent), and Manitoba (6 percent), with the four Maritime provinces at one percent each, and Yukon/NWT at less than one percent. Only New Brunswick reported more horses in 2010 than in 2005, with an estimated herd size of 12,500 head, up from 10,008 in 2005.

The research indicates that over the next five years horse owners in most provinces expect to own either the same number or fewer horses than in 2010; Quebec and Ontario are the only two provinces where herd size is expected to increase during this period.

According to the research, 220,000 or 23 percent of horses in Canada in 2010 were young horses still in training for their market sectors, while mature horses, approximately 744,000, were used in sports (18 percent), recreation (18 percent), and breeding (18 percent).

"Growth in participation in the racing and sport competition sectors during the 2003 to 2005 period saw the Canadian herd expand to a peak of 1.092 million horses in 2005," wrote Evans. "Growth was buoyed by a 36 percent increase in the number of horses active in racing between 2002 and 2004 (from 19,900 horses in 2002 to 26,073 in 2006) with the related increase in breeding production to serve an expanding racing sector."
Proving that horses are a lifelong passion, the 2010 study reported that the national community of horse owners is aging, with 24 percent in the 60-year-plus age range. Ian Millar is Canada's best-known competitive rider in that age group. Photo: Robin Duncan Photography
Canada's Horse People
Some 855,000 people were active in the horse industry in 2010, more of them adults (59 percent) than children (41 percent).

For the first time since 1998, the ratio of adult participants to children participating has shifted in favour of adults. In 2003, of the 795,000 people participating in the industry, the ratio of adults to children was 40 percent adults/60 percent children. In 2010 the ratio has reversed. However, in 2010, more children (255,250) rode in competitive sport than adults (117,000). Despite this fact, there were still 43,000 more adult sport competitors reported in 2010 compared to 2003.

It was startling to some that the typical new horse owner's demographic profile is representative of the baby boomer generation.

Nationally, the average age of horse owners has moved from a range of 40 to 49 years of age in 2003, to 50 to 59 years of age and older in 2010. The national community of horse owners is aging and the 2010 research reports that 24 percent of the current 226,500 horse owners are in the 60-year-plus age range. In 2003, 12 percent of horse owners were over age 60. The study stated that the provinces reporting the highest percentage of participation in horses of those over 60 years of age were New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, the Yukon, and the Northwest Territories. Interestingly, the provinces of Quebec and Newfoundland, which showed growth in participation between 2003 and 2010, report a lower median age for participants (40 to 49 years) compared to other provinces.

"The one statistic that really caught me by surprise is how the demographics of society is really catching up to the horse industry in that in 2003, 60 percent of people riding or driving were youth, and 40 percent were adults," said Les Burwash, Business Development, Horse Industry, Alberta Agriculture and Rural Development. "Then in 2010 this was totally reversed. This really hit me as I had known there was this change but it finally sunk in what this means...this figure-change put it all into how fast this is now changing."

At the other end of the country, the same thoughts prevail.

"What struck me most was for once I am not unique, I am typical!" wrote Pam MacKenzie with candid humour. She is a Purina certified equine consultant and, with husband Ron, owns RPM Stable in Nova Scotia. "As the report indicates, we are seeing an aging population in the equine groups here. Some appear to be baby boomers returning to their equine passion after raising their families or nearing retirement. (But) bucking that trend we see a steadily growing hunter/jumper sector here. This area has some boomers but also has up-and-coming talent development from beginners to the future top riders such as Angie Covert-Lawrence."

In terms of demographics, British Columbia appears to be on a slightly different curve if Horse Council BC membership is an indication.

"Our membership shows only 14 percent are over 60 and just over 30 percent are under 18," said Kelly Coughlin, Manager of Industry and Agriculture with HCBC.

Economic Impact
Despite the fact that the Canadian horse industry may be facing considerable challenges, it still contributed over $19.6 billion to the national economy in 2010, a significant increase over $15.8 billion in 2003. An additional $300 million-plus in GST and HST, and federal and provincial taxes and levies on horse racing wagering was also contributed. Horses are the only livestock species subject to GST, and in 2010 the industry contributed more than $177.5 million in GST revenues related specifically to the production and care of horses.

The report showed that commitment to the industry by horse owners is substantial. They have invested approximately $29 billion, not only in horses, but in property and property improvements, tack, horse related equipment, vehicles, and trailers.

The report also cites these employment statistics:

On-farm activities with horses generate the equivalent of 76,000 full-time jobs in Canada, at an average annual salary rate of $29,884;

Off-farm activities with horses generate the equivalent of 9806 full-time jobs in Canada, at an average annual salary rate of $25,478;

The Canadian horse industry supports more than 154,000 full-time jobs... one for every 6.25 horses in the country.

Canada's horse industry generates $13.5 billion in annual expenditures for production, care, and activities with horses. And horse owners spend some $1.6 billion each year on products and services for the care of their horses.

"Our report confirms the enormous - but too often underestimated - contribution made by Canadian equestrians to our country's economy and quality of life," said Akaash Maharaj, then CEO of Equine Canada.
Regardless of the economic climate, the recreational rider values a well-trained horse with a good temperament.
Economic Climate
When assessing the value of horses for sale today, it bears repeating that trained horses and those that are sound performers hold their value, while grade or undertrained horses are still pegged as low value prospects. Really though, this would apply in all economic climates.

