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In sport, transfer of learning is generally defined as the influence of previous experience of performing a skill on the learning of a new skill or on performance of the same skill in a new context. This influence may be positive or negative. Positive transfer occurs when previous experience of performing a skill is beneficial for learning a new skill or for performance of the same skill in a different context. For example, a hockey player might reasonably expect that previous experience of striking a ball with a hockey stick will transfer positively to learning a golf swing, and most golfers hope that practicing their swing in the car park before a round will transfer positively to the golf course. Negative transfer occurs when previous experience of a skill inhibits learning a new skill or disrupts performance of the same skill in a different context. For example, groundstrokes in tennis, which are best performed with a relatively firm wrist, usually transfer negatively to squash shots, which are best performed with a flexible wrist, or vice versa. In this entry, testing and assessing transfer of learning in sport, theories of transfer, and the significance of transfer in sport are discussed.

Testing for Transfer

Researchers commonly use a simple experimental design to test for the influence of previous experience of a skill on learning a new skill ( intertask transfer) or on performing the same skill in a new context ( intratask transfer). One group of participants (the experimental group) practices the first skill and a second group (the control group) does not practice. Both groups are then tested on either a second skill (sometimes called the criterion skill) or in a different context. Any pre or post differences between the groups on the second test maybe attributed to positive or negative transfer.

Assessing Transfer

There are many ways to quantify the amount of transfer from one skill to another skill or from one context to another context. Although no method is infallible, the most common method used by researchers is to compute the percentage of transfer, which is the proportional difference in performance scores of the experimental and control groups on the second skill or context:

To illustrate, a researcher might conduct a transfer experiment to examine whether learning darts for 1 week enhances or inhibits archery performance. The researcher can use a transfer test to compare the archery performance of an experimental group that practiced only their darts during the week immediately before or a control group that was prevented from practicing. Performance during the first ten trials of the archery task might reveal that the experimental group strikes the bull's-eye of the target on an average of four occasions, whereas the control group strikes the bull's eye on an average of one occasion. Applying the above formula,

the experimental group shows 60% transfer, suggesting that they perform 60% better at archery compared with the control group. The amount of transfer is usually estimated on the first few trials of performance because performance by the control group on later trials may be confounded by the practice that group is receiving. If the measure of performance indicates that lower values represent better performance (e.g., error, speed), then the formula should be modified by reversing the numerator.

Theories of Transfer

Research on transfer of learning began more than a century ago, when studies were conducted to examine the theory of formal discipline, which proposed that studying formal disciplines, such as Latin, logic, or mathematics, caused positive transfer to thinking in general by training the mind's faculties. William James, however, tested the principle on himself by memorizing a new poem each day. His ability to learn new poems was not improved by this self-imposed case study. Later, Edward Thorndike, his student, as well as Robert Woodworth, further refuted the theory of formal discipline, arguing that good thinkers are more likely to study such disciplines so when they are successful at other disciplines, it only appears that they have benefited from their earlier studies of formal disciplines. Nevertheless, some evidence continues to support the concept of formal disciplines transfer. For example, it has been shown that learning probability statistics improves general reasoning skills.

Identical Elements Theory

Thorndike later formulated the theory of identical elements, in which he argued that earlier learning is only advantageous if the second task to be learned has elements that are identical to those of the first task. The amount of transfer thus depends on the similarity between the elements of two skills or of two performance contexts. The problem with this theory was that it did not specify what the elements were or how their similarities were to be assessed. Two possible ways to specify an element in the context of motor learning are that (1) it is any observable movement component of a skill, such as the swing of the leg in a kick; or (2) it is any task-specific coordination dynamic, such as the synergy of the elbow, wrist, and fingers when throwing a Frisbee. Predictions on the basis of common elements between two skills suggest that the amount of transfer between a tennis serve and a golf putt is likely to be less than between a tennis serve and a volleyball serve because a tennis serve has more elements in common with a volleyball serve than a golf putt. Predictions on the basis of common elements between two contexts or domains suggest that learning to anticipate the direction of a tennis serve by reacting in real life will yield more positive transfer to game play than learning to anticipate the direction of a tennis serve by reacting in a video game.

