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Click on this and you are gonna be redirected to the evaluation Padlet page:

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How to write a paragraph

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One of the most big disasters in the history.

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For the first time in 19 centuries, a breath of life is wafting through the ghostly streets of Pompeii. Under the guidance of a dozen architects, squads of construction workers dig and drill in its ruins, shoring up eroded facades and installing drainage pipes. Engineers and biologists convene over morning coffee, sharing notes and posing questions.

An unlikely rebirth is taking shape here, a new era for a city whose sudden burial in volcanic ash two millennia ago left behind a unique but fragile record of everyday business in the ancient world.

The aim, says Professor Massimo Osanna, the visionary Italian archaeologist who oversees Pompeii, is to construct a portrait of Roman Italy so detailed, graphic, and multi-faceted that "it's as though we have taken close-up photographs of a society 2,000 years ago."

What is emerging from mountains of data is a remarkable mirror of our own times. Pompeii in the first century was a community of multicultural neighborhoods speaking a babel of languages, lunching in fast-food restaurants, and indulging at home on costly imported delicacies.

Pompeii has been a byword for catastrophe since 79 A.D., when nearby Mount Vesuvius erupted, killing most of the city's inhabitants. After serious excavations began halfway through the 19th century, this storied city on the Bay of Naples was rocked by four major earthquakes and an endless succession of man-made disasters.

Allied bombings in 1943 shattered important buildings. Shoddy peacetime "restorations" by organized crime-controlled building firms did more damage than the bombs. Staff and budget cutbacks during two world wars and four economic crashes, most recently the worldwide financial meltdown of 2008, left much of Pompeii crumbling and dangerous. Feral dogs haunted its courtyards. Incessant flooding ate away at its foundations.

By the end of 2010, when the famous "House of the Gladiators" suddenly toppled, only 13 percent of the site's 110 visible acres remained accessible to visitors. (Another 54 acres have never been uncovered.) The number of buildings open to the public had been reduced to ten, down from 64 in 1956.

Earlier this year Italy's elite cultural protection squad launched a surprise police raid on a warehouse in Geneva, Switzerland, that recovered fragments of unique Pompeii frescoes. They had been chipped off walls in the minimally protected restricted zone, probably in the 1990s.

"Pompeii faced acute crisis on every level-critical problems to be resolved in the site's structures, in maintaining its art and artifacts, and in conserving the remains of its victims," says Osanna, who was appointed Superintendent of Excavations two years ago. "Nothing less than a total restructuring and reorganization could turn things around."

The gravity of the crisis finally shook the cultural bureaucracy into action. In 2012 the site's authorities received an emergency grant of 75 million euros (then worth nearly $100 million) from the European Union, and another 30 million euros ($40 million) from the Italian government.

Put simply, Pompeii was too seductive to be abandoned. Despite centuries of neglect and abuse, it is still the fifth most visited ancient site on Earth, drawing 3 million people per year, exceeded only by the Great Wall and Xian's terracotta army in China, and the Coliseum and Forum in Rome.

THE GREAT POMPEII PROJECT

Osanna and his colleagues now preside over one of the most ambitious archaeological enterprises in history. Formally known as the Great Pompeii Project, its goal is the transformation of a chronic disaster into a peerless showcase by 2017. It is to be a state-of-the-art laboratory for what Osanna calls "global archaeology," an approach that marshals a vast interdisciplinary arsenal of scientific, scholarly, and practical skills in the study of ancient sites.

More than 200 experts and technicians are at work in Pompeii's ruins. In addition to 12 architects and 12 archaeologists, the team includes bricklayers, electricians, plumbers, painters, carpenters, photographers, dentists, radiologists, biologists, geologists, mapping technicians, computer scientists, and experts in art restoration. There are also medical engineers skilled in the use of advanced diagnostic equipment, and hydro-engineers to stave off the flooding.

Anthropologists are composing precise genetic profiles of victims. Paleobotanists are studying 2,000-year old remnants of food for clues on Pompeian dining preferences. Demographers are collating medical findings with a wide variety of other data, assembling a de facto census of the vanished community.

The project's headline innovation has been the use of computerized axial tomography, popularly known as CAT scans, which employ radio waves and magnetic fields to generate detailed internal images of the body.

The procedure builds on earlier pioneering work by Giuseppe Fiorelli, Osanna's most illustrious predecessor as superintendent (1863-1875), who injected high-quality plaster into the blocks of solidified ash that encased Pompeii's dead, yielding evocative casts of their corpses. Some 86 of these casts and their human contents, a representative sample of the city's population, are undergoing painstaking restoration and analyses, based on DNA samples and three-dimensional laser scans as well as tomography.

Like many of the project's medical professionals, chief radiologist Giovanni Babino was surprised at his emotional response to the encounter with Pompeii's dead. "I must say that I developed something close to a human relationship with these plaster images, sensations quite similar to those a physician experiences with actual patients."

Teeth are the most resistant elements in the human organism, with qualities specific to each individual. Did the Pompeii deceased include musicians who played wind instruments? Were there carpenters, who clamped their jaws around nails before positioning them? The teeth will tell, say the project's dental researchers, led by Dr. Elisa Vanacore of Salerno's University Hospital. They can also help identify victims' gender and age, suggest the region where they were born, and provide clues to their socio-economic class.

FORESHADOWING THE 21ST CENTURY

An extraordinary portrait is taking shape, combining new discoveries and confirming evidence for once-speculative theories. Although the data analysis is in the early stages, it is already opening a window on life at the peak of the Roman Empire that startlingly resembles our own in the 21st century.

