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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5qSrmeiWsuc

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jk2RJm5RBEk

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DNA was identified as the genetic material through a series of experiments.Griffith discovered a "transforming principle", which Avery later identified as DNA. Hershey and Chase's experiments with bacteriophages conclusively demonstrated that DNA is the genetic material

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Meiosis

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Nucleotide- A compound consisting of a nucleoside linked to a phosphate group. Nucleotides form the basic structural unit of nucleic acids such as DNA

Double Helix- Model that compares the structure of a DNA molecule in which two strands wind around on another, to that of a twisted ladder

Base Pairing Rules- Rule that describes how nucleotides dorm bonds in DNA; Adenine (A) always bonds with thymine (T)

Central Dogma- Theory that states that, in cells, information only flows from DNA to RNA to proteins

RNA- Nucleic acid molecule that allows for the transmission of genetic information and protein synthesis

Transcript- Process of copying a nucleotide sequence of DNA to form a complementary strand of mRNA

RNA Polymerase- Enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of complementary strand of RNA from a DNA template

Messenger RNA (mRNA)- Form of RNA that carries genetic information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, where it serves as a template for protein synthesis

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)- RNA that is in the ribosome and guides the translation of mRNA into protein; also used as a molecular clock

Transfer RNA (tRNA)- Form of RNA that brings amino acids to ribosomes during protein synthesis

Translation- Process by which mRNA is decoded and a protein is produced

Codon- Sequence of three nucleotides that codes for one amino acid

Start Codon- Codon that signals to ribosomes to begin translation; codes for the first amino acid in a protein

Stop Codon- Is a nucleotide triplet within messenger RNA that signals a termination of translation into proteins

Anticodon- Set of three nucleotides in a tRNA molecule that binds to a complementary mRNA codon during translation

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Pedigree- a chart that can help trace the phenotypes and genotypes in a family to determine whether people carry recessive alleles

Karyotype- a picture of all chromosomes in a cell

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Your body cells have 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes, making 46 total chromosomes. Gametes have only one chromosome from each homologous pair-23 chromosomes in all.

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a combination of methods is used to study human genetics. although  most traits  do not follow a simple dominant and recessive pattern,single -gene traits are importan t in the  study of human genetics. several genetic disorders are caused by a single gene with dominant and recessive alleles.

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Cell cycle-the regular pattern of growth,DNA duplication, and cell division that occurs in eukaryotic cells

Mitosis- the division of the cell nucleus and its contents

Cytokinesis- divides the cell cytoplasm

Chromosome- one long continuous thread of DNA that consists of numerous genes along with regulatory information

Histones- protein that organizes chromosomes and around which DNA wraps

Chromatin- the loose combination of DNA and proteins

Chromatid- one half of a duplicated chromosome

Centromere- a region of  a condensed chromosome that looks pinched

Telomeres- a compound structure at the end of a chromosomes

Prophase- the first stage of cell division, before metaphase, during which the chromosomes become visible as paired chromatids and the nuclear envelope disappears. The first prophase of meiosis includes the reduction division

Metaphase- the second stage of cell division, between prophase and anaphase, during which the chromosomes become attached to the spindle fibers

Anaphase- the stage of meiotic or mitotic cell division in which the chromosomes move away from one another to opposite poles of the spindle

Telophase- the final phase of cell division, between anaphase and interphase, in which the chromatids or chromosomes move to opposite ends of the cell and two nuclei are formed

Growth factor- broad groups of proteins that stimulate cell division

Apoptosis- programmed cell death

Cancer- common name for a class of disease characterized by uncontrolled cell division

Benign- tumor, in which the cancer cells typically remain clustered together

Malignant-  of a disease, very virulent or infectious.