The Theory of Generalization

Subsequent efforts to understand transfer included cognitive factors. For example, Charles Judd argued that psychological factors, such as motivation, combine with learning of general principles to give rise to transfer. Judd's theory of generalization suggested that transfer occurs when general principles learned in one situation are applied in a new situation. Children aware of the principles of light refraction, for instance, throw darts more accurately at a target submerged under the water than children unaware of the principles.

Transfer-Appropriate Processing Theory

Transfer-appropriate processing theory suggests that learning is best if practice involves processing activities that are similar to those activities which occur during transfer. To structure an optimal learning environment or encourage positive transfer of learning, a practitioner therefore must match the processing activities in which the learner engages during practice to the cognitive processing activities that are associated with the criterion skill or when performing in a different context. For example, a training protocol for kicking penalties in soccer, which incorporates the processing associated with kicking under psychological pressure, would be expected to produce more positive transfer to a penalty kick in the World Cup final than a training protocol that does not incorporate such processing. Transfer-appropriate processing theory also offers an explanation of the phenomenon known as bilateral transfer; the processing activities involved in performing a skill with one limb are likely to mimic the processing activities involved in performing the same skill with another limb, thus facilitating transfer between the two. This explanation is supported by recent work in which functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) showed that brain activation at the supplementary motor area (SMA) is positively correlated with the amount of transfer between learning a sequential finger tapping skill with the right hand and performing the same skill with the left hand. Such transfer disappeared when SMA activation was inhibited by the use of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS).

Despite such findings, neither transfer-appropriate processing theory nor any other theory can fully explain the transfer effect. Much remains unclear about transfer of learning occurrence.

The Importance of Transfer

From both theoretical and practical points of view, however, the principle of transfer is important for understanding the effects of practice on performance. This is perhaps best exemplified by recent advances in our understanding of how expertise develops in sport. Experts often display developmental histories that are characterized by participating in many other sports. Transfer of learning is an obvious explanation for such a phenomenon. Experts, for example, are better than non-experts at recalling patterns of play from not only their own sport but also sports in which they are not expert, suggesting that learning to recognize patterns of play in one sport transfers to another to some extent.

With respect to motor tasks, the consensus probably is that, although transfer is generally positive when it comes to motor tasks, the effects are trivial unless the tasks are almost duplicates. Nevertheless, the principle of transfer implies that the practice of one skill will affect the learning of subsequent skills, which suggests that sequencing skills to be learned in a logical progression is important when designing training protocols or programs. For example, when physical educators, coaches, or therapists teach motor skills in school, at a club, or during rehabilitation, they often follow the simple-to-complex rule so that learners progress from fundamental skills through to complex skills that require mastery of the basic skills. Additionally, the principle of transfer informs diversity of instructional and training methods. Modern technology is advancing so quickly, for instance, that surgeons are able to train on simulators that mimic more and more of the underlying similarities of real surgery on actual patients. Thus, the costs and the risks associated with training can be largely reduced. Indeed, virtual reality training, which allows practice of a skill in three dimensional, computer-generated environments, is becoming more accessible and thus more popular, as a training procedure that relies on the principle of transfer. Finally, the principle of transfer provides the best assessment of the effectiveness of a practice routine or instruction method. For sports coaches, the transfer test is whichever game or competition that the team or the athlete was preparing for. For piano teachers, the transfer test may be next week's recital at school. For physical therapists, the transfer test may take place the moment the patient leaves the clinic or perhaps later at home. Performance in the transfer test, whatever the test may be, is the true test of practice.
References:

1. Ellis, H. C. (1965). The transfer of learning. New York: Macmillan.

2. Magill, R. A. (2010). Motor learning and control: Conceptions and applications. New York: McGrawHill.

3. Perez, M. A., Tanaka, S., Wise, S. P., Sadato, N., Tanabe, H. C., Willingham, D. T., et al. (2007). Neural substrates of intermanual transfer of a newly acquired motor skill. Current Biology, 17, 1896-1902.