"There is, and always will be, a sliding scale in the price of horses," said Burwash. "Price is related to training, temperament, and tolerance for recreational riders. The more the training, the better the temperament, and the more tolerant to our inadequacies to always give the correct message to the horse on what we want to do, the more valuable the horse is. This is not talking about elite performance horses but recreational horses which make up the heart of the industry."

Burwash added that what he sees is the law of supply and demand at work in the horse industry. "We are now seeing prices increase for horses that meet the requirements of people because the numbers are down and the economy is turning around. It should probably be recognized that breeders producing average horses will not be profitable and sustainable in the long run."

Allan Ehrlick, President of the Ontario Equestrian Federation and recipient of the 2011 Equine Canada Volunteer of the Year Award, factors in the dramatic rise in the value of the Canadian dollar to the supply and demand equation.

"It was wonderful when the Canadian dollar was around 65 cents to the US dollar and Americans would come up here and buy all sorts of horses," he said. "It was a great market. But as the Canadian dollar got stronger and the economy (here) got better, that ended because now it's dollar for dollar. It's a very difficult situation because of the economy. People still have no trouble selling the expensive horses but it's the ones that are $30,000, $20,000, or $5000 that are difficult to sell right now. The cost of living has gone up, feed is expensive, and (so is) the cost of fuel."

"Price reductions are most evident in the lower price end of the market," wrote Evans. "Selling prices for horses to the pleasure-riding market were down 39 percent nationally in 2010. In key markets for the pleasure riding sector - BC, Alberta, Ontario, and Quebec - reported prices were down 56 percent, 61 percent, 49 percent, and 61 percent respectively."

Plummeting values have not only been driven by the economic malaise but the rising overhead cost of keeping horses that Ehrlick referred to. The report states that the cost to keep a horse has increased by more than 70 percent between 2003 and 2010. The national average jumped from $1500 annually to keep a horse in 2003, to $2700 per horse in 2010.

"Overall, yes, that would be a fair representation of costs for keeping a horse," said Coughlin. "Regionally throughout BC costs may differ but overall those costs have increased within that time frame."

Horse ownership costs, though, are relative to the animal's use.

"Cost of ownership has always been a deterrent to participating in our industry," said Burwash. "(But) I also question that this cost of ownership has doubled in seven years. Feed costs are cyclical in Alberta as with most agricultural products. In my opinion many horse owners could reduce their cost of ownership without compromising the care of their horse."

MacKenzie also felt that in addition to the rising costs of ownership, another cost that has really hurt the horse industry in the Maritimes is the cost of showing and insurance.

"I believe in Atlantic Canada the insurance industry and Equine Canada have destroyed much of the foundation that built the equine industry," she said. "The fun shows and family oriented events that put kids on ponies and horses, and in the show rings, have become just memories of the past. Insurance costs, let alone show approval fees, etc., have made these foundation shows impossible to run or host. All that remains are the higher level, higher priced shows. Equine Canada won't allow certified judges to judge fun shows so there is no place for a kid to start competing unless they have a whole lot of money to spend. After parents pay for board, lessons, and trucking they have to pay Equine Canada dues, entry fees, coaches, farriers, vets, etc. Trucking costs are increasing dramatically. Young families, often with one parent, just can't afford a young equestrian."
Annual foal production decreased by 50 percent from 2003 to 2010. Photo:Robin Duncan Photography
The increased cost of keeping a horse is proportionate to the rising number of horses on the market. And with the closure of horse meat processing plants in the U.S., horses were imported into Canada for sale at auction, further flooding the market with saleable horses and driving horse prices down simply from over supply.

The poor market has clearly impacted breeders as they work to keep up with a changing industry. The report stated that annual foal production has decreased by 50 percent in the 2003 to 2010 period, and that it was expected to continue to decrease in 2011.

MacKenzie has observed that horse owners are exercising caution in what they are buying and breeding. "Breeders are choosing to breed less, and fewer breeders are maintaining stallions. AI [artificial insemination] is on the increase."

The report states that of the 135,000 horses sold since 2008, 80 percent were sold through private sale, and 35,000 have been sold to export markets. And 18 percent of sellers reported that prices were higher in 2010, while 40 percent reported lower prices.
With the shift in horse ownership to an aging demographic, the 29 percent decrease in the number of owners making their horses available for entry level activities, and the 50 percent drop in entry level participation, finding affordable and sustainable ways to attract young people is key to the industry's future. Photo: Robin Duncan Photography
Retooling for the Future
MacKenzie stressed the need to bring back the grassroots affordable fun shows with Equine Canada supporting them with reasonably priced insurance and fees, and qualified, affordable judges. She also stressed that provincial governments need to remove the tax from horse feeds and support the industry "they call agriculture one time and companion animal the next."

That thought is close to Coughlin's heart. She believes that if her "wish list" ever came to fruition, we would have a healthy, thriving horse industry! Her wish list includes:

That horses be considered livestock under the Ministry of Small Business and Revenue;

That the horse sector be considered equivalent to other agricultural commodities in British Columbia with regards to taxation;

That income from boarding, training, stud fees, and stallion semen sales be included as qualifying income for farm classification.