Among the most striking of the volcano's casualties, preserved for the ages in one of Fiorelli's first casts, is an unusually tall man, "much larger than we assume Romans of that time would have been, and dressed in rather strange clothing," says Osanna. The folds and texture of his garments, like his skeleton and the imprint of his body, were preserved in the ash. "Over the years, people have wondered if he might have been a slave from the northern provinces of the empire. A Celt from Gaul, perhaps."

It is now believed that this man was a typical resident of first-century Pompeii, which may have rivalled today's London or New York in its ethnic diversity.

"When we cross the data we've collected from multiple sources, we find that Pompeii was a very dynamic society," says Osanna. "Lists of the inhabitants' names have been found, and many are recognizably those of 'liberti.'"

The term alludes to freed slaves and their progeny with origins across the far-flung reaches of Roman conquest: Greece, North Africa, the Anatolian Plateau, Celtic Gaul. Pompeii was an affluent community of Roman citizens, naturalized foreigners and freedmen who had become makers and shakers in imperial trade.

Many of them observed a diet that might have been prescribed by a California nutritionist and marketed by Whole Foods. Its staples were whole grains, including several varieties of wheat, oats, and barley, accompanied by chickpeas, fruits, and nuts, and accented with costly imported spices and delicacies such as Egyptian lentils and dates from the Arabian Peninsula. "These are signs of a very commercial culture," notes Osanna, with a food chain stretched over one of history's most immense empires.

Yet residents of Pompeii also favored a more pedestrian culinary institution, notes historian Mattia Buondonno, who has been conducting expert tours of the ruins for four decades. "Every district had shops like these, called 'thermopolia,' where the locals had lunch," he explained.

He leads the way through a small dining area with a stone counter outfitted with sunken terracotta vessels that once held pre-cooked meals. "Welcome to an ancient Pompeiian fast-food outlet," he says.

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Bringing the Ghostly City of Pompeii Back to Life

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For the first time in 19 centuries, a breath of life is wafting through the ghostly streets of Pompeii. Under the guidance of a dozen architects, squads of construction workers dig and drill in its ruins, shoring up eroded facades and installing drainage pipes. Engineers and biologists convene over morning coffee, sharing notes and posing questions.

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4.1 See the video of Bardarbunga's eruption

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4.1 See the video of Bardarbunga's eruption

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4.1.1 Write a description of the present situation.

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Bardarbunga volcano continues to emit lava, almost five months after it began erupting. The volcano has now produced a lava field around 85 square kilometres, making it Iceland's largest basaltic lava flow since 1784. According to Icelandic Met reports seismic activity in Bardarbuga continues to be strong with small earthquakes occurring daily in the area

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Iceland's Bardarbunga volcano is still erupting five months on - video

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Bardarbunga volcano continues to emit lava, almost five months after it began erupting. The volcano has now produced a lava field around 85 square kilometres, making it Iceland's largest basaltic lava flow since 1784.

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4. Science Daily is a page which document nowadays researches about natural disasters.

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4. Science Daily is a page which document nowadays researches about natural disasters.

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In this article you can find information about the eruption of Bardarbunga Volcano.

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The Bárdarbunga eruption on Iceland has broken many records. The event in 2014 was the strongest in Europe since more than 240 years. The hole it left behind, the so-called caldera, is the biggest caldera formation ever observed. And the event as such was studied in unprecedented detail by a team of international scientists, amongst them a group from the GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences. Together with lead author Magnus T. Gudmundsson from the University of Iceland, the team has now published its findings in the upcoming issue of Science.

From August 2014 to February 2015, the Bárdabunga caldera was formed in the centre of Iceland. Calderas are kettle-shaped volcanic structures with a diameter of one kilometer up to 100 kilometers. They form through the collapse of subterranean magma reservoirs during volcanic eruptions. Since their formation is not very frequent, knowledge of such calderas is scarce. As part of an international team, GFZ scientists from the section Physics of Earthquakes and Volcanoes documented the event in great detail. The scientists used satellite images, seismological and geochemical data, GPS data and modelling.

The process of subsidence was triggered by the lateral intrusion of magma from a reservoir 12 kilometers below the surface. The magma flowed for 45 kilometers along a subterranean path before erupting as a major lava flow northeast of the volcano. The subsidence was accompanied by 77 earthquakes reaching magnitudes larger than M 5.

In their study, the scientists show how the ice-filled subsidence bowl developed gradually over the course of six months to become eight by eleven kilometers wide and up to 65 meters deep. " With an area of 110 square kilometers, this is the largest caldera collapse ever monitored. The results provide the clearest picture yet of the onset and evolution of this enigmatic geological process," says Dr. Eoghan Holohan, who led the modelling part of this work at the GFZ.

Dr. Sebastian Heimann (GFZ) investigated the mechanisms underlying the collapse using seismological methods. " The typical structure of seismic waves in volcanic eruptions can be used to infer the type of deformation directly above the magmatic chamber." The result of his analysis indicates that steeply-dipping ring faults controlled the subsidence at depth.

Another surprise for the scientists was how the magma behaved within the canal beneath the surface. " Interestingly, the eruption site and the magma chamber were coupled hydraulically over 45 kilometer s," says Dr. Thomas Walter from the GFZ. He compares the effect to a hose pipe level. Tremors and seismic shocks at the eruption site propagated to the magma chamber at the other end and vice versa.

The chamber lies beneath Europe's largest glacier, the Vatnajökull, and the caldera was filled with ice. Thomas Walter says: " The event was a blessing in disguise as the eruption could have happened directly beneath the ice. In that case, we'd have had a water vapour explosion with a volcanic ash cloud even bigger and longer lasting than the one that followed the eruption of Eyjafjallajökull in 2010." For comparison: The Bárdabunga eruption blew out two cubic kilometers of volcanic material over the course of several months, nearly ten times more than the Eyjafjallajökull.

With the data they gathered, the geoscientists hope to gain deeper insights into the currently un-explored mechanisms of caldera formation. Eruptions connected to such processes can be far bigger than the observed Icelandic event. Catastrophic events can occur for instance at Yellowstone, USA, or in the Andes region. Exactly 200 years ago, the eruption of the Tambora volcano in Indonesia and the subsequent caldera formation lead to an atmospheric shock wave that could be measured globally as well as to a devastating tsunami. The volcanic aerosols and ash in the stratosphere brought the infamous "year without summer" in 1816.

Journal Reference:

M. T. Gudmundsson, K. Jonsdottir, A. Hooper, E. P. Holohan, S. A. Halldorsson, B. G. Ofeigsson, S. Cesca, K. S. Vogfjord, F. Sigmundsson, T. Hognadottir, P. Einarsson, O. Sigmarsson, A. H. Jarosch, K. Jonasson, E. Magnusson, S. Hreinsdottir, M. Bagnardi, M. M. Parks, V. Hjorleifsdottir, F. Palsson, T. R. Walter, M. P. J. Schopfer, S. Heimann, H. I. Reynolds, S. Dumont, E. Bali, G. H. Gudfinnsson, T. Dahm, M. J. Roberts, M. Hensch, J. M. C. Belart, K. Spaans, S. Jakobsson, G. B. Gudmundsson, H. M. Fridriksdottir, V. Drouin, T. Durig, G. Athalgeirsdottir, M. S. Riishuus, G. B. M. Pedersen, T. van Boeckel, B. Oddsson, M. A. Pfeffer, S. Barsotti, B. Bergsson, A. Donovan, M. R. Burton, A. Aiuppa. Gradual caldera collapse at Bardarbunga volcano, Iceland, regulated by lateral magma outflow. Science, 2016; 353 (6296): aaf8988 DOI: 10.1126/science.aaf8988

Cite This Page:

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volcanoes; natural disasters; earthquakes; tsunamis; geology; global warming; climate; ice ages

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Record-breaking volcanic kettle on Iceland explored

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The Bárdarbunga eruption on Iceland has broken many records. The event in 2014 was the strongest in Europe since more than 240 years. The hole it left behind, the so-called caldera, is the biggest caldera formation ever observed.

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3.1 Clik on this link and read about the power of the natural disasters in the history of the humanity.

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3.1 Clik on this link and read about the power of the natural disasters in the history of the humanity.

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Write about at least two events which have called your attention describing the event and your impression.

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The world's worst natural disasters have claimed many lives and have caused millions in property damage. While there are many criteria as to what would be considered the "worst" of these disasters; the earthquakes, typhoons, and tsunamis on this natural disasters list are all horrific in their own right. So what are some of the worst disasters? Find out with these 25 Worst Natural Disasters Ever Recorded.

Lists Going Viral Right Now

Also famed as La Mesa de Herveo, this stratovolcano holds the distinction of causing the second largest volcano-related disaster of the 20th century. The volcano produced an enormous flow that buried and devastated the town of Armero in Tolima on November 13, 1985. What became known as the "Armero tragedy" caused the death of 25,000 people.

The second worst blizzard in modern history with regards to casualties, it had an estimated death toll of 1,337 due to temperatures that fell below -30°C with up to 180 centimeters of snow in the mountainous regions. Some were frozen to death, and a number died when their vehicles were blocked by snowdrifts. At least 100 people underwent frostbite amputations in hospitals across the country. It also claimed more than 100,000 sheep and goats and 315,000 cattle.

Hurricane Irma is the latest natural disaster to reach the North American shores. Rampaging through the Caribbean and finally arriving off Florida's west coast at category 5, Irma left behind a trail of destruction unlike any other. Estimates are still coming in, but some believe the overall costs could range up to $100 billion.

On August 25, 2017, Category 4 hurricane Harvey hit Texas causing around $180 billion in damage. That's more than any other natural disaster in U.S. history for the exception of the largest estimates of Hurricane Katrina. Hurricane Harvey flooded one-third of Houston, forcing 39,000 people into shelters and damaging 203,000 homes.

25. Colin Crowley, Haiti Post Earthquake January 2010, CC BY 2.0, 24. Neryl Lewis, RRT, Cyclone Nargis (10690741785), CC BY 2.0, 23-18. Wikimedia Commons.com (Public Domain), 17. ChiefHira, Damage of Tsunami at Sendai port 01, CC BY-SA 3.0, 16. Alper Çuğun from Berlin, Germany, Aleppo. Excavations (1265995294), CC BY 2.0, 15-11. Wikimedia Commons.com (Public Domain), 10. Oxfam East Africa, 2011 Horn of Africa famine Oxfam 01, CC BY 2.0, 9. Justin Kilcullen/Trócaire via flickr, CC BY 2.0, 8. Giorgiogp2, 2003 europe summer temperature anomaly, CC BY-SA 3.0, 7. wikimedia commons (public domain), 6. Antti Lipponen via flickr, CC BY 2.0, 5-4. wikimedia commons (public domain), 3. Gabriel N, Gujarat Earthquake Relief by RSS Volunteers, CC BY-SA 3.0, 2-1. Wikimedia Commons.com (Public Domain)

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25 Worst Natural Disasters Ever Recorded

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The world's worst natural disasters have claimed many lives and have caused millions in property damage. While there are many criteria as to what would be considered the "worst" of these disasters; the earthquakes, typhoons, and tsunamis on this natural disasters list are all horrific in their own right.

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3. Go on this link and write the meaning of natural disaster.

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3. Go on this link and write the meaning of natural disaster.

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A natural disaster is the highly harmful impact on a society or community following a natural hazard event. Some examples of natural hazard events include: flooding, drought, earthquake, tropical cyclone, lightning, tsunami, volcanic activity, wildfire. A natural disaster can cause loss of life or damage property, and typically leaves economic damage in its wake. The severity of the damage depends on the affected population's resilience and on the infrastructure available. Scholars have been saying that the term natural disaster is unsuitable and should be abandoned. Instead, the simpler term disaster could be used, while also specifying the category (or type) of hazard. A disaster is a result of a natural or human-made hazard impacting a vulnerable community. It is the combination of the hazard along with exposure of a vulnerable society that results in a disaster.

In modern times, the divide between natural, human-made and human-accelerated disasters is quite difficult to draw. Human choices and activities like architecture, fire, resource management and climate change potentially play a role in causing natural disasters. In fact, the term natural disaster was called a misnomer already in 1976.

Natural disasters can be aggravated by inadequate building norms, marginalization of people, inequities, overexploitation of resources, extreme urban sprawl and climate change. The rapid growth of the world's population and its increased concentration often in hazardous environments has escalated both the frequency and severity of disasters. Extreme climates (such as those in the Tropics) and unstable landforms, coupled with deforestation, unplanned growth proliferation and non-engineered constructions create more vulnerable interfaces of populated areas with disaster-prone natural spaces. Developing countries which suffer from chronic natural disasters, often have ineffective communication systems combined with insufficient support for disaster prevention and management.

An adverse event will not rise to the level of a disaster if it occurs in an area without a vulnerable population. Once a vulnerable population has experienced a disaster, the community can take many years to repair and that repair period can lead to further vulnerability. The disastrous consequences of natural disaster also affect the mental health of affected communities, often leading to post-traumatic symptoms. These increased emotional experiences can be supported through collective processing, leading to resilience and increased community engagement.

Terminology

A natural disaster is the highly harmful impact on a society or community following a natural hazard event. The term " disaster" itself is defined as follows: "Disasters are serious disruptions to the functioning of a community that exceed its capacity to cope using its own resources. Disasters can be caused by natural, man-made and technological hazards, as well as various factors that influence the exposure and vulnerability of a community."

The US Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) explains the relationship between natural disasters and natural hazards as follows: "Natural hazards and natural disasters are related but are not the same. A natural hazard is the threat of an event that will likely have a negative impact. A natural disaster is the negative impact following an actual occurrence of natural hazard in the event that it significantly harms a community. An example of the distinction between a natural hazard and a disaster is that an earthquake is the hazard which caused the 1906 San Francisco earthquake disaster.

A natural hazard is a natural phenomenon that might have a negative effect on humans and other animals, or the environment. Natural hazard events can be classified into two broad categories: geophysical and biological. Natural hazards can be provoked or affected by anthropogenic processes, e.g. land-use change, drainage and construction.

There are 18 natural hazards included in the National Risk Index of FEMA: avalanche, coastal flooding, cold wave, drought, earthquake, hail, heat wave, tropical cyclone, ice storm, landslide, lightning, riverine flooding, strong wind, tornado, tsunami, volcanic activity, wildfire, winter weather. In addition there are also tornados and dust storms.

The term natural disaster has been called a misnomer already in 1976. A disaster is a result of a natural hazard impacting a vulnerable community. But disasters can be avoided. Earthquakes, droughts, floods, storms, and other events lead to disasters because of human action and inaction. Poor land and policy planning and deregulation can create worse conditions. They often involve development activities that ignore or fail to reduce the disaster risks. Nature alone is blamed for disasters even when disasters result from failures in development. Disasters also result from failure of societies to prepare. Examples for such failures include inadequate building norms, marginalization of people, inequities, overexploitation of resources, extreme urban sprawl and climate change.

Defining disasters as solely natural events has serious implications when it comes to understanding the causes of a disaster and the distribution of political and financial responsibility in disaster risk reduction, disaster management, compensation, insurance and disaster prevention. Using natural to describe disasters misleads people to think the devastating results are inevitable, out of our control, and are simply part of a natural process. Hazards (earthquakes, hurricanes, pandemics, drought etc.) are inevitable, but the impact they have on society is not.

Thus, the term natural disaster is unsuitable and should be abandoned in favour of the simpler term disaster, while also specifying the category (or type) of hazard.

Some of the 18 natural hazards included in the National Risk Index of FEMA now have a higher probability of occurring, and at higher intensity, due to the effects of climate change. This applies to heat waves, droughts, wildfire and coastal flooding.

By region and country

As of 2019, the countries with the highest share of disability-adjusted life years ( DALY) lost due to natural disasters are Bahamas, Haiti, Zimbabwe and Armenia (probably mainly due to the Spitak Earthquake). The Asia-Pacific region is the world's most disaster prone region. A person in Asia-Pacific is five times more likely to be hit by a natural disaster than someone living in other regions.

Between 1995 and 2015, the greatest number of natural disasters occurred in America, China and India. In 2012, there were 905 natural disasters worldwide, 93% of which were weather-related disasters. Overall costs were US$170 billion and insured losses $70 billion. 2012 was a moderate year. 45% were meteorological (storms), 36% were hydrological (floods), 12% were climatological (heat waves, cold waves, droughts, wildfires) and 7% were geophysical events (earthquakes and volcanic eruptions). Between 1980 and 2011 geophysical events accounted for 14% of all natural catastrophes.

Slow and rapid onset events

Natural hazards occur across different time scales as well as area scales. Tornadoes and flash floods are rapid onset events, meaning they occur with a short warning time and are short-lived. Slow onset events can also be very damaging, for example drought is a natural hazards that develops slowly, sometimes over years.

A natural disaster may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage.

Various phenomena like earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions, floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, blizzards, tsunamis, cyclones, wildfires, and pandemics are all natural hazards that kill thousands of people and destroy billions of dollars of habitat and property each year. However, the rapid growth of the world's population and its increased concentration often in hazardous environments has escalated both the frequency and severity of disasters. With the tropical climate and unstable landforms, coupled with deforestation, unplanned growth proliferation, non-engineered constructions make the disaster-prone areas more vulnerable.[citation needed ]

The death rate from natural disasters is highest in poorly developed countries due to the lower quality of building construction, infrastructure, and medical facilities. Globally, the total number of deaths from natural disasters has been reduced by 75% over the last 100 years, due to the increased development of countries, increased preparedness, better education, better methods, and aid from international organizations. Since the global population has grown over the same time period, the decrease in number of deaths per capita is larger, dropping to 6% of the original amount.

On the environment

During emergencies such as natural disasters and armed conflicts more waste may be produced, while waste management is given low priority compared with other services. Existing waste management services and infrastructures can be disrupted, leaving communities with unmanaged waste and increased littering. Under these circumstances human health and the environment are often negatively impacted.

Natural disasters (e.g. earthquakes, tsunamis, hurricanes) have the potential to generate a significant amount of waste within a short period. Waste management systems can be out of action or curtailed, often requiring considerable time and funding to restore. For example, the tsunami in Japan in 2011 produced huge amounts of debris: estimates of 5 million tonnes of waste were reported by the Japanese Ministry of the Environment. Some of this waste, mostly plastic and styrofoam washed up on the coasts of Canada and the United States in late 2011. Along the west coast of the United States, this increased the amount of litter by a factor of 10 and may have transported alien species. Storms are also important generators of plastic litter. A study by Lo et al. (2020) reported a 100% increase in the amount of microplastics on beaches surveyed following a typhoon in Hong Kong in 2018.

A significant amount of plastic waste can be produced during disaster relief operations. Following the 2010 earthquake in Haiti, the generation of waste from relief operations was referred to as a "second disaster". The United States military reported that millions of water bottles and styrofoam food packages were distributed although there was no operational waste management system. Over 700,000 plastic tarpaulins and 100,000 tents were required for emergency shelters. The increase in plastic waste, combined with poor disposal practices, resulted in open drainage channels being blocked, increasing the risk of disease.

Conflicts can result in large-scale displacement of communities. People living under these conditions are often provided with minimal waste management facilities. Burn pits are widely used to dispose of mixed wastes, including plastics. Air pollution can lead to respiratory and other illnesses. For example, Sahrawi refugees have been living in five camps near Tindouf, Algeria for nearly 45 years. As waste collection services are underfunded and there is no recycling facility, plastics have flooded the camps' streets and surroundings. In contrast, the Azraq camp in Jordan for refugees from Syria has waste management services; of 20.7 tonnes of waste produced per day, 15% is recyclable.

On vulnerable groups

Because of the social, political and cultural context of many places throughout the world, women are often disproportionately affected by disaster. In the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, more women died than men, partly due to the fact that fewer women knew how to swim. During and after a natural disaster, women are at increased risk of being affected by gender based violence and are increasingly vulnerable to sexual violence. Disrupted police enforcement, lax regulations, and displacement all contribute to increased risk of gender based violence and sexual assault. Women who have been affected by sexual violence are at a significantly increased risk of sexually transmitted infections, unique physical injuries and long term psychological consequences. All of these long-term health outcomes can prevent successful reintegration into society after the disaster recovery period.

In addition to LGBT people and immigrants, women are also disproportionately victimised by religion-based scapegoating for natural disasters: fanatical religious leaders or adherents may claim that a god or gods are angry with women's independent, freethinking behaviour, such as dressing 'immodestly', having sex or abortions. For example, Hindutva party Hindu Makkal Katchi and others blamed women's struggle for the right to enter the Sabarimala temple for the August 2018 Kerala floods, purportedly inflicted by the angry god Ayyappan. In response to Iranian Islamic cleric Kazem Seddiqi's accusation of women dressing immodestly and spreading promiscuity being the cause of earthquakes, American student Jennifer McCreight organised the Boobquake event on 26 April 2010: she encouraged women around the world to participate in dressing immodestly all at the same time while performing regular seismographic checks to prove that such behaviour in women causes no significant increase in earthquake activity.

During and after natural disasters, routine health behaviors become interrupted. In addition, health care systems may have broken down as a result of the disaster, further reducing access to contraceptives. Unprotected intercourse during this time can lead to increased rates of childbirth, unintended pregnancies and sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Methods used to prevent STIs (such as condom use) are often forgotten or not accessible during times surrounding a disaster. Lack of health care infrastructure and medical shortages hinder the ability to treat individuals once they acquire an STI. In addition, health efforts to prevent, monitor or treat HIV/AIDS are often disrupted, leading to increased rates of HIV complications and increased transmission of the virus through the population.

Pregnant women are one of the groups disproportionately affected by natural disasters. Inadequate nutrition, little access to clean water, lack of health-care services and psychological stress in the aftermath of the disaster can lead to a significant increase in maternal morbidity and mortality. Furthermore, shortage of healthcare resources during this time can convert even routine obstetric complications into emergencies. During and after a disaster, women's prenatal, peri-natal and postpartum care can become disrupted. Among women affected by natural disaster, there are significantly higher rates of low birth weight infants, preterm infants and infants with low head circumference.

On governments and voting processes

Disasters stress government capacity, as the government tries to conduct routine as well as emergency operations. Some theorists of voting behavior propose that citizens update information about government effectiveness based on their response to disasters, which affects their vote choice in the next election. Indeed, some evidence, based on data from the United States, reveals that incumbent parties can lose votes if citizens perceives them as responsible for a poor disaster response or gain votes based on perceptions of well-executed relief work. The latter study also finds, however, that voters do not reward incumbent parties for disaster preparedness, which may end up affecting government incentives to invest in such preparedness. Other evidence, however, also based on the United States, finds that citizens can simply backlash and blame the incumbent for hardship following a natural disaster, causing the incumbent party to lose votes. One study in India finds that incumbent parties extend more relief following disasters in areas where there is higher newspaper coverage, electoral turnout, and literacy - the authors reason that these results indicate that incumbent parties are more responsive with relief to areas with more politically informed citizens who would be more likely to punish them for poor relief efforts.

Violent conflicts within states can exacerbate the impact of natural disasters by weakening the ability of states, communities and individuals to provide disaster relief. Natural disasters can also worsen ongoing conflicts within states by weakening the capacity of states to fight rebels.

In Chinese and Japanese history, it has been routine for era names or capital cities and palaces of emperors to be changed after a major natural disaster, chiefly for political reasons such as association with hardships by the populace and fear of upheaval (i.e. in East Asian government chronicles, such fears were recorded in a low profile way as an unlucky name or place requiring change).

Disasters caused by geological hazards

Landslides

A landslide near Cusco, Peru, in 2018

A NASA model has been developed to look at how potential landslide activity is changing around the world.

Animation of a landslide in San Mateo County, California

A landslide in San Clemente, California in 1966

Avalanches

A powder snow avalanche in the Himalayas near Mount Everest.

Heavy equipment in action after an avalanche has interrupted service on the Saint-Gervais-Vallorcine railway in Haute-Savoie, France (2006).

The terminus of an avalanche in Alaska's Kenai Fjords.

Earthquakes

An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves. At the Earth's surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by vibration, shaking, and sometimes displacement of the ground. Earthquakes are caused by slippage within geological faults. The underground point of origin of the earthquake is called the seismic focus. The point directly above the focus on the surface is called the epicenter. Earthquakes by themselves rarely kill people or wildlife - it is usually the secondary events that they trigger, such as building collapse, fires, tsunamis and volcanic eruptions, that cause death. Many of these can possibly be avoided by better construction, safety systems, early warning and planning.[citation needed ]

A sinkhole is a depression or hole in the ground caused by some form of collapse of the surface layer. When natural erosion, human mining or underground excavation makes the ground too weak to support the structures built on it, the ground can collapse and produce a sinkhole. For example, the 2010 Guatemala City sinkhole, which killed one, was caused when heavy rain from Tropical Storm Agatha, diverted by leaking pipes into a pumice bedrock, led to the sudden collapse of the ground beneath a factory building.

Coastal erosion

Coastal erosion is a physical process by which shorelines in coastal areas around the world shift and change, primarily in response to waves and currents that can be influenced by tides and storm surge. Coastal erosion can result from long-term processes (see also beach evolution) as well as from episodic events such as tropical cyclones or other severe storm events. Coastal erosion is one of the most significant coastal hazards. It forms a threat to infrastructure, capital assets and property.

Volcanic eruptions

Puʻu ʻŌʻō

Volcanoes can cause widespread destruction and consequent disaster in several ways. One hazard is the volcanic eruption itself, with the force of the explosion and falling rocks able to cause harm. Lava may also be released during the eruption of a volcano; as it leaves the volcano, it can destroy buildings, plants and animals due to its extreme heat. In addition, volcanic ash may form a cloud (generally after cooling) and settle thickly in nearby locations. When mixed with water, this forms a concrete-like material. In sufficient quantities, ash may cause roofs to collapse under its weight. Even small quantities will harm humans if inhaled - it has the consistency of ground glass and therefore causes laceration to the throat and lungs. Volcanic ash can also cause abrasion damage to moving machinery such as engines. The main killer of humans in the immediate surroundings of a volcanic eruption is pyroclastic flows, consisting of a cloud of hot ash which builds up in the air above the volcano and rushes down the slopes when the eruption no longer supports the lifting of the gases. It is believed that Pompeii was destroyed by a pyroclastic flow. A lahar is a volcanic mudflow or landslide. The 1953 Tangiwai disaster was caused by a lahar, as was the 1985 Armero tragedy in which the town of Armero was buried and an estimated 23,000 people were killed.[citation needed ]

Volcanoes rated at 8 (the highest level) on the Volcanic Explosivity Index are known as supervolcanoes. According to the Toba catastrophe theory, 75,000 to 80,000 years ago, a supervolcanic eruption at what is now Lake Toba in Sumatra reduced the human population to 10,000 or even 1,000 breeding pairs, creating a bottleneck in human evolution, and killed three-quarters of all plant life in the northern hemisphere. However, there is considerable debate regarding the veracity of this theory. The main danger from a supervolcano is the immense cloud of ash, which has a disastrous global effect on climate and temperature for many years.

Disasters caused by water hazards

A hydrological disaster is a violent, sudden and destructive change either in the quality of Earth's water or in the distribution or movement of water on land below the surface or in the atmosphere.

A flood is an overflow of water that 'submerges' land. The EU Floods Directive defines a flood as a temporary covering of land that is usually dry with water. In the sense of 'flowing water', the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tides. Flooding may result from the volume of a body of water, such as a river or lake, becoming higher than usual, causing some of the water to escape its usual boundaries. While the size of a lake or other body of water will vary with seasonal changes in precipitation and snow melt, a flood is not considered significant unless the water covers land used by humans, such as a village, city or other inhabited area, roads or expanses of farmland.

1755 copper engraving depicting Lisbon in ruins and in flames after the 1755 Lisbon earthquake. A tsunami overwhelms the ships in the harbor.

A tsunami (plural: tsunamis or tsunami; from Japanese: 津波, lit. "harbour wave"; English pronunciation: /tsuːˈnɑːmi/), also known as a seismic sea wave or tidal wave, is a series of waves in a water body caused by the displacement of a large volume of water, generally in an ocean or a large lake. Tsunamis can be caused by undersea earthquakes such as the 2004 Boxing Day tsunami, or by landslides such as the one in 1958 at Lituya Bay, Alaska, or by volcanic eruptions such as the ancient eruption of Santorini. On March 11, 2011, a tsunami occurred near Fukushima, Japan and spread through the Pacific Ocean.

Limnic eruptions

A limnic eruption, also known as a lake overturn, occurs when a gas, usually , suddenly erupts from deep lake water, posing the threat of suffocating wildlife, livestock and humans. Such an eruption may also cause tsunamis in the lake as the rising gas displaces water. Scientists believe that landslides, explosions or volcanic activity can trigger such an eruption. To date, only two limnic eruptions have been observed and recorded. In 1984, in Cameroon, a limnic eruption in Lake Monoun caused the deaths of 37 nearby residents; at nearby Lake Nyos in 1986, a much larger eruption killed between 1,700 and 1,800 people by asphyxiation.

Disasters caused by extreme weather hazards

Hot and dry conditions

A heat wave is a period of unusually and excessively hot weather. Heat waves are rare and require specific combinations of weather events to take place, and may include temperature inversions, katabatic winds, or other phenomena. The worst heat wave in recent history was the European Heat Wave of 2003. A summer heat wave in Victoria, Australia, created conditions which fuelled the massive bushfires in 2009. Melbourne experienced three days in a row of temperatures exceeding 40 °C (104 °F), with some regional areas sweltering through much higher temperatures. The bushfires, collectively known as "Black Saturday", were partly the act of arsonists. The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer resulted in severe heat waves which killed over 2,000 people. The heat caused hundreds of wildfires which led to widespread air pollution and burned thousands of square kilometers of forest.

Well-known historical droughts include the 1997-2009 Millennium Drought in Australia which led to a water supply crisis across much of the country. As a result, many desalination plants were built for the first time ( see list). In 2011, the State of Texas lived under a drought emergency declaration for the entire calendar year and suffered severe economic losses. The drought caused the Bastrop fires.

Duststorms

Firestorms

Wildfires are large fires which often start in wildland areas. Common causes include lightning and drought but wildfires may also be started by human negligence or arson. They can spread to populated areas and thus be a threat to humans and property, as well as wildlife. Notable wildfires include the 1871 Peshtigo Fire in the United States, which killed at least 1700 people, and the 2009 Victorian bushfires in Australia.

Tropical cyclone

Typhoon, cyclone, cyclonic storm and hurricane are different names for the same phenomenon: a tropical storm that forms over an ocean. It is caused by evaporated water that comes off of the ocean and becomes a storm. It is characterized by strong winds, heavy rainfall and thunderstorms. The determining factor on which term is used is based on where the storm originates. In the Atlantic and Northeast Pacific, the term "hurricane" is used; in the Northwest Pacific, it is referred to as a "typhoon"; a "cyclone" occurs in the South Pacific and Indian Ocean.

The deadliest hurricane ever was the 1970 Bhola cyclone; the deadliest Atlantic hurricane was the Great Hurricane of 1780, which devastated Martinique, St. Eustatius and Barbados. Another notable hurricane is Hurricane Katrina, which devastated the Gulf Coast of the United States in 2005. Hurricanes may become more intense and produce more heavy rainfall as a consequence of human-induced climate change.

Thunderstorms

A classic anvil-shaped, and clearly-developed Cumulonimbus incus

Severe storms, dust clouds and volcanic eruptions can generate lightning. Apart from the damage typically associated with storms, such as winds, hail and flooding, the lightning itself can damage buildings, ignite fires and kill by direct contact. Especially deadly lightning incidents include a 2007 strike in Ushari Dara, a remote mountain village in northwestern Pakistan, that killed 30 people; the crash of LANSA Flight 508 which killed 91 people; and a fuel explosion in Dronka, Egypt, caused by lightning in 1994 which killed 469 people. Most deaths from lightning occur in the poorer countries of the Americas and Asia, where lightning is common and adobe mud brick housing provides little protection.

A tornado is a violent and dangerous rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud, or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. It is also referred to as a twister or a cyclone, although the word cyclone is used in meteorology in a wider sense to refer to any closed low pressure circulation. Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes but typically take the form of a visible condensation funnel, the narrow end of which touches the Earth and is often encircled by a cloud of debris and dust. Tornadoes can occur one at a time, or can occur in large tornado outbreaks associated with supercells or in other large areas of thunderstorm development.

Most tornadoes have wind speeds of less than 180 km/h (110 mph), are approximately 75 m (250 ft) across, and travel a few kilometers before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 480 km/h (300 mph), stretch more than 3 km (2 mi) across, and stay on the ground for perhaps more than 100 km (60 mi).

Cold-weather events

Blizzards are severe winter storms characterized by heavy snow and strong winds. When high winds stir up snow that has already fallen, it is known as a ground blizzard. Blizzards can impact local economic activities, especially in regions where snowfall is rare. The Great Blizzard of 1888 affected the United States, when many tons of wheat crops were destroyed. In Asia, the 1972 Iran blizzard and the 2008 Afghanistan blizzard, were the deadliest blizzards in history; in the former, an area the size of Wisconsin was entirely buried in snow. The 1993 Superstorm originated in the Gulf of Mexico and traveled north, causing damage in 26 American states as well as in Canada and leading to more than 300 deaths.

Hailstorms

A large hailstone, about 6 cm (2+ 1⁄2 in) in diameter

Hail is precipitation in the form of ice that does not melt before it hits the ground. Hailstorms are produced by thunderstorms .Hailstones usually measure between 5 and 150 mm ( and 6 in) in diameter. These can damage the location in which they fall. Hailstorms can be especially devastating to farm fields, ruining crops and damaging equipment. A particularly damaging hailstorm hit Munich, Germany, on July 12, 1984, causing about $2 billion in insurance claims.

An ice storm is a type of winter storm characterized by freezing rain. The U.S. National Weather Service defines an ice storm as a storm which results in the accumulation of at least inch (6.35 mm) of ice on exposed surfaces.

A cold wave, known in some regions as a cold snap or cold spell, is a weather phenomenon that is distinguished by a cooling of the air. Specifically, as used by the U.S. National Weather Service, a cold wave is a rapid fall in temperature within a 24-hour period, requiring substantially increased protection to agriculture, industry, commerce and social activities. The precise criterion for a cold wave is determined by the rate at which the temperature falls and the minimum to which it falls. This minimum temperature is dependent on the geographical region and time of year.

Multi-hazard analysis

Each of the natural hazard types outlined above have very different characteristics, in terms of the spatial and temporal scales they influence, hazard frequency and return period, and measures of intensity and impact. These complexities result in "single-hazard" assessments being commonplace, where the hazard potential from one particular hazard type is constrained. In these examples, hazards are often treated as isolated or independent. An alternative is a "multi-hazard" approach which seeks to identify all possible natural hazards and their interactions or interrelationships.

Many examples exist of one natural hazard triggering or increasing the probability of one or more other natural hazards. For example, an earthquake may trigger landslides, whereas a wildfire may increase the probability of landslides being generated in the future. A detailed review of such interactions across 21 natural hazards identified 90 possible interactions, of varying likelihood and spatial importance. There may also be interactions between these natural hazards and anthropic processes. For example, groundwater abstraction may trigger groundwater-related subsidence.

Effective hazard analysis in any given area (e.g., for the purposes of disaster risk reduction) should ideally include an examination of all relevant hazards and their interactions. To be of most use for risk reduction, hazard analysis should be extended to risk assessment wherein the vulnerability of the built environment to each of the hazards is taken into account. This step is well developed for seismic risk, where the possible effect of future earthquakes on structures and infrastructure is assessed, as well as for risk from extreme wind and to a lesser extent flood risk. For other types of natural hazard the calculation of risk is more challenging, principally because of the lack of functions linking the intensity of a hazard and the probability of different levels of damage (fragility curves).

Disaster management is a main function of civil protection (or civil defence) authorities. It should address all four of the phases of disasters: mitigation and prevention, disaster response, recovery and preparedness.

Mitigation and prevention

Disaster risk reduction

Villages have adapted the design of houses to protect people from rising flood waters and small boats are used to transport people and food to sustain livelihoods. This kind of disaster risk reduction is an important Climate change adaptation

Preparedness

Society and culture

International law

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The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs was formed by General Assembly Resolution 44/182.

Under the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, "States Parties shall take, in accordance with their obligations under international law, including international humanitarian law and international human rights law, all necessary measures to ensure the protection and safety of persons with disabilities in situations of risk, including situations of armed conflict, humanitarian emergencies and the occurrence of natural disasters." The 1998 UN Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement and 2009 Kampala Convention also protect people displaced due to natural disasters.

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External links

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A natural disaster is the highly harmful impact on a society or community following a natural hazard event. Some examples of natural hazard events include: flooding, drought, earthquake, tropical cyclone, lightning, tsunami, volcanic activity, wildfire. A natural disaster can cause loss of life or damage property, and typically leaves economic damage in its wake.

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The best way to create a short paragraph is to describe things that happened in a specific space and time. You can use adjectives to mention the features or properties of some thing.

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2.1 ¿Have you ever seen a natural disaster?

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2.1 ¿Have you ever seen a natural disaster?

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If you can imagine one. Then write a short paragraph describing how a disaster would be. Be detailed!

If you have been in one. Then write a short paragraph telling about your own experience including your feelings

If you can not imagine one but you think is terrorific, try to create a short poem.

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Answer for yourself the next question:

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Subject , Theme, Thematic

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Natural Disasters: Discuss

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No Comment: Extreme Weather & Natural Disasters - Best of 2013