4. Rose, D. J., & Christina, R. W. (2005). A multilevel approach to the study of motor control and learning (2nd ed.). Redwood City, CA: Benjamin-Cummings.

5. Schmidt, R. A., & Lee, T. D. (2011). Motor control and learning: A behavioral emphasis (5th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

6. Schmidt, R. A., & Young, D. E. (1987). Transfer of movement control in motor learning. In S. M. Cormier & J. D. Hagman (Eds.), Transfer of learning (pp. 47-79). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.

See also:

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Transfer Of Learning - Sports Psychology - IResearchNet

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In sport, transfer of learning is generally defined as the influence of previous experience of performing a skill on the learning of a new skill or on performance of the same skill in a new context. This influence may be positive or negative.

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proposes that positive transfer occurs due to the similarity in cognitive processing characteristics needed by two skills or performance contexts

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proposes that positive transfer occurs due to the degree of similarity between parts of characteristics of two skills or performance contexts

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calculating the positive transferrence of skills is performed numerically using mathematics

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Craig Johnson explains how the brain learns in co-ordination with muscle systems, and how archers can use that to their advantage in training
I have previously given an overview of the nervous system and looked at feedback in the motor system, but here I want to examine several aspects of motor learning that are of use to the archer.

Motor Learning
Specific motor activities occur due to the activity of groups of neurones working together. The motor system learns by making it easier for groups of neurones that have activated together once to activate together in the future (the fire together, wire together principle). This means that it is easier to repeat an action than to carry it out for the first time. The more an action is repeated, the easier it becomes until it is automatic. We call this repetition practice, and because the motor system will learn to repeat whatever it does often, it is important that whenever we practise we do so with correct form.

Special Skills
Particular activities that are carried out repeatedly and in a very precise way in sports are known as special skills. Examples of these include baseball pitching and basketball shooting from the penalty line. Special skills are specifically practised during training and when the ability of top athletes in these special skills is measured, they perform better at them than expected from their general performance. For example, as the distance from the hoop increases, the proportion of shots that a basketball player scores reduces. All players score better at 10 feet than they do at 20 feet, but a league basketball player will usually perform better at 15 feet than 10 feet because this is the penalty shot distance and it is specifically practised. During a game, baseball pitchers pitch over a distance of 60 feet and six inches and are significantly more accurate at this distance than at either 59 feet six inches or 61 feet six inches. This improved performance at the practised distance is not seen if important features of the game are altered. For example, the basketball improvement at the penalty distance will not be seen if the player is given an unusually heavy or light ball to shoot with.

Archery is often called a strict motor sport, meaning that the motion of shooting is always the same whatever the distance from the target, but actually shooting at different distances feels very different. This is especially the case when comparing the difference between indoor and long-range outdoor target competitions. Indoors, the sight is near the top of its range and the arrow seems to hit the target almost before it is released, but outdoors the sight is much lower and the arrow arcs gracefully into the distance before striking the target well after the shot is completed. Some archers even use different equipment indoors and outdoors. When practising, we should aim to develop the distances that we shoot in competition as 'special skill' distances and practice these much more often than other distances. When shooting a competition round with unusual distances, it is important to incorporate these unusual distances into training prior to the competition in order to be familiar with the feel of the shot at that distance right from the start of the competition.

Visualisation
This is the act of imagining taking a shot without actually doing so. The archer goes through the mental motion of shooting and practices what each part of the shot feels like as they go through their routine. This can be done anywhere and can be used to contribute to training when it is not possible to get to the archery range. It has been shown that good visualisation contributes to the motor learning of almost the whole motor system and, when used properly, it can help to consolidate good form much more quickly than shooting alone. It's also an advantage that visualisation doesn't cause muscle fatigue, though it should not be overdone as the act of imagining motor activity can be very mentally tiring. There are two important rules to visualisation.

Firstly, the visualisation should be subjective: When visualising the archer should always imagine that they are taking the shot themselves. They should feel the tension of the bow and its movement as the arrow is released. Imagining watching themselves from behind and above is not proper visualisation and does not contribute to motor learning.