"We need to encourage those not currently involved with horses that it is possible for riding and driving to be an affordable family-oriented hobby," said Coughlin. "The average person is four to five generations removed from an agricultural background - but people like horses! The industry needs to capitalize on this and rebrand itself as an investment in a healthy and wholesome lifestyle for all ages and physical abilities. This can be done through broader communication, educational resources, accessible competition, and preserving trails to ensure outdoor recreational opportunities."

"The number of people riding horses that belong to others has dropped from 647,000 in 2003 to 304,000 in 2010," wrote Evans. "There has been a 29 percent decrease in the number of owners making their horses available for entry level activities in the 2003 to 2010 period from 38,000 owners in 2003 to 27,000 in 2010."

Ultimately this contributed to the fact that entry level participation in the industry was down by approximately 50 percent in 2010 as compared with 2003, although in certain parts of the country participation numbers may stabilizing.

MacKenzie commented that owners do not tend to lend their horses to encourage young riders into the industry because insurance costs are so prohibitive. Interestingly, that trend was also noted in the report.

"The interest is still there," acknowledged Coughlin. "But unless you know someone directly involved in horses it is difficult for the average person to know where to begin. Horses offer a healthy, vibrant lifestyle that can be affordable for a family and we need to get that message out."

She added that leasing, lessons on school horses, and trail riding are some options. In BC, local and schooling competitions are doing very well. Participation numbers are now steady to increasing.
The industry needs to rebrand itself as an investment in a healthy and wholesome lifestyle for all ages and physical abilities. Photo: Robin Duncan Photography
The report stated that the industry has proven itself adept at adjusting business models to target breeding-to-market-use over the past decade. It now needs to retool itself to target new youth markets in an affordable and sustainable way.

"Activities are going to need to be more inviting and fun for young people or they will not come into the horse industry," said Burwash. "If the horse industry is going to grow and maintain itself we must concentrate on bringing youth into horse activities. Studies show that if people are going to become involved with horses in their lifetime they must be exposed when they are young. Associations are going to have to put more emphasis on fun youth activities to ultimately retain memberships and participation."

But drawing in children today is perhaps even more challenging given the immense competition with digital media, the wide range of entertainment available, and the huge financial demands on families with rising household costs and, more often than not, both parents working to make ends meet. Families with several children find themselves stretched by both time and money when it comes to meeting the needs of their children's diverse interests.

"We are all going to need to put in more time, effort, and money to attract new people," Burwash stressed. "There needs to be more easy access points to becoming involved. (While) our industry is not inexpensive to participate in, we are going to need to show value for the investment. We are going to have to think outside the box and change some of what we are doing to become inclusive as opposed to being exclusive."

So what does the future hold for the horse industry?

"I would say, on the up side, the industry has a large pool of horse knowledge to draw upon with equestrians, much like Ian Millar, staying in their industry longer and being more educated and knowledgeable than the generations past," said MacKenzie. "There is more research and science on horses available now than before. On the down side, this increased knowledge and lifelong passion needs a base where it can be passed along. We have a large pool of boomers and equestrians who can pass along experience and knowledge, provide a volunteer base, but [they] also need to help youth with opportunities."

Despite the rising cost of keeping horses, Evans wrote that one of the most significant changes in the 2010 industry profile was the addition of more than 79,000 horse-owning households since 2003, which represents a 54 percent increase in the number of horse owners in Canada.

However, if horse ownership has shifted to an aging demographic, people will eventually retire from the industry. According to the report, only 19 percent expect to own more horses in five years' time. Fully 30 percent of the owners questioned expect to own fewer horses, some expecting to downsize within a year. The decrease in horse ownership over the next five to ten years would result in shrinkage in the size of the horse industry.

The sustainability of the equine industry is dependent upon the need to recognize the potential for growth, and to nurture it by drawing in new participants and revitalizing the customer base. The Canadian economy is a fluid, changing dynamic. With vision and focus, horse owners and horse lovers are capable of re-tooling their industry for an exciting ride into the future.
Main Article Photo: Courtesy of Troxel - Although individual horses are often used for more than one type of activity, pleasure riding or driving was identified as the primary use for 172,000 Canadian equines.

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2010 canadian equine industry profile study

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The Changing Face of Canada's Horse Industry

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By Margaret Evans - What does it cost to keep a horse today? Are more people entering the horse industry than leaving it? Which sectors of the riding community are growing? Defining the industry and assessing its significance for the purpose of the report meant the need to assess the number of horses in Canada and their various uses.

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There must be something in the air at the moment; I was recently expounding the virtues of delaying a horse's training under the saddle only to come across an article last week on The Horse website talking about (race)horse performance at 2, 3 and 5 years related to lesions.

The cause was at that moment of little interest, the age of the horses was. Should we be riding at such immature ages?

Despite being worlds apart, the racehorse industry and the home-hack do have one main thing in common, the wish to turn their beautiful horse into a beautiful rideable horse as soon as possible. After all, most of us don't just want to look at our horse...

