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Students should be able to evaluate how human health is affected by inherited factors and environmental factors including nutrition, lifestyle choices.  Examine the role of microorganisms in human health.

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research on vaccination (lifestyle choices on health)

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Sir, - In his article on vaccination (" Help immunologists to understand our perception of vaccination ", January 18th), Joseph Roche credited Edward Jenner, a physician scientist who lived in the latter part of the 1700s, with the development of the modern version of the vaccine we use. While this is true, space did not permit the mention of a key contribution of a woman named Lady Mary Wortly Montagu, who preceded Jenner by about 60 years.

This self-educated woman was responsible for bringing the idea of inoculation back to England from the court of the Ottoman Empire, where she saw it used in her travels in Turkey.

She convinced Princess Caroline, wife of King George IV, to inoculate her children and thus afforded them protection against the scourge of smallpox. Although it should be said that the inoculation was first tested on Newgate prisoners, before the princess felt it safe to use on her children! When people saw the royals inoculating their children, the concept of inoculation to protect against infectious diseases took root.

Jenner refined and developed the process of inoculation and it came to be called vaccination, but Mary Montagu took the first steps.

Like those of many women in science, the contribution of Mary Montagu has been almost written out of history! - Yours, etc,

THOMAS

G COTTER, MRIA,

Professor of Biochemistry,

University College Cork.

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Sir, - In his article on vaccination (" Help immunologists to understand our perception of vaccination ", January 18th), Joseph Roche credited Edward Jenner, a physician scientist who lived in the latter part of the 1700s, with the development of the modern version of the vaccine we use.

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Background Information and Teacher Resources

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Background Information and Teacher Resources

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teacher research to provoke health conversations in the classroom.

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Credit: Shutterstock

ATLANTA - Drinking coffee has been linked to a slew of health benefits, such as a longer life span, and a decreased risk of conditions including depression, heart attacks and certain cancers.

But a new study suggests that there may be a downside to your morning brew: Researchers found that drinking two or more cups of coffee or tea may increase a person's risk of lung cancer.

The findings were presented on March 31, here at the annual meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research. [ 10 Things You Need to Know About Coffee]

Of note, the link was even true for nonsmokers. Because people who smoke cigarettes are also more likely to drink coffee and tea, it was difficult in previous studies to disentangle the effects of these drinks from those of smoking, in developing lung cancer, said lead study author Jingjing Zhu, a Ph.D. student at Vanderbilt University in Tennessee.

In the new study, an international group of researchers analyzed data from 17 different studies that included a total of 1.2 million participants in the U.S. and Asia. The studies noted whether participants drank coffee or tea or smoked cigarettes. About half were nonsmokers.

The participants were tracked for an average of 8.6 years. During that time, more than 20,500 participants developed lung cancer.

The researchers found that nonsmokers who drank two or more cups of coffee a day had a 41 percent higher risk of lung cancer than those who didn't drink coffee. Similarly, nonsmokers who drank two or more cups of tea a day had a 37 percent greater risk of lung cancer than non-tea drinkers. (Because data was taken from multiple studies, the exact definition of a cup varied.)

The study also found that a person's risk didn't change significantly between ages, races or the type of coffee people drank - both decaf and caffeinated coffee seemed to be associated with similar risks. In fact, decaf coffee was associated with a 15 percent higher risk than caffeinated coffee, Zhu said.

Still, Zhu noted that "this [was] only an observational study" and didn't prove cause-and-effect. But the researchers hypothesize that it isn't caffeine that's behind the link. Instead, it may be that something in the roasting process is driving the link between coffee and lung cancer risk, Zhu told Live Science.

The study had several limitations. For example, although the participants were tracked for years after the studies started, data on smoking and coffee and tea intake was measured only one time, at the beginning of the studies. So if people changed their behaviors throughout the years, it could have skewed the results, Zhu said.

What's more, if nonsmokers were exposed to second-hand smoke - which wasn't accounted for but could also increase lung cancer risk - that could have also skewed the results, she said.

Dr. Julie Fisher, an oncologist at the Levine Cancer Institute in North Carolina who was not part of the study, said that the findings were "interesting" and "compelling," but noted that because it's an association finding, she "certainly would not draw conclusions based on this."

However, though there's still much more research needed, Fisher told Live Science that she agreed that "maybe there's something in the [ coffee brewing] process" that's driving the link.