Metastasize- (of a cancer) spread to other sites in the body by metastasis

Carcinogens- substances that are known to promote the development cancer

Asexual reproduction- the creation of offspring from a single parent and does not involve the joining of gametes

Binary fission- the asexual reproduction of a single celled organism by division into two roughly equal parts

Tissue- groups that work together to perform a similar function

Organs- groups of tissues that work together to perform a specific function or related functions

Organ system- organs that carry out similar functions are further grouped together

Cell differentiation- process by which unspecialized cells develop into their mature forms and functions

Stem cells- an undifferentiated cell of a multicellular organism that is capable of giving rise to indefinitely more cells of the same type, and from which certain other kinds of cell arise by differentiation

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In meiosis 1, hamologous chromosome pairs up along the cell equator and are divided into separate cells. In meiosis 2, sister chromatids are divided into separate cells, making a total of four haploid cells that are genetically unique.

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Cells work together to carry out complex functions. Within multicellular organisms, cells form tissues, tissues form organs, and organs form organ systems. The cell differentiate to perform specific functions. Much of this specialization is determined by a cell's location within the developing embryo. Stem cells are a special type of cell that continue to divide and renew themselves for long periods of time

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During replication, a DNA molecule separates into two strands. Each strand serves as a template for building a new complementary strand through a rapid, accurate process involved in DNA polymerase and other enzymes.

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Many organisms reproduce by cell division. Most prokaryotes reproduce through a process called binary fission, in which a cell divides into two approximately equal parts. Some eukaryotes reproduce through mitosis. The offspring that result from asexual reproduction are genetically identical to the parent organism, except when mutations occur. Whether being identical is an advantage or a disadvantage depends on the environment

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Chapter 5.3 Regulation of the Cell Cycle

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Chapter 5.3 Regulation of the Cell Cycle

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Cell cycle regulation is necessary for healthy growth. Cell growth and division are regulated by both external factors, such as hormones and growth factors, and internal factors, such as cyclins and kinases. When proper regulation of cell growth is disrupted, a cell may become cancerous. Cancer cells grow more rapidly than do normal cells and form clumps called tumors that may metastasize to other regions of the body

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1.) Trait: characteristic that is inherited.

2.) Genetics: study of the heredity patterns and variation of organisms.

3.) Purebred: type of organisms whole ancestors are genetically uniform.

4.) Cross: mating of two organisms.

5.) Law of segregation: Mendel’s first law, stating that (1) organism inherit two copies of genes, one from each parent.

6.) Gene: specific region of DNA that codes for a particular protein.

7.) Allele: any of the alternative forms of a gene that occurs at a specific place on a chromosome.

8.) Homozygous: characteristic of having two of the same alleles at the same locus of sister chromatids.

9.) Heterozygous: characteristic that obtains its energy and nutrients by consuming other organisms.

10.)Genome: all of an organism’s genetic material.

11.) Genotype: collection of all of an organism’s genetic formation that codes for traits.

12.) Phenotype: collection of all of an organism’s physical characteristics.

13.) Dominant: allele that is expressed when two different alleles are present in an organism’s genotype.

14.) Recessive: allele that is not expressed unless two copies are present in an organism’s genotype.

15.) Punnett square: model for predicting all possible genotype resulting from a cross, or mating.

16.) Monohybrid cross: cross, or mating, between organisms that involved only one pair of contrasting traits.

17.) Testcross: cross between an organism with an unknown genotype and an organism with a recessive phenotype.

18.) Dihybrid cross: cross, or mating, between organisms involved two pairs of contrasting traits.

19.) Law of independent assortment: Mendel’s second law, stating that allele pairs separate from one another during gamete formation.

20.) Probability: likelihood that a particular event will happen.

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Cells divide during mitosis and cytokinesis. Mitosis divides the nucleus into two genetically identical nuclei in a four-phase process: Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase. In prophase, the duplicated chromosome condense tightly. Cytokinesis actually divides the cell cytoplas

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In 1950 Erwin Chargaff changed the thinking about DNA by analyzing the DNA of several different  organisms. DNA structure is the same in all organisms, the DNA polymer is made up of four  types of nucleotides. Watson and Crick discovered that DNA consists of two strands of nucleotides bonded together into a double helix structure. Nucleotides always pair in the same way - C with G, and A with T.

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cells have distinct phases of growth,reproduction, and normal functions. the cell cycle has four main stages: G 1, S, G 2, and M. the length of the cell cycle can vary, resulting in different rates in cell division. this variability is based on the body's need for different cell types.