There is plenty of motivation to start early too. In dressage, there is a minimum age at which a horse may compete; according to FEI regulations for international dressage competition, it is six years but for many national events, the rules are different with the minimum age being as low as three. And when one considers horse-racing, the ages are even lower - the racing of two-year-olds is quite commonplace which requires them to be saddled up for the first time when they are not much older than 1½.

For the professional trainer and owner, it is all a question of money. Often the horse is - or can become - quite valuable. Keeping a horse costs money (ironically, for the owners of such horses, it is often just a fraction of their earnings) and the natural desire is to see the horse earn its keep as soon as possible. And eventually, a racehorse can be put out to stud and earn yet more that way - these days not even needing to attain a respectable age with the ability to freeze sperm - but the health of the horse is never the greatest consideration.

So what about the mere mortals of this world? Most horse owners will agree that a horse should not be ridden until it is about 4 years old. A respectable age, one could say; the horse is obviously no longer a foal and is more likely to grow outwards than upwards. However, the growth plates are still a long way off being closed. The last plates will close somewhere between 5½ and eight years old - and it is specifically these growth plates that are found in the back of the horse - all 32 of them!

Most growth plates lie across the weight bearing plane - think of knees, ankles, shoulders etc. - and are less affected by the carriage of weight. But the growth plates in the back lie parallel to the weight bearing plane whereby the back is easily streched and thus can suffer under the weight of the rider.

To clarify, this is the order and the approximate age at which the growth plates close up:

1. Birth: distal phalanx (coffin bone)

2. Birth and six months: middle phalanx

3. Between six months and 1 year: proximal phalanx

4. Between 8 months and 1½ years: metacarpals/metatarsals (cannon bones)

5. Between 1½ and 2½ years: carpal bones

6. Between 2 and 2½ years: radius-ulna

7. Between 2½ and 3 years: ulna/femur, section that carries weight above the radius; tibia

8. Between 3 and 3½ years: humerus; bottom part of the femur

9. Between 3 and 4 years: pelvis begins to close, beginning with the extremities of the ischium, ilium and sacrum

10. Between 3½ and 4 years: lower part (that carries weight) of the scapula (shoulderblade) ; top neck vertebrae

12. From 4 years: tarsal bones then the growth plates between fibula and tibia (not without reason that 18th century literature forbade ploughing, crossing of deep mud and jumping for young horses)

13. Between 5½ and 8 years: vertebrae (the larger the horse and the longer the neck, the longer it takes for the growth plates to close up. For stallions, add another six months: this means a "warmblood" horse of about 17hh will not be fully grown until 8 years old.)

Of course, all this does not mean that we cannot do anything with our horses until they are eight, but it should certainly set us thinking about our training schemes.

For the professional horseworld, time is loss - except the economics are not taken into account. Maybe not so interesting for the racehorse owner - his horse is often little more than a money factory - but certainly for the livery and riding school owners. In much of Europe, the average age of a riding school horse is horrifically low and the general life-expectancy shows no correlation with what a horse should (healthily) be able to reach. Based upon the size of the animal and the size and rate of its heart etc., the horse has a potential life-expectancy of 50 years. Realistically a little lower at around 40 to 43 years. But a horrific number of horses has already been written off by the age of 20 - imagine writing off people when they get to 38 or 40...

Take a look at the table below - and decide for yourself which of the two columns fits your way of thinking best:

Just by delaying the moment we start to ride by just 3 years, we can win 10 years in "useful" life. It makes you think...

Growth plate information: Timing and rate of skeletal maturation in horses, Dr Deb Bennett, 2005
"Useful Life" table: based on observations by Pierre Enoff, bio-mechanical engineer
Original article published in Dutch: http://www.kobolt.nl/gezondheid/leeftijd-bij-inrijden/ https://sabots-libres.eu/site/engagement/2013/leeftijd-bij-inrijden/

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A Safe Start: The reality of training early...

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There must be something in the air at the moment; I was recently expounding the virtues of delaying a horse's training under the saddle only to come across an article last week on The Horse website talking about (race)horse performance at 2, 3 and 5 years related to lesions.

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The horse's hoof is a miracle of engineering. It contains a whole host of structures which, when healthy, operate in equilibrium with each other to form a hoof capsule which is able to withstand huge forces, utilising energy to assist with forward movement while providing protection to the sensitive structures beneath.

This is not a definitive guide, but it will allow the horse owner to understand more about this incredible structure.

