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The brain is responsible for learning. All of the various parts of the brain, from the cells to the structures of the brain, have various functions that are critical for learning, all parts must work properly in order for learning to occur. In addition, brain research and technology advances have allowed individuals to learn more about the structures and functions of the brain and how they influence learning.

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What happens to the bran during learning? According to Schunk (202), “Brain processes during learning are complex” (p. 44). From a neuroscience perspective, learning occurs through executive function, consolidation, and memory networks. In addition, neural connections and interactions among the brain structures can influence language acquisition and use, especially the “orthographic, phonological, semantic, and syntactic processing required for reading” (Schunk, 2020, p. 51).

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Brain development is important, especially for educators, and it must be considered when planning lessons in order to ensure student learning. According to Schunk (2020), “The educational implications for teaching and learning vary depending on the level of brain development” (p. 52). Brain development can be impacted by genetics, environmental stimulation, nutrition. Steroids, and teratogens. The brain goes through various phases of development, including the sensitive periods of language, emotions, sensory motor development, auditory development, and vision. Language development is an important aspect of brain development and impacts learning. Technology can also influence brain development, especially since students live in the age of technological multitasking.

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Motivation and emotions are considered non-cognitive functions that influence learning. Rewards and motivational states are two of the most important counterparts of motivation. Emotions are considered to be ”integral parts of learning and memory” (Schunk, 2020, p. 64).

Both motivation and emotions are linked to cognitive processing, neural activities, and behaviors, and when properly regulated, can positively affect “attention, learning, and memory” (Schunk, 2020, p. 66).

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According to Schunk (2020), “Educational researchers increasingly believe that understanding  brain processes provides additional insights into the nature of learning and development” (p. 67). Many people have a difficult time understanding brain research due to the wide array of brain myths. Brain research involves many issues relevant to education, including the role of early education, the complexity of cognitive processes, the diagnosis of specific difficulties, and the multifaceted nature of learning. Brain-based educational processes that stimulate learning and are research-based include problem-based learning, simulations and role-playing, activities discussion, graphics, and positive climate.

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The Structure and Functions of the Central Nervous System

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How the brain develops, grows, and learns throughout our lives

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Strategies/Techniques Associated with the Theory 

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Strategies/Techniques Associated with the Theory 

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1. Teaching to Both Brain Hemispheres
"In order to make learning meaningful-and thereby involve both brain hemispheres and build more extensive neural connections-teachers should integrate content and context as much as possible" (Schunk, 2020, p. 41).
2. EEG
The EEG, or electroencephalograph, is an imagining test that is used to measure electrical activity and patterns created by the movement of neurons in the brain. EEGs can be used to "assess cognitive load, or the demands placed on students' working memories while learning" (Schunk, 2020, p. 43).

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Strategies/Techniques Associated with the Theory 

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Organization, rehearsal, and elaboration can each help the brain "impose structure on learning and assist consolidation of neural connections in memory" (Schunk, 2020, p. 50).
1. Organization - Teachers can use visual graphic organizers, such as timelines or tables, which are "more meaningful to students" (Schunk, 2020, p. 50).
2. Rehearsal - Teachers can use rehearsal activities to help students  "build memory networks with word spellings, meanings, and usage" (Schunk, 2020, p. 50).
3. Elaboration - According to Schunk (2020), "elaboration s the process of explaining information to make it meaningful. Elaboration can help to build memory networks and link them with other relevant ones: (p. 50).

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Strategies/Techniques Associated with the Theory 

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1. Language Development
Teachers should implement a variety of strategies to help students develop language skills. According to Schunk (2020), "Instruction ideally should coordinate the component functions of seeing, hearing, thinking, and speaking" (p. 58).
2. Teaching and Learning with Teenagers
Teachers should provide teenage students with specific strategies that are targeted for their brain development. Teachers should give simple and straightforward directions, use models, ensure that students develop competence, and incorporate decision making (Schunk, 2020, p. 55). Teachers need to provide students with directions that are easy to follow and not confusing, present content that incorporates all learning modalities, avoid learning activities that cause students to feel incompetent, and incorporate decision making activities in lessons.

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1. Engagement - According to Schunk (2020), "Role-playing, peer collaboration, searching the Internet, discussions, and demonstrations are likely to instigate greater motivation and emotions and lead to better learning than will teacher lecturing" (p. 65). Both motivation and emotions can be used to increase student learning and engage student in the learning process.
2. Experiences - Teachers must "link academic content to students' experiences so that positive emotions associated with these experiences become associated with the learning" (Schunk, 2020, p. 66). Teachers must allow students to make personal connections to the learning content to increase student learning.

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Strategies/Techniques Associated with the Theory

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Strategies/Techniques Associated with the Theory

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1. Problem-Based Learning - PBL is an effective learning method that "engages students in learning and helps to motivate them" (Schunk, 2020, p. 70). Teachers can integrate PBL in their classrooms through the use of collaborative groups and project-based performance tasks, for example.
2. Positive Climate - Students who are emotionally secure and have a positive attitude tend to learn better than students who feel stressed and anxious. Educators must provide a positive learning climate there students feel safe, loved, and respected.

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Left/right Brains, teammates in learning - https://doi-org.averett.idm.oclc.org/10.1177/001440298304900603

Beyond what develops when - https://doi-org.averett.idm.oclc.org/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2006.00400.x

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Non-invasive neurophysiology in learning and training: mechanisms and a SWOT analysis - https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnins.2020.00589/full

The optimum context for learning; drawing on neuroscience to inform best practice in the classroom -  http://search.ebscohost.com.averett.idm.oclc.org/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=113339504&site=ehost-live

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Brain mechanisms in early language acquisition - https://www.cell.com/neuron/fulltext/S0896-6273(10)00681-1?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0896627310006811%3Fshowall%3Dtrue

Drivers of human development: How relationships and context shape learning and development - https://doi-org.averett.idm.oclc.org/10.1080/10888691.2017.1398650

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Adaptive motivation and emotion in education: Research and principles for instructional design - https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/2016_Linnenbrink-GarciaPatallPekrun_ClimateMotiveEmo.pdf

The role of perception of support in the classroom on the students’ motivation and emotions: The impact on metacognition strategies and academic performance in math and english classes - https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02794/full.

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Promoting student learning through a student-centred problem-based learning subject curriculum - https://doi-org.averett.idm.oclc.org/10.1080/1470329042000208684

School climate is associated with cortical thickness and executive function in children and adolescents - https://doi-org.averett.idm.oclc.org/10.1111/desc.12719

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Schunk, D. H. (2020). Learning theories: An educational perspective (8th ed.). Pearson.