Other coffee findings presented at the meeting were more comforting: Drinking coffee wasn't associated with an increased risk of glioma or colorectal cancer in men and women; nor was it associated with bladder cancer or renal cell carcinomain male smokers. Coffee was found to be associated with a lower risk of breast cancer in post-menopausal women and tea with a lower risk of glioma in women. In both men and women, decaf coffee was found to be associated with a lower risk of colorectal cancer.

The findings have not yet been published in a peer-reviewed journal.

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There May Be a Link Between Coffee and Lung Cancer, Study Suggests

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ATLANTA - Drinking coffee has been linked to a slew of health benefits, such as a longer life span, and a decreased risk of conditions including depression, heart attacks and certain cancers. But a new study suggests that there may be a downside to your morning brew: Researchers found that drinking two or more cups of coffee or tea may increase a person's risk of lung cancer.

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looking at environmental factors, students were able to pick a family, see their income and investigate how that affected their lives and their health.

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NOS 2: performing food tests require students to design an investigation.
NOS 6: reading articles on health and getting students to evaluate the information looking for bias etc.
NOS 8: evaluating media based arguments.
NOS 10: appreciate the role science has in society in relation to health.

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lifestyle choices effect on health

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Dr Stanley Chia, cardiologist at Mount Elizabeth Hospitals, explains the effects of smoking and drinking on our health.

Growing up, many children may view drinking and smoking as privileges of adults and therefore 'cool' activities to engage in. Media portrayal of smoking and alcohol use has certainly helped to perpetuate the appeal of these social habits. The importance of public awareness about the dangers of heavy smoking and drinking has never been greater.

The danger of smoking

Cigarettes contain more than 4,000 chemical compounds and 400 toxic chemicals that include tar, carbon monoxide, DDT, arsenic and formaldehyde. The nicotine in cigarettes, in particular, makes them highly addictive. There are so many diseases caused by smoking that it's hard to decide where to begin.

Any amount and type of smoking is bad for your health. Besides being a notorious risk factor for lung cancer, coronary artery disease, heart attack and stroke, smoking can damage almost any organ in our body, leading to leukaemia and cancers of the kidney, pancreas, bladder, throat, mouth and uterus. It can damage the airways and air sacs of our lungs to cause chronic bronchitis and breathing difficulties. It can also raise our blood pressure and cholesterol levels, reduce bone density in women and increase the risk of infertility, preterm delivery, stillbirth and sudden infant death syndrome.

The danger of heavy drinking

Most people like to have a drink or two, be it beer, wine or spirits. Light drinking is acceptable and may even be beneficial for the heart. Heavy and binge drinking, on the other hand, can lead to serious medical problems.

A healthy limit for drinking is usually no more than 2 drinks (3 units of alcohol) a day for men and 1 drink (2 units) a day for women. Binge drinking means having 5 or more drinks for men and 4 or more drinks for women on one occasion.

Certain groups of people should not drink alcohol at all. These include young people under the age of 18, pregnant women, people with certain health conditions, patients on medication that will interact with alcohol, recovering alcoholics, and people who intend to drive or do activities that require attention and coordination.

Heavy drinking can lead to many serious health conditions. Binge drinking can cause immediate problems such as acute intoxication, nausea and vomiting, blurred vision, impaired judgment and alcohol poisoning.

In the long term, heavy alcohol consumption can cause high blood pressure, gastric problems, liver cirrhosis, liver cancer, pancreatitis, memory impairment, alcohol dependence and various psychological conditions. Excessive alcohol drinking can also result in accidental injuries and even death. Pregnant women who drink heavily can harm their babies.

Effects of smoking and drinking on the heart

Both tobacco and alcohol share similar effects on the heart. While the deleterious effect of smoking on the risk of cardiovascular disease is well-recognised and straightforward (the risk of heart disease increases with the amount of smoking), the impact of drinking is more complex.

Some evidence suggests that moderate drinking (3 - 14 drinks a week) may be associated with a lower risk of heart attack, while heavier drinking may well increase the risk of heart attack, heart failure, stroke and high blood pressure.

As smoking is also common among alcohol drinkers, and smokers and drinkers frequently share similar behavioural and lifestyle patterns, it is currently unclear whether it is the combined or independent effects of smoking and alcohol that greatly raises cardiovascular risk.