Secondly, the form and shot should be good: it is really important to always exactly visualise a good shot made with correct form. The motor system will learn to do whatever is repeated often and this is as true for visualisation as it is for training. An archer that cannot consistently visualise with good form cannot expect to consistently shoot with good form. As discussed above, a good shot is one that feels right, not necessarily one where the arrow hits the gold. When visualising it is more important that the imagined shot feels good than that the imagined arrow hits the centre of the target. Some archers perform visualisations where the arrow fades away prior to hitting the target. This can be beneficial as it teachers the archer not to rely on the score as part of their shooting routine. It can help with relaxation during competition shooting, and ultimately improve competition scores.

Still Eye
A number of studies have investigated sports where motor activity is voluntarily initiated (such as shooting, and billiards) rather than being triggered by external events (like tennis and cricket). Researchers have looked to find the hallmarks of expert exponents of these sports compared to beginners or relative novices. One of the features of an expert of this kind of sport is known as 'still eye'. It is a period of time prior to the start of the motor activity in which the eyes are static and fixed on one point in space. Experts tend to have longer periods of still eye than those less accomplished in a sport.

The 'still eye' period is the time when the motor controller is accessing the stored program and preparing the motor system to carry out the activity. It would appear that experts have a more precise motor program than novices, and so this takes longer to load and prepare. Electrical changes related to a motor activity can be seen in the cerebellum (the area of the brain that stores motor programs) up to two seconds before the physical activity starts. Artificially increasing the period of stillness prior to a shot beyond that required will not improve the shot, but it is important to take account of the need for this time of stillness in order that the shot does not feel rushed and is as good as it can be. Archers report different mental activities during this time such as 'clearing the mind', or 'focusing in on the gold', but whatever the thought process used, the archer should build this time into their routine and never shoot in a hurried manner.

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Craig Johnson explains how the brain learns in co-ordination with muscle systems, and how archers can use that to their advantage in training I have previously given an overview of the nervous system and looked at feedback in the motor system, but here I want to examine several aspects of mo

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Archery Stance

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Trap Shooting Stance

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Archery Finger Position

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AIMS

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past experince facilitates learning of a new skill or performance of a skill in a new context

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previously learnt skills may influence the performance of a new skill or the performance of a skill in a new conte

may be positive or negative

Does Archery or Shooting have the largest degree of positive transferrence as compared to the other?

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The Transfer Principle suggests that learning and performing one activity affects the performance of related skills and activities. This principle is essential for designing practice strategies that have the greatest positive impact on competitive performance. Correctly applying this principle saves valuable training time while accelerating results.

Transfer of learning is defined as the influence of previous experiences on learning new skills or performing skills in new contexts. According to the transfer principle, effects may be positive, negative, or zero when there is no influence at all. The goal for sport coaches is to select practice activities and use instructional techniques that optimize positive transfer to the competitive arena.

Types of Transfer

Positive transfer means that practice on one activity results in improvements on another activity. Two hypotheses have been proposed as to why it occurs.

First, the identical elements theory proposes that positive effects increase as a function of the similarities of the components of motor skills and the context in which they are performed.

Second, the transfer-appropriate processing theory states that the amount of positive transfer is related to the similarity of the cognitive processing activity involved in the two situations.

For example, an experienced discus thrower usually learns the rotational shot put quickly because of the similarities both in movement qualities and mental processing.

Negative transfer means that practice on one activity interferes with the performance of another activity. Negative effects occur when two skills are performed in a similar environmental context, but the movement characteristics are different. Two situations that are especially vulnerable involve a change in spatial locations and/or the timing of a movement.

Think of the difference between batting a baseball vs. batting a softball. While swinging the bat has similar qualities for both sports, a baseball pitcher throws the ball downward in an over arm motion.

In contrast, a softball is thrown underarm and rises as it approaches the plate. In this example, previous experience in baseball could interfere with hitting a softball due to changes in path and location (the spatial characteristics) of the ball, as well as the timing of the swing.

Fortunately, negative transfer appears to be rare and temporary in motor skill learning. Beginners experience negative transfer because they are initially confused by subtle changes to a familiar skill. As a coach, you may have to encourage athletes who are experiencing temporary negative effects so that they do not become discouraged early in learning a new skill.