EXTERNAL STRUCTURES

This newly trimmed section of hoof gives you a good idea of what the different structures of the hoof wall and sole look like. On a white foot, the differences are much less easy to spot.
Sole
The sole is the area inside the white line, but not including the bars and frog. It's primary function is to protect the sensitive structures beneath the sole. However, the outer perimeter of sole around the toe also provides support, sharing some of the weight of the horse with the hoof wall.
White Line
Commonly referred to as the white line, although this is very misleading, not only because it is actually yellowish but also because it is next to the white inner wall of the hoof. This often causes people to misinterpret the white line as inner wall, so it is sometimes called the Golden Line - more accurate description that was commonly used in the 1800s. The purpose of the Golden Line is to join the sole to the inner wall of the hoof and to seal off the border of the pedal bone to protect it from bacterial infiltration. It creates a shallow crease at the bottom of the hoof which fills with dirt, aiding with traction.
Inner Wall
The inner hoof wall is usually white (unlike the outer wall, it does not contain pigment). It is more pliable than the outer wall due to it having a higher moisture content which enables the inner wall to stretch more as the outer wall moves, ensuring the inner workings of the hoof are protected from too much shock as well as allowing the pedal bone and the outer wall to move in different ways without losing strength of attachment.
Outer Wall
The outer hoof wall is pigmented and is much stronger than the inner wall. Its purpose is to bear the weight of the horse, protect the internal structures from harm and to act like a spring, storing and releasing energy during the different phases of the stride to help propel the horse along. A healthy outer wall will be slightly thicker at the toe and have no growth rings or cracks. It will be almost impermeable, meaning water or any other things which come in contact with it will not be able to penetrate the wall. If, however, an outer wall is damaged - either through injury or nutritional imbalance, substances which come into contact with it will seep through.
Bar
The bar is an extension of the hoof wall which runs along the side of the frog, terminating approximately half way along the frog. Its primary purpose is to control the movement of the back of the hoof, adding strength to the heel area and protecting it from excess distortion. It should have a high ratio of pliable inner wall to ensure it can move correctly as the heel moves. More recent research has found that the bar also produces some of the material that makes up the sole.
Angle of the Bar
Commonly known as the heel, although this description can be misleading. This area is designed to receive the initial impact of the horse's stride and a healthy angle of the bar comprises mainly of pliable inner wall, enabling it to dissipate excess shock with ease. This area plays a major role in supporting the weight of the horse and it is important that it remains correctly balanced.
Collateral Groove
This is the groove that runs along either side of the frog. The outer wall of the groove is made up of the wall of the bar and sole and the wall on the other side comprises the wall of the frog.
Frog
One of the most important, but often neglected structures of the horse's hoof. It should be wide and substantial and made up of thick, leathery material. An unhealthy frog is vulnerable to infection which, if left untreated, can lead to significant loss of structure in the back of the hoof causing severe lameness.

The frog works in concert with the coronet band, the bars and the sole to provide resistance to distortion of the hoof capsule during the stride. Pressure placed upon the frog directly influences the health of the digital cushion above it. The frog stay (triangular piece cut out of the sole that the frog sits in) allows independent movement at the heels as the horse lands on uneven ground. The frog also plays a part in protecting the sensitive structures beneath, providing traction, assisting circulation and absorbing shock. It also contains many nerves which enable the horse to feel what it is standing on and be aware of where its feet are in relation to the rest of its body (proprioception).

In the centre of the frog, towards the back of the foot is the central sulcus. A healthy sulcus is wide and shallow, but if the frog is weak and narrow it can become a deep crease which is a haven for bacteria and fungus.
Coronet Band
In the UK the coronet band is thought to be so called because coronet means "crown". In other parts of the world the phrase "Coronary band" is often used - coronary meaning "pertaining to the heart". This is a very tough, vascular structure which sits at the top of the hoof wall. It has two very important functions. Firstly it produces the tubules of the outer hoof wall. Secondly, it is incredibly strong and acts as a band of support to add strength to the internal structures as the hoof distorts during the stride.
Periople
This is a protective covering for the area of newly formed hoof wall just below the coronet band. In the early stages, this horn material is quite soft - deliberately so because it helps to prevent the coronet band becoming bruised as shock is transferred upwards through the hoof wall during the weight bearing phase of the stride. The periople covers this horn to provide protection.

INTERNAL STRUCTURES

There are two and a bit bones inside the hoof. The Pedal bone, the Navicular bone and the bottom part of the Short Pastern bone.
Pedal Bone
The large bone inside the hoof capsule is known as the Pedal bone or Coffin bone. Its shape provides a framework for the shape of the hoof capsule itself.

The Pedal bone provides strength and stability to the hoof and acts as a framework to hold other structures in place. It does not have a medulla (bone marrow) and has an unusually high density of tiny blood vessels running through it. Surrounding the wall of the bone is the laminae which hold the wall to the bone and produce some of the intertubular horn of the hoof wall. Underneath, the bone is covered in solar corium which produces the sole. At the back, the bone attaches to cartilage which forms a large portion of the back of the hoof . Tendons and ligaments are attached to this bone and a dense network of blood vessels run around and through it.
Navicular Bone
This is another bone which is hard to visualise when viewed in cross section. It is thought to have derived its name because it is shaped like a boat.It is also known as the Distal Sesamoid bone (distal meaning furthermost from the body, sesamoid meaning embedded within a tendon). The navicular bone is not actually embedded in a tendon, but it does sit just inside the back of the pedal bone and the deep digital flexor tendon passes over it. It prevents over-articulation of the joint of the pedal bone, maintains a constant angle of insertion of the Deep Flexor Tendon into the back of the Pedal bone and allows for additional tilt within the coffin joint when navigating uneven surfaces.
Short Pastern Bone
Also known as the Middle Phalanx, the short pastern bone sits on top of the articulating joint of the pedal bone and underneath the long pastern bone. Only the bottom portion of this bone extends as far as the hoof capsule.
Digital Cushion
The digital cushion sits just behind the pedal bone and above the sensitive frog. It plays a vital role in the absorption of shock. In an improperly functioning foot, the digital cushion atrophies and becomes "fatty" as opposed to springy, cartilaginous material, inhibiting its ability to absorb shock. The shape and health of the digital cushion will influence the angle of the Pedal Bone. "Flat footed" horses (ie, those whose pedal bones lie flat instead of being tilted slightly on their nose) often have severely atrophied digital cushions.
Coriums
A corium is a vascular structure which manufactures hoof horn. For instance, the solar corium will produce the sole and the frog corium produces the frog. The coronet band contains a corium which produces the tubules and intertubular horn of the hoof wall, whereas more intertubular horn is manufactured in the corium surrounding the pedal bone (also known as the dermal layer or laminae). The perioplic corium sits under the coronet band and produces the periople.
Lateral/Ungual Cartilage
The lateral cartilages are located both above and below the coronet band, extending around the front, the sides and back of the hoof. Below the coronet band they extend out over the digital cushion and attach to the back of the pedal bone. The horn producing corium of the inner hoof wall attaches to the lateral cartilages at the back of the hoof where the pedal bone does not reach. These cartilages provide resistance as the pedal bone descends during weight bearing, regulating the amount of pressure applied to the coriums. They also help to suspend the pedal bone in the correct position as well as acting as a spring, storing and releasing energy during locomotion.