Nonetheless, the health problems associated with excessive smoking and drinking are extensive. Public health efforts to minimise the dangers of both smoking and drinking may significantly improve the well-being of society.

Benefits of kicking the habit

It is important to realise that quitting smoking can improve your quality of life - physically, emotionally and financially. It can help you and those around you breathe better and live longer.

People who stop smoking generally have an improved sense of smell and taste, feel less stressed and become more energetic. They will usually have younger looking skin and improved fertility. Their loved ones will be healthier as passive smoking is reduced.

For people who drink too much, alcohol tolerance can lead to false reassurance that they are drinking within limits, since they do not feel drunk. Health benefits of reducing alcohol intake include weight loss, a reduced risk of many forms of cancer, less anxiety, clearer skin, no hangovers and better self-esteem.

How to quit

Smokers who quit smoking with support are more likely to succeed than those who do it on their own. Hence, it is helpful for those trying to stop to consult a health professional on engage a smoking cessation programme.

For regular, very heavy drinkers, stopping alcohol consumption abruptly can be dangerous. They should therefore consult their doctors to manage the withdrawal symptoms.

Always remember that our health is important to us and our families, and we should take care to safeguard it.

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How Smoking and Drinking Affect the Body

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Dr Stanley Chia, cardiologist at Mount Elizabeth Hospitals, explains the effects of smoking and drinking on our health. Growing up, many children may view drinking and smoking as privileges of adults and therefore 'cool' activities to engage in. Media portrayal of smoking and alcohol use has certainly helped to perpetuate the appeal of these social habits.

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research about health

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The United Nations agency working to promote health, keep the world safe and serve the vulnerable.

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we used this to look at the different ways the food pyramid can be arranged and which is more effective.

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investigating inherited diseases

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What is haemophilia?

The general term haemophilia describes a group of inherited blood disorders in which there is a life-long defect in the clotting mechanism of the blood. Blood contains many proteins called clotting factors, and these work to stop bleeding. The lack of clotting factor causes people with haemophilia to bleed for longer periods of time, than people whose blood factor levels are normal. However, people with haemophilia do not bleed faster than other people.

Figure 1: The normal clotting process

Figure 2: The clotting process in a person with haemophilia, where a clotting factor is missing.

Most bleeding in haemophilia occurs internally, into the joints or muscles. The joints that are most often affected are the knee, ankle and elbow. Repeated bleeding without prompt treatment can damage a joint. The incidence of haemophilia in the general population is 1 in 10,000 (therefore about 1 in 5,000 of the male population has haemophilia).

There are two types of haemophilia. Haemophilia A which is a deficiency in factor VIII and haemophilia B (sometimes called Christmas Disease) is a deficiency in factor IX. Both types of haemophilia share the same symptoms and inheritance pattern, only blood tests can differentiate which factor is affected. The severity of the condition is related to the degree of deficiency of the relevant clotting factor in the blood.

Severity of haemophilia

Percentage of normal factor activity in blood

Number of international units (IU) per millilitre (ml) of whole blood

Those who have mild or moderate haemophilia generally only experience bleeding problems after an obvious injury or an operation and many mild cases have only been after, for example, a tooth extraction or surgery.

Haemophilia is a genetic blood disorder, which is usually inherited. The gene is passed down from a parent to a child. A person who is born with haemophilia will have it for life. Some of the signs of haemophilia are; large bruises, bleeding into muscles and joints, spontaneous bleeding and bleeding for a long time after a cut or surgery.

Click here to download a copy of the I.H.S. publication 'Introduction to Haemophilia '

Click here to download the World Federation of Hemophilia publication 'What is Hemophilia? '

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What is haemophilia? The general term haemophilia describes a group of inherited blood disorders in which there is a life-long defect in the clotting mechanism of the blood. Blood contains many proteins called clotting factors, and these work to stop Read more >

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investigating inherited diseases

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ireland's most common genetically inherited disease

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highest proportion of cf people in the world

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Cystic Fibrosis is Ireland's most common genetically inherited disease. With 1100+ CF Patients, Ireland has the highest proportion of CF people in the world. CF Ireland was established by a small dedicated group of parents in 1963 with the first meeting in Crumlin Children's Hospital. 2013 marks the 50th anniversary of the Association.