Zero transfer occurs when previous experience has no influence on the performance of a new skill or change in context of an existing skill. For example, previous swimming experience should not influence learning to snow ski.

When transfer of learning concerns the same skill performed with different limbs, it is called bilateral transfer. It occurs because the learner already understands what is required to achieve the goal of the skill. Another explanation is that a generalized motor program can be applied to performance on the unpracticed limb.

Coaching Tips for Applying the Transfer Principle

1. Identify similarities between previously learned skills and new skills.

2. Maximize the similarity between training activities and competitive conditions. Simulate various elements of competition (e.g. arousal level, game intensity, spectator noise) occasionally during training sessions, particularly during the in-season.

3. Provide adequate experience with fundamental skills before advancing to more complex skills. Well learned lead-up skills can positively influence an athlete's performance in more demanding conditions at the next level of play (e.g., T-ball to baseball).

4. Develop more general capabilities, such as critical gross motor skills, that apply to a variety of sport tasks. For example, in basketball, the vertical jump is a key element of rebounding and blocking shots.

5. Point out to the athlete how training activities will improve sport performance. For example, call attention to the shifting of weight, the hip lead, and the arm movement in softball throw when teaching the javelin throw.

For more coaching tips, check out

Teaching Techniques for Coaches: 9 Principles for Sports and Fitness
Top of Transfer Principle Back to Sports Training Principles

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The Transfer Principle for Sports Training

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The Transfer Principle suggests that learning and performing one activity affects the performance of related skills and activities. This principle is essential for designing practice strategies that have the greatest positive impact on competitive performance. Correctly applying this principle saves valuable training time while accelerating results.

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1. Identify whether the skills learnt in Archery are positively transferred to Trap shooting.

2.  Identify whether the skills learnt in Trap shooting are positively transferred to Archery.

3. Identify who has the highest level of transferrence.

Research is required in order to decide whether Archery or Shooting should receive additional funding to maximize Australia's gold medal chances at the 2032 Olympic Games.

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these propose that learning occurs because the components of the skills and context in which they occur are similar; for our example:

holding and releasing the trigger in shooting is similar to holding and releasing the bowstring in archery

holding both arms up, one forward and straight, the other to the side and bent with elbow up

waiting for wind to subside prior to releasing the shot or aiming off for wind allowance

sighting and aiming

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We use the ratings from users of this site to compare the sports of archery and shooting

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PERCEPTUAL - MOTOR SKILLS FOR SHARP SHOOTER'S PERFORMANCE

The world in which we live today is more obsessed with success and with the desire to win. In almost every field that man wants to be at the top, and in sport, things are no different. In today's sporting world, performance standards have drastically increased within elite sport and the demands places the sportsman into highly demanding situations both physically and psychologically. For this reason, psychological attributes such as cognitive, psychomotor and affective skills, are becoming commonly accepted as major contributors to overcoming adversity and achieving performance success.

Particularly in target sports such as shooting, golf, archery, and billiards, the ability to accurately select the correct parameters is crucial for successful performance. Shooting and archery require high levels of mental concentration and visual information processing and it helps to access important visual stimuli and the effective processing of information are essential in this sports. Particularly in competitions, there are many distracters like noises, tensions and anxiety, so when the athlete sets up the shooting process, he/she should be focused, clear-minded and only to look at the target and this requires a high level of visual attention.

But currently only a very limited amount of scientific literature and studies were exists in the field of perceptual skills and shooting performance. Recently, high profile sports such as pistol and rifle shooting have only recently become the focus of scientific attention. But most of the studies were conducted on rifle marksmanship. Chung, Delacruz, de Vries, Kim, Bewley, de Souza e, Silva & Baker (2004) examined the role of cognitive variables in marksmanship performance, focusing on aptitude and knowledge. They found that performance of less experienced participants was moderately related to these aspects of cognition. However, in a sample of more experienced participants, perceptual-motor skills were a good predictor of performance. Humphreys, Buxton and Taylor et al., 1936, McGuigan and Mac Caslin et al., 1955, Spaeth and Dunham et al., 1921 found that skilled shooters were able to hold a rifle steadier than unskilled shooters and this steadiness positively relates to shooting performance.