Blood supply

The hoof is heavily supplied with blood through the two arteries which run down the back of the leg and into the foot. The pedal bone itself has an unusually high density of blood vessels within it. The photograph shows the laminae which keep the hoof wall tightly bonded to the internal structures. The blood pumping around the foot has many vital uses. It supplies nutrients to allow growth of new horn tissue, assists with damping impact shock and helps to regulate hoof temperature.

This is just a taster of what an amazing and complex structure the equine hoof is. If you would like to learn more about the anatomy of the equine hoof, and the way it functions I suggest you read the following:

"Practical Guide to Lameness in Horses", Ted S Stashak, ISBN 0-683-07985-9

"The Equine Distal Limb", Jean-Marie Denoix, ISBN 978-1840760019

"Equine Podiatry". Andrea E Floyd, Richard A Mannesmann, ISBN: 978-0-7216-0383-4

"Anatomy of the Horse", Klaus-Dieter Budras, W.O. Sack, Sabine Röck, ISBN 978-3-89993-044-3
This article has been written and kindly donated by Jayne Hunt (www.healthyhooves.co.uk). Jayne is a professional Equine Podiatrist and trainer who specialises in Equine Anatomy and Physiology, which she teaches to students studying the two year Diploma in Equine Podiatry course with Equine Podiatry Training Ltd www.eptrain.co.uk.

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The horse's hoof is a miracle of engineering. It contains a whole host of structures which, when healthy, operate in equilibrium with each other to form a hoof capsule which is able to withstand huge forces, utilising energy to assist with forward movement while providing protection to the sensitive structures beneath.

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Canada's multi-million dollar horse meat industry has been described as a dirty little secret, though one that's not been very well-kept given the regular cropping up of news stories in recent years. Canada slaughtered 66 651 horses in 2014, in five slaughter plants across the country (two of which are in Alberta). Nationally, Quebec is the biggest consumer of horse meat, though you can find it in small pockets throughout the country-typically in European delis; the vast majority of Canada's horse meat is exported to Europe. Statistics Canada reports that Canada's total horse meat exports bring in roughly $80 million per year. (Comparatively, Canada's beef exports for January to September 2015 alone were well over $1.6 billion.)

At first glance, the differing opinions on horse meat-companion animal or food source-seems to be nothing more than a clash of cultural values.

"It's a culture thing; I've got people that have been eating it for 60, 70, 80 years," says Dave van Leeuwen. "I've got older customers that grew up on this stuff, and sometimes I think there's people just grabbing at things to get it off the market just because they don't agree with it."

Van Leeuwen owns Ben's Meats and Deli, a local Dutch store that was founded by his grandfather in 1953. Like many Dutch individuals, he grew up eating horse meat: smoked, thin-sliced horse meat is a staple sandwich ingredient in the Netherlands. Van Leeuwen describes it as akin to prosciutto in the way that it's prepared (cured and smoked, as opposed to cooked), though not in flavour; he describes the taste as very lean, rich and salty. Sliced horse lunch meat is van Leeuwen's fourth-best-selling meat in the store; he sells about 60 to 65 pounds of it each month.

Critics of Canada's horse slaughter acknowledge the horse's position as a companion animal in our culture, but that's actually not the first-or even second-argument against this practice. The main charge levied by critics against the horse meat industry is that it could contain traces of veterinary drugs that are unsafe for human consumption. The most common of these is phenylbutazone (PBZ), an anti-inflammatory colloquially called "bute." PBZ is banned by the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) as it can cause potentially fatal blood diseases in humans. While the CFIA claims that its personnel perform daily inspections in all federally registered meat establishments, and that they test horses regularly for PBZ, a European audit in 2014 caught Canadian horse meat tainted with traces of the drug. It's not known how long PBZ stays in the horse's system; a 2010 article published in the Food and Chemical Toxicology journal stated that traces of PBZ will remain in horse meat for a very long and undetermined period of time.

"Just about everybody who has a horse eventually gives their horse phenylbutazone," Sinikka Crosland says. Crossland is the executive director of the Canadian Horse Defence Coalition (CHDC), a non-profit group she co-founded in 2004 with the goal of banning Canada's horse-slaughter industry.

"It's a drug that should not ever find its way into the food chain," she explains. "Yet, at the same time, the Canadian government just turns a blind eye to the fact that a lot of these horses going through the system actually have very likely had bute at some point in their lives. ... As far as we're concerned, there's no way to control that. Horses should not be food animals, period."

All animals sold to slaughter houses must have documentation identifying their history of drug treatments, but Crosland notes that there are still large gaps in actually verifying this information and it only goes back 180 days. Further, a Global News story in March 2014 revealed that the CFIA only tests an average of 385 samples per year since 2010-less than 0.5 percent of the total horses slaughtered annually in Canada.

The humane aspect of the horse slaughter is also of significant concern to the CHDC.

"We think that it's a horrifically inhumane industry," Crosland says. "The undercover footage that we've looked at, year after year from various slaughterhouses in Canada, show that the horses suffer greatly when they're in that kill box. ... You see them shaking, a head-to-toe shake, and they're trying to get out of that kill box; they're rearing; they're doing everything possible to try to defend themselves. They can smell the blood; they often don't clean up between horses; they just pump them through."

This stands in marked contrast to van Leeuwen's view of these practices. He notes that he's visited slaughterhouses before and that they strive to ensure the animals aren't frightened, because it will negatively impact the quality of the meat.

"There's something in beef called a dark cutter," he explains. "It's been traced back to something called pre-slaughter stress syndrome. If you put an animal in stress before it is killed, the meat can toughen up and it won't go through rigor mortis process, and it won't break down. They don't want that, because it ruins the meat."

However, van Leeuwen also acknowledges that in horse slaughter, as with any other industry, there will be both good and bad individuals, and that sometimes the proper practices may not always be followed.

One of the most overlooked aspects of Canada's horse meat industry is the export of live horses to Japan. Raw horse sashimi is a delicacy in Japan, and live horses are sold on the Japanese market for a high price. To ensure the meat is as fresh as possible, these horses are shipped live via air freight, in conditions that Crosland describes as deplorable-they are overcrowded, sometimes three to four animals per wooden crate (when Canada's own laws dictate only one per crate) and have food and water withheld for days (up to 36 hours within Canada's borders, but once they hit international airspace, the clock resets). As reported by Statistics Canada, as of November 2014, Canada had shipped 6976 live horses to Japan, an increase of only five percent from 2013-though that number increased a whopping 560 percent between 2012 and 2013.

In May 2014, NDP member of parliament Alex Atamanenko introduced Bill C-571, which would amend the Meat Inspection Act to ban the slaughter of any horse without a medical record containing all treatments over the course of its lifetime. Effectively, this bill would end the slaughter of all horses not raised specifically for human consumption. The bill was voted down, though Crosland was heartened to see that the Liberal MPs voted unanimously in support of the bill. She is optimistic that with Canada's recent change in government, passing similar legislation will soon be possible.

Even in the absence of any legislation against it, Canada's horse-slaughter industry is in decline: the number of horses slaughtered has fallen each year since 2008, after a peak caused by a surge in live-horse imports after the US banned horse slaughter in 2007. The US ban was the result of ongoing lobbying by animal welfare groups as well as legal battles between municipalities and abattoirs, which resulted in the passing of legislation to prohibit the agriculture department from spending money on inspecting horse slaughter facilities, effectively killing the practice on American soil. (Over 60 percent of horses slaughtered in Canada are shipped from the US.) Horse meat is becoming harder to find: van Leeuwen used to carry a variety of different cuts like tenderloin and sirloin, but in 2015 only the smoked deli-style horse meat has been available.

Banning Canada's horse slaughter is not at the top of the list of the legislation changes expected to be enacted by the new Liberal government. (Or, likely, even somewhere around the middle.) There is, however, a decent chance that significant changes to the horse meat industry will occur at some point in the next four years. The average Canadian will likely be unaffected, but it would set a significant legal precedent in our country and clear up a lot of the current ambiguities surrounding the horse-slaughter industry.

Before a total ban on horse slaughter arrives (if it ever does), Canada will most likely see legislation like Bill C-571, which would definitively determine what is now only circumspect, and the crux of the argument against eating horse meat as it exists today: whether the majority of slaughtered horses are byproducts of other industries (rodeos, racing, family pets) as the CHDC maintains-and therefore likely contaminated with PBZ-or whether most of them were already raised for food, as van Leeuwen believes. Given the US's 2007 ban on horse slaughter, and the EU's recent ban of horse meat imports from Mexico due to issues with traceability of veterinary records, the North American horse meat industry could potentially collapse. What this will entail on the world scene, however, is much less clear.

"What we sell in Canada is just a drop in the bucket," van Leeuwen says. "I don't see it disappearing, no. They have to do something with some of the animals. ... I think there is an industry there."

The CHDC has already considered this, however, and Crosland notes that they and other sympathetic groups would work to ensure all horses find a home in the event of a ban.

"People are always saying, 'What's going to happen; for the next 20 years the country's going to be overrun with horses,'" she says. "No, that's not going to happen. If slaughter were to end tomorrow, yes there would be lots of horses on the market, and everybody would be scrambling to figure out where those horses are going to go. But when you look at the big picture, overbreeding is the worst problem that adds to the horse population. ... Responsibility suddenly would become a way of life in the horse industry."

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Canada's multi-million dollar horse meat industry might be on the verge of change

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Canada's multi-million dollar horse meat industry has been described as a dirty little secret, though one that's not been very well-kept given the regular cropping up of news stories in recent years. Canada slaughtered 66 651 horses in 2014, in five slaughter plants across the country (two of which are in Alberta).

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By Al Donato

Kirkland Gates, Patty McGill and Dandy at Hinchinbrook Farms

More and more Canadians are horsing around with their healthcare. Horse therapy, also known as equestrian or equine-assisted therapy, is a versatile treatment program that has patients galloping to ranches and stables to recover from all kinds of medical conditions.

For the children and young adults featured in CBC documentary , these large therapy animals make the perfect hooved friends to guide them through life's challenges. But hold off trading your doctor visits for riding lessons just yet. Here's what you need to know about horse therapy before getting on the saddle:

Origins

Hippocrates, commonly referred to as the father of modern medicine, wrote about equine-assisted therapy being used in ancient Greece. Therapeutic riding rose to prominence in the 1950s and 1960s in Europe, bolstered by Danish Olympic dressage silver medallist Lis Hartel, who claimed riding helped her recover from polio.

How Horse Therapy Works

Horse therapists say feeling the physical cadence of a horse can stimulate one's muscles and spine. Based on what they've seen, horseback riding helps with motor skills, balance, coordination, and physical rehabilitation.

Horse therapy can take many forms. For those who prefer staying on the ground, equine-assisted therapy includes activities such as grooming, petting, and feeding. Otherwise, programs may feature vaulting over small obstacles, trotting or riding in a horse-driven carriage.

Who Uses Horse Therapy?

PTSD Sufferers: Veterans, first responders, and domestic abuse survivors are among those who say they've found relief for PTSD symptoms through therapeutic riding. In an interview with CBC News, a former RCMP officer with PTSD said horse therapy helped him with trauma, as well as assisted his wife's cancer recovery.

Movement Disorders: The steady action of riding has benefited people with movement disorders like cerebral palsy.

Autism: Riding can be a getaway away from overwhelming everyday life which can benefit those dealing with sensory overload. At Hinchinbrook Farm, featured in, many of their clientele are families with autism.

Mood Disorders: Horse therapy clinics often specialize in improving mood and facilitate relaxation, which can help those living with depression, anxiety, anger management, and grief.

At-Risk Youth: Programs for at-risk youth and substance use recovery have also been offered by horse clinics.

People Who Don't Like Talk Therapy: For people who are non-verbal or don't like chatty counsellors, speech isn't necessary to get along with a four-legged shrink.

Why Horses?

Unlike smaller therapy animals like dogs and cats, these gentle giants have a calming effect that's magnified by their size and empathy. Horses are herd animals known for attuning themselves to human emotion, often reflecting the behaviours of those around them. For people building confidence, learning to lead around animals that loom over them can help improve self-esteem, encourage taking control, and addresses fears they feel are bigger than them.

Therapeutic horses are typically mares and neutered male horses. They're selected based on how reliable they behave and their demure demeanours. Old horses are often used for this reason.

Does It Work?

Medical professionals have given horse therapy mixed responses.

Most major studies claim there's insufficient scientific evidence that equine-assisted therapy effectively treats psychiatric or behavioral disorders, or reduces pain associated with physical disabilities.

Emerging Canadian research hints at promising results. A joint pilot project by the University of Regina and the University of Saskatchewan found that therapy participants all experienced a sense of love and happiness when around horses, according to CBC News.

Horse Therapy In Canada

There are few regulations in this growing practice, nor any mandatory training. Clinics operate independently, or in association with professional bodies. The international organization Equine Assisted Growth and Learning Association has certified 20 programs across the country. The Canadian Therapeutic Riding Association is a national charity that has been running since 1980, and has accredited 80 centres and hundreds of instructors from coast to coast. How much sessions cost vary from practice to practice and some can be reimbursed by insurance plans.

Some programs are even backed by the federal government. Veteran Affairs Canada has sponsored a horse therapy program for veterans living with PTSD, the Calgary Sun reports. As well, the Department of Justice funded a pilot project that used equine-assisted therapy to help Ontario youth struggling with drug use.

What To Look For In A Horse Therapist

Without any standardized measures, it's up to patients to ask the right questions before enrolling in equine treatment programs.

A therapist's credentials and equine expertise will indicate if they are able to provide adequate healthcare. Also look for whether they are associated with any professional organizations or have received funding from credible sources.

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Everything You Need To Know About Horse Therapy

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By Al Donato Kirkland Gates, Patty McGill and Dandy at Hinchinbrook Farms More and more Canadians are horsing around with their healthcare. Horse therapy, also known as equestrian or equine-assisted therapy, is a versatile treatment program that has patients galloping to ranches and stables to recover from all kinds of medical conditions.