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Summary: The revolution of 1848 took place in Europe in Italian cities. These cities were Milan, Venice, and Rome. Venice was promised to Italy by Prussians if they entered the war against Austria.

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Summary: In Piedmont Victor Emmanuel II governed with a parliament whose democratic majority refused to ratify the peace treaty with Austria. This was an exception to the general course of reaction.

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The role of Piedmont

In Piedmont Victor Emmanuel II governed with a parliament whose democratic majority refused to ratify the peace treaty with Austria. This was an exception to the general course of reaction. The skillfully worded Proclamation of Moncalieri (November 20, 1849) favourably contrasted Victor Emmanuel's policies with those of other Italian rulers and permitted elections. The victorious Liberals installed a new cabinet under Massimo d'Azeglio, a moderate trusted by the king. D'Azeglio introduced the Siccardi law, which curtailed the power of ecclesiastical courts. In October 1850 another prominent moderate, Camillo Benso di Cavour, entered the cabinet and directed a laissez-faire economic policy. He formulated international commercial treaties and drew on foreign capital to reduce the public debt, stimulate economic growth, and develop a railroad system. Cavour's dynamism alarmed conservatives and even d'Azeglio. In 1852, through an alliance with centre-left deputies that became known as the connubio ("marriage"), Cavour displaced d'Azeglio as head of the cabinet. Despite disagreements with the king (who favoured the clerical party and occasionally displayed absolutist tendencies), Cavour introduced various ecclesiastical, judicial, and fiscal reforms.

A number of events promoted Piedmont's prestige in Italy and abroad. In March 1854 France and England intervened in support of the Ottoman Empire against Russia in the Crimean War. To obtain Austrian support, they were prepared to guarantee the status quo in Italy. Only Piedmont was in a position to disrupt it at that time, and Cavour negotiated an alliance with the Western powers. In May he sent to Crimea an army that performed brilliantly. As a result, Piedmont was able to assume a place among the victors at the Congress of Paris (February 1856). From this platform Cavour, achieving a diplomatic coup for Piedmont and Italy, declared that the only threat to peace in Italy, and the root cause of subversive plots, was the burdensome Austrian overlordship. Cavour's pronouncements at the congress increased the standing of Piedmont among nationalists.

Meanwhile, Mazzini's democratic and republican movement was crumbling. In February 1853 an insurrection against the Austrians failed in Milan. The discovery and execution at Belfiore (1852-53) of the leaders of a conspiracy in Mantua, as well as abortive insurrections in Cadore and Lunigiana, discredited the democratic movement and discouraged its most dedicated adherents. Mazzini faced complete isolation for his support of an expedition to the southern mainland to incite insurrection, known as the Sapri expedition (June-July 1857), in which the Neapolitan republican and socialist Carlo Pisacane and some 300 companions lost their lives. The democrats were divided and unable to carry on the revolutionary struggle; nothing was to be expected from the restored governments. In Lombardy-Venetia, Austria carried out stern repressive measures. Pius IX, now under the influence of the reactionary Giacomo Cardinal Antonelli, refused to grant any reforms in Rome. Liberal Catholicism could not remain viable without reforms in the Papal States. In Naples and the duchies, reaction became pervasive, although the grand duke of Tuscany sought to make his subjects forget that he owed his throne to Austrian military intervention. Only in Piedmont was there any hope left for the reformers.

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Italy - Unification, Risorgimento, Nation-State

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Italy - Unification, Risorgimento, Nation-State: In Piedmont Victor Emmanuel II governed with a parliament whose democratic majority refused to ratify the peace treaty with Austria. This was an exception to the general course of reaction. The skillfully worded Proclamation of Moncalieri (November 20, 1849) favourably contrasted Victor Emmanuel's policies with those of other Italian rulers and permitted elections.

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Summary: In 1805, the Austrian Army was on march against Napoleon. The idea of a shared ethnic, cultural, and linguistic heritage or destination is an important part of nationalism. The smaller German States felt that they were unable to protect them selves from their neighbors.

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Ten Minute History - German Unification and Empire (Short Documentary)

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Summary: Unity Day celebrates the reunification of East and West Germany that took place on October 3, 1990. In setting the date of the official reunification, West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl wanted to honor the historic events of November 1989, in which the government of East Germany resigned and thousands of citizens scaled the Berlin Wall and began to demolish it.

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German Unification Day

October 3

Unity Day celebrates the reunification of East and West Germany that took place on October 3, 1990. In setting the date of the official reunification, West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl wanted to honor the historic events of November 1989, in which the government of East Germany resigned and thousands of citizens scaled the Berlin Wall and began to demolish it. He did not want to overshadow other important November observances, however, such as All Souls' Day on November 2 and Kristallnacht on November 9-10. He instead chose October 3, because the German Meteorological Association informed him that, on average, the best weather in Germany occurs on that day.
German Unity Day is observed with speeches, marches, and public events, including the government's official Unity Day celebration street festival, which draws about 300,000 people annually. Each year the location changes so that the celebration rotates among all of the German states.

CONTACTS:
German Embassy
4645 Reservoir Rd. N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20007
202-298-4000; fax: 202-298-4249
www.germany-info.org

Holidays, Festivals, and Celebrations of the World Dictionary, Fourth Edition. © 2010 by Omnigraphics, Inc.

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References in periodicals archive?

"When it comes to religious tolerance, Bahrain is second to none in the Middle East," the diplomat said as the embassy celebrated the German Unification Day.

The protesters carried signs describing German Chancellor Angela Merkel, French President Nicolas Sarkozy and US President Barack Obama as "enemies of the Palestinians" and "Israel's allies." Mansour said that unless Germany changes its opposition to the Palestinian UN application and supports it, the Palestinian people should boycott the upcoming German reception planned in Ramallah on October 3 to mark the fall of the Berlin Wall and German unification day. "As Germany celebrates the fall of the Berlin Wall, it decides to support Israel, which is building a wall much worse than the Berlin Wall," he said.

It is a bright fall afternoon and it is German Unification Day, 2 October 2009.

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Looking for German Unification Day? Find out information about German Unification Day. October 3 Unity Day celebrates the reunification of East and West Germany that took place on October 3, 1990. In setting the date of the official... Explanation of German Unification Day

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Summary: Mexico's National day marks the start of the War of Independence against Spain on September 16th 1810. Mexico city is the oldest city in North America. Mexico introduced chocolate, corn, and chilies to the world.

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September 16th: Mexican Independence Day

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Summary: Mexico celebrates its independence every September 16 with parades, festivals, feasts, parties and more. Mexican flags are everywhere and the main plaza in Mexico City is packed.

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Mexico celebrates its independence every September 16 with parades, festivals, feasts, parties and more. Mexican flags are everywhere and the main plaza in Mexico City is packed. But what's the history behind the date of September 16?

Prelude to Independence

Long before 1810, Mexicans had begun to chafe under Spanish rule. Spain kept a stranglehold on her colonies, only permitting them limited trade opportunities and generally appointing Spaniards (as opposed to native-born Creoles) to important colonial posts. To the north, the United States had won its independence decades before, and many Mexicans felt they could, too. In 1808, Creole patriots saw their chance when Napoleon invaded Spain and imprisoned Ferdinand VII. This allowed Mexican and South American rebels to set up their own governments and yet claim loyalty to the imprisoned Spanish King.

Conspiracies

In Mexico, the creoles decided the time had come for independence. It was a dangerous business, however. There might have been chaos in Spain, but the mother country still controlled the colonies. In 1809-1810 there were several conspiracies, most of which were found out and the conspirators harshly punished. In Querétaro, an organized conspiracy including several prominent citizens was preparing to make its move at the end of 1810. The leaders included parish priest Father Miguel Hidalgo, Royal army officer Ignacio Allende , government official Miguel Dominguez, cavalry captain Juan Aldama and others. The date of October 2 was selected for the insurrection against Spain to begin.

In early September, however, the conspiracy began to unravel. The plot had been found out and one by one the conspirators were being rounded up by colonial officials. On September 15, 1810, Father Miguel Hidalgo heard the bad news: the jig was up and the Spanish were coming for him. On the morning of the 16th, Hidalgo took to the pulpit in the town of Dolores and made a shocking announcement: he was taking up arms against the tyrannies of the Spanish government and his parishioners were all invited to join him. This famous speech became known as El Grito de Dolores or the "Cry of Dolores." Within hours Hidalgo had an army: a large, unruly, poorly armed but resolute mob.

March to Mexico City

Hidalgo, assisted by military man Ignacio Allende, led his army towards Mexico City. Along the way, they laid siege to the town of Guanajuato and fought off the Spanish defense at the Battle of Monte de las Cruces. By November he was at the gates of the city itself, with an angry army large enough to take it. Yet Hidalgo inexplicably retreated, perhaps turned aside by fears of a large Spanish army coming to reinforce the city.

Fall of Hidalgo

In January 1811, Hidalgo and Allende were routed at the Battle of Calderon Bridge by a much smaller but better-trained Spanish army. Forced to flee, the rebel leaders, along with some others, were soon captured. Allende and Hidalgo were both put to death in June and July of 1811. The peasant army had disbanded and it looked as if Spain had reasserted control over its unruly colony.

Independence is Won

One of Hidalgo's captains, José María Morelos, took up the banner of independence and fought until his own capture and execution in 1815. He was in turn succeeded by his lieutenant, Vicente Guerrero, and rebel leader Guadalupe Victoria, who fought for six more years. Finally, in 1821, they reached an agreement with turncoat royal officer Agustín de Iturbide which allowed for Mexico's definitive liberation in September of that year.

Independence Celebrations

September 16 is one of Mexico's most important holidays. Every year, local mayors and politicians re-enact the famous Grito de Dolores. In Mexico City, thousands congregate in the Zócalo, or main square, on the night of the 15th to hear the President ring the same bell that Hidalgo did and recite the Grito de Dolores. The crowd roars, cheers and chants, and fireworks light up the sky. On the 16th, every city and town all over Mexico celebrates with parades, dances, and other civic festivals.

Most Mexicans celebrate by hanging flags all over their home and spending time with family. A feast is usually involved. If the food can be made red, white and green (like the Mexican Flag) all the better!

Mexicans that live abroad bring their celebrations with them. In US cities with large Mexican populations, such as Houston or Los Angeles, there are parties and celebrations-you'll probably need a reservation to eat at any popular Mexican restaurant that day!

Some people mistakenly believe that Cinco de Mayo, or May Fifth, is Mexico's independence day. That's not correct. Cinco de Mayo actually celebrates the unlikely Mexican victory over the French at the Battle of Puebla in 1862.

Harvey, Robert. "Liberators: Latin America's Struggle for Independence." 1st Edition, Harry N. Abrams, September 1, 2000.

Lynch, John. "The Spanish American revolutions, 1808-1826." Revolutions in the modern world, Hardcover, Norton, 1973.

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Mexico celebrates its independence every September 16 with parades, festivals, feasts, parties and more. Mexican flags are everywhere and the main plaza in Mexico City is packed. But what's the history behind the date of September 16? Long before 1810, Mexicans had begun to chafe under Spanish rule.