Another important factor contributing to marksmanship performance is visual perception. The aiming of a fire arm relies upon a steady weapon along with the correct visual perception of the target and this incorporates not only visual acuity but also cognitive aspects of perceptual process. Wells, Wagner, Reich, & Hardigan 2009 studied the relationship between visual acuity and marksmanship such that performance declines as acuity declines which supports the U. S. Army visual acuity requirements.

However, further studies have to be conducted to examine the relationship between cognitive- perceptual abilities and marksmanship. These relationships could potentially differentiate skilled from unskilled marksmen and provide insight into training and skill acquisition.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study is to determine how perceptual motor skills are related to shooters performance.

In order to meet the objectives following null hypothesis were formulated.

Hypothesis 1: There will be no significant difference between successful and unsuccessful shooters in perceptual and motor skills.

Hypothesis 2: There will be no significant difference between above average and below average shooters in perceptual and motor skills.

Hypothesis 3: There will be no significant difference between high and low competitive experienced shooters in perceptual and motor skills.

METHOD

Participants

The reference population of the study included both experienced and novice shooters. For novice shooters, 450 male shooters (age, M= 23.1, SD= 3.50) from the Indian Military academy participated in the study. ...

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Perceptual Motor Skills for Sharp Shooter's Performance

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PERCEPTUAL - MOTOR SKILLS FOR SHARP SHOOTER'S PERFORMANCE The world in which we live today is more obsessed with success and with the desire to win. In almost every field that man wants to be at the top, and in sport, things are no different.

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Following the administration of a valid pretask ability measure, all subjects were randomly assigned to one of two experimental groups with the constraint that each contain equal numbers of individuals of high and low ability. The first group practiced under distributed conditions and the second under massed conditions. A 2 by 2 analysis of variance showed that there were no significant differences in the rates of learning between massed and distributed practice groups for each of the three criterion tasks: the floor kip, the hip circle, and the glide kip. Subjects of high ability acquired all of the criterion tasks in significantly fewer trials than did subjects of low ability, regardless of the temporal conditions of practice. A significant interaction between ability and practice condition was observed for only one of the criterion tasks, the glide kip. These findings are discussed in terms of both the taxonomical factors of the tasks employed and the theoretical issues which pertain to distribution of practice.

References

Eysenck, H. J., Frith, C. D. Reminiscence, motivation and personality. New York: Plenum Press, 1977.
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Kleinman, M. The predictive validity of the Metheny-Johnson test. Paper presented at the meeting of the Eastern District Association of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, Mount Pocono, March, 1976. (b)
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Stelmach, G. E. Distribution of practice in individual differences and intra-variability. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1968, 26, 727-730.
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Distribution of Practice and Pre-Task Ability in the Acquisition of Three Discrete Gross Motor Skills

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Following the administration of a valid pretask ability measure, all subjects were randomly assigned to one of two experimental groups with the constraint that each contain equal numbers of individuals of high and low ability. The first group practiced under distributed conditions and the second under massed conditions.

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Retention and Transfer of Motor Skills: A Review for the Practitioner

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This paper reviews the literature on retention and transfer of motor skills to determine what is currently known about these two topics and to apply this knowledge to sport and physical education environments. Within each topic, eight areas are identified as being particularly useful in bridging the gap between the laboratory and the world of the practitioner.

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Analysis of Shooting Consistency in Archers: A Dynamic Time Warping Algorithm-Based Approach

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The shooting consistency of an archer is commonly perceived to be an important determinant of successful scores. Four () elementary level archers from a middle school in Korea participated in this study. In order to quantify shooting consistency, movement of the bow forearm was measured with an inertia sensor during archery shooting.

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previous experience hinders or interferes with learning or performing a skill

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Shooting Trigger Finger

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Transfer of Learning - How does the learning of an old skill, transfer (positively or negatively) to the learning of a new skill

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A concept that many practitioners consider when preparing to offer instructional assistance is transfer of learning. Transfer of learning is the use of past learning when learning something new and the application of that learning